American Journal of Neuroscience 3

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American Journal of Neuroscience 3 (1): 17-24, 2012 ISSN1948-9900 2012 Science Publications

Moringa Oleifera Leaves Extract Attenuates Male Sexual Dysfunction

1,3Thawatchai Prabsattroo, 2,3Jintanaporn Wattanathorn,3 4 2 3 13, Sitthichai Iamsa-ard,, Supaporn Muchimapura and, Wipawee Thukhammee

1Department of Physiology and Graduate School

(Neuroscience Program), Faculty of Medicine,2Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine,3Intergrative Complementary Alternative Medicine

Research and Development Group, 4Department of

Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, Khon Kaen University,Khon Kaen, Thailand

Abstract: Problem statement: At present, the novel agent that is effective, cheap and easy to approach for treating

male sexual dysfunction is required due to the current poor therapeutic efficacy. Though Moringa oleifera is

reputed for aphrodisiac activity in traditional folklore, no scientific evidence is available. Therefore, we aimed to

determine the effect ofM.oleifera leaves extract on male sexual behaviors in animal model of sexual dysfunction.

Moreover, the possible underlying mechanisms were also investigated. Approach: Male Wistar rats, weighing

200-250 g, had been orally given M.oleifera leaves extract at doses of 10, 50 and 250 mg kg -1 BW once daily at 30

min before the exposure to 12-h immobilization stress for 14 days. They were assessed male sexual behaviors

including mounting, intromission and ejaculation numbers and latencies after single administration and every 7

days until the end of experiment. To further investigate the possible mechanisms of action, we also determined

serum testosterone level of all rats at the end of experiment together with the determination of suppression effect of

the plant extract on MAOB and PDE-5 activities. Results: The results showed that after single administration, rats

subjected to M.oleifera extract at dose of 10 mg kg -1 BW significantly enhanced mounting number. When the

treatment was prolonged to 7 days rats subjected to the low dose of extract showed the enhanced intromission

number whereas rats subjected to high dose of extract showed the enhanced mounting number. Our data also

showed no significant change in serum testosterone level. However, the extract could also suppress MAOB and

PDE-5 activities. Taken all together, the extract could enhance male sexual desire and performance via the

suppression of MAOB and PDE-5 activities. Conclusion: M.oleifera can be the potential sexual enhancer

particularly for acute and short term application. However, further researches are necessary.

Key words: Numerous health products, scientific evidence, sexual enhancer particularly, Erectile Dysfunction

(ED), harvested during, room temperature

INTRODUCTION

Sexual dysfunction has been recognized as one of the

important social and biological relationship in human life. This

condition affects the sexual life of millions of men worldwide.

The prevalence of male sexual dysfunction is increased as the

age advanced (Wattanathorn etat., 2012; Moreira et al, 2006).

Therefore, the sexual dysfunction is still increasing its

prevalence and importance. Sexual dysfunction caused by

various factors including stress. Despite the importance of

sexual dysfunction, the therapeutic efficacy is still not in

satisfaction level. The most well known drug used nowadays

appears to target only at intromission phase, the main problem

in Erectile Dysfunction (ED) which is the most commonly

found sexual dysfunction. However, sexual dysfunction refers

to a problem during any phase of the sexual response cycle.

Therefore, the searching for new agent targeting at numerous

phases of sexual response cycle which is more cheap has

gained much concentration.

Moringa oleifera Lam. or Drumstick tree, a plant in a

family of Moringaceae, is widely cultivated in Thailand. Both

leaves and fruit of this tree are edible. It is believed to be

miracle herbs because it can be used not only as food but also

as medicine which can cure

Corresponding Author: Jintanaporn Wattanathorn, Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine and Integrative Complementary Alternative

Medicine, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen 40002, Thailand

17


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Am J . Neuroscience 3 (1): 17-24, 2012numerous ailments. The leaves ofM.oleifera have been used as

used as antiulcer, diuretic, anti-inflammatory and for wound

healing (Kirtikar and Basu, 1935; Caceres etal., 1992; Udupa

et al, 1994; Pal et a l , 1995). Moreover, it has been used to

enhance male sexual functions including libido, improve

sperm quality and anti-erectile dysfunction. Nowadays,

numerous health products of M.oleifera are available in the

market and claimed for the effect on male sexual functions as

mentioned earlier, no scientific evidence was observed until

now. Therefore, the current study aimed to determine the effect

ofM.oleifera leaves extract on male sexual behaviors and the

possible underlying mechanism in sexual dysfunction rats

induced by stress.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Plant material: The fresh Moringa oleifera Lam

(Moringaceae) were harvested during November to December,

2010 from the Khon Kaen province Thailand. The plant

specimen was authenticated by Associate Professor Dr. Panee

Sirisa-ard, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chiangmai

University, Thailand. The voucher specimen was kept at

Integrative Complementary Alternative Medicine Research

and Development Group, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen,

Thailand.

Plant material preparation: The fresh leaves were

immediately cleaned, than cut into small pieces and dried at the

temperature less than 50C. The dried plant material was

ground into fine coarse powder and extracted with 50%

alcoholic. After that evaporation of solvent in rotary evaporator

affords a crude extract of the soluble components and filtrate

was lyophilized. The percent yield of extract was 17.49%. The

extract contained total phenolic compounds at concentration of

86.73-93.60.51 mg of GAE/g extract. The extracts were

stored at -25C in a dark bottle until used. The crude extract

was suspended in distilled water.

Animals: Healthy male Wistar rats (200-250 g) were obtained

from National Animal Center, Salaya, Nakorn Pathom and

were housed in group of 6 per cage in standard metal cages at

222C on 10:14 h light-dark cycle. All animals were given

access to food and water ad labium The experiments were

performed to minimize animal suffering in accordance with the

internationally accepted principles for laboratory use and care

of European Community (EEC directive of 1986;

86/609/EEC).The experimental protocols were approved by

the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee.

Stress procedure: The restraint stress was performed during

the light cycle from 6.00 a.m. to 6.00 p.m. The restrainer was

made of transparent perforated plastic tube, 20 cm long and 7

cm in diameter. The rats were put into the restrainer, head first

and once in, the tubes were closed with plexiglass lids. The

animals fit tightly into the restrainers and it was not possible

for them to turn around. None stressed control rats were at thesame time briefly handled and returned to their home cages.

Evaluation of sexual behaviors: Male Wistar rats of proven

fertility were randomly divided into 4 groups of 6 animals each

as following; (1) Vehicle plus stress (2)- (4) M.oleifera plus

stress. Rats in group 1 were administered with distilled water

which used as vehicle for the plant extract then expose to the

12 h-restraint stress whereas rats in group (2)-(4) were

administered with the plant extract at doses of 10, 50 and 250

mg kg-1 BW plus stress exposure as mentioned earlier.

All substances treatments were administered 45 m prior

to the 12 h-restraint stress exposure. The treatment and the

stress-exposure were performed once daily and the sexual

behaviors assessments were performed blindly. The animals

were allowed to rest in order to refresh the animals 3 h after the

removal from restraint cage and then they were assessed the

sexual behaviors between 9.00 p.m. to 12.00 a.m. at roomtemperature 26-28C after single dose,1 and 2 weeks of

treatment. In order to assess the sexual behaviors, estrous

female rats were paired with male treated with single or

repeated doses of extract. Female rats were induced to estrous

by sequential administration of estradiol benzoate (Sigma, St.

Louis, MO) at dose of 2 ^g kg-1 BW and progesterone (Sigma,

St.Louis, MO) at dose of 500 ^g kg-1 BW were injected before

the determination of copulatory behaviors via subcutaneous

route 48 h and 6 h respectively. Sexual behaviors were

monitored in a separate room for 3 h in a clear plastic box via

blind observer 30 min at the start of first hour whereas the

whole duration of observation (3h) was recorded by digital

video recording. The assessed sexual parameters were

including the following parameters:Mounting number: The number of mounts without

intromission from the time of introduction of the female until

ejaculation:

Intromission number: The number of intromissions fromthe time of introduction of the female until ejaculation

Mount latency: The time interval between theintroductions of the female to the first mount by the male

Intromission latency: The interval from the time ofintroduction of the female to the first intromission by the

male

Ejaculation number: The number of ejaculation whichcharacterized by longer, deeper pelvic thrusting and slow

dismount followed by a period of inactivity

Ejaculation latency: The time interval between the firstintromission and ejaculation

Determination of testosterone level: Separate groups of

animals were used for the measurement of plasma testosterone

level of rats subjected to 12-h immobilization stress. At the end

of 14-day experimental period, the rat blood samples were

collected and kept on ice and then centrifuged immediately at

2000*g at 4C for 15 min. The obtained plasma was kept

at-80C until analysis. Testosterone levels were measured

using a commercially available radioimmunoassay (RIA) kit

(TESTO-CT2, Cisbio International, France).

Determination of monoamine oxidase type B inhibition:

The inhibitory action of the plant extract on monoamine


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Am J . Neuroscience 3 (1): 17-24, 2012oxidase type B was determined by incubating a series of

concentrations of the test samples in the reaction mixture

including rat brain homogenates. In brief, 2.75 mL Tris buffer

(0.1 M, pH 7.4) and 100 ^L of 0.1 M benzylamine was mixed

in quartz cuvette which was placed in double beam

spectrophotometer and followed by the addition of 150 ^L

solution of brain homogenate to initiate the enzymatic reaction.

The change in absorbance was recorded at wavelength of 249.5

nm for 5 min against the blank containing Tris buffer and

5-hydroxytryptamine (Xu et al., 2005).

Determination of Phosphodiesterase (PDE) activity:

Testis was collected from healthy Wistar male rat in order to

Determine Phosphodiesterase Enzyme (PDE) activity. The

testis was washed with PBS and weighted before cut to small

pieces. Then, it was homogenized with 5 volumes of lysate

RIPA buffer. The testicular solution was centrifuged at

14,000*g for 15 min at 4C and the supernatant was collected

and used as PDE substrate. M.oleifera leaves extract at the

various concentrations ranging from 2, 10, 100, 500, 2000 mg

mL-1 were prepared together with the positive control sildenafil

at dose of 10 mg mL-1. The standard curve was prepared from

PDE (testicular lysate) at the various concentrations. The

experiment was divide into 7 groups as following (1) control

group (untreated group), (2-6) M.oleifera leaves extract treated

groups at the various concentrations (2, 10, 100, 500, 2000 mg

ml) and (7) positive control (10 mg mL-1 of sildenafil citrate).

PDE-Glo Phosphodiesterase assays were performed in a

white 96-well microplate. In brief, phosphodiesterase substrate

or testicular lysate was incubated with cGMP. Then, PDE

reaction solutions were added and incubated for 20 min at

room temperature. The cGMP in the mixture then drives a

kinase reaction leading to a reduction of ATP levels. Following

the kinase reaction, an Kinase Glo reagent was added and

reactions were mixed and incubated for 10 min at room

temperature. Luminescence was measured using a SpectraMax

L microplate luminometer (MSD AT (US) Inc). The

luminescent signal produced is directly related to the amount of

ATP remaining and correlates with phosphodiesterase activity.

Statistic analysis: All data were expressed as meanSEM

value. The significant differences among various groups were

compared by ANOVA and followed by Duncan's test. The

statistical difference was regarded at p


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Am J . Neuroscience 3 (1): 17-24, 2012

21

as mean SEM (n = 6 group )

Fig. 2: Effect ofM.oleifera leaves extract (10, 50, 250 mg kg 1 BW) on mount number. Data were presented as mean SEM (n = 6

group-1). * p


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Fig. 6: Effect ofM.oleifera leaves extract (10, 50, 250 mg kg 1 BW) on ejaculation number. Data were presented as mean SEM (n

= 6 group-1).

Fig. 5:Effect ofM.oleifera leaves extract (10, 50, 250 mg kg 1 BW) on ejaculation latency. Data were presented as mean SEM (n

= 6 group-1)

Baseline Single dose Day 7 Day 14D Vehicle + stress n M.oleifera 10 mg kg"1 BW + stress

M.oleifera 50 mg kgi BW + stress M.oleifera 250 mg kg i BW + stress


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SEM (n = 6 group-1)

Fig. 7: Effect ofM.oleifera leaves extract (0, 2, 10, 100, 500, 2000 g ml-1) and Sildenafil citrate (10 g mL-1) on phosphodiesterase

(PDE) activity. Data were presented as mean SEM. a aa p


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Effect of M.oleifera leaves extract on monoamine oxidase

type B (MAOB) activity: The effect of M.oleifera leaves

extract on MAOb activity was evaluated and the results wereshown in Fig. 8. Our data clearly revealed that the extract at

concentration of 50,100, 250, 500 and 1000 mg mL-1 could

significantly suppress MAOB activity (p-value


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24

Project of Thailand, Office of the Higher Education

Commission, through the Food and Functional Food Research

Cluster of Khon Kaen University, Integrative Complementary

Alternative Medicine Research and Development Group, Khon

Kaen University. Moreover, we also would like to express our

sincere thank to Associate Professor Bungorn Sripanidkulchai,

Director of Center for Research and Development of Herbal

Health Product, Khon Kaen University for her kindly

management through Functional Food Cluster and Associate

Professor Panee Sirisa-ard for her authentication.

REFERENCES

Andersson, K.E. and G. Wagner, 1995. Physiology of penile

erection. Physiol. Rev., 75: 191-236. PMID: 7831397

Bagatell, C.J., J.R. Heiman, J.E. Rivier and W.J. Bremner,

1994. Effects of endogenous testosterone and estradiol on

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Metab., 78: 711-716. PMID: 8126146 Ballard, S.A., C.J.

Gingel, K. Tang, L.A. Turner and M.E. Price et al, 1998.

Effects of sildenafil on the relaxation of human corpus

cavernosum tissue in vitro and on the activities of cyclic

nucleotide phosphodiesterase isozymes. J. Urol., 159: 2164-

2171. DOI: 10.1016/S0022-5347(01)63299-3 Caceres, A., A.

Saravia, S. Rizzo, L. Zabala, E.D. Leon and F. Nave, 1992.

Pharmacologie properties of Moringa oleifera. 2: Screening for

antispasmodic, antiinflammatory and diuretic activity. J.

Ethnopharmacol., 36: 233-237. DOI: 10.1016/0378-8741

(92)90049-W Dominguez, J.M. and E.M. Hull, 2005.

Dopamine, the medial preoptic area and male sexual behavior.

Physiol. Behav., 86: 356-368. PMID: 16135375 Glover, V., M.

Sandler, F. Owen and G.J. Riley, 1977. Dopamine is a

monoamine oxidase B substrate in man. Nature, 265: 80-81.

DOI: 10.1038/265080a0 Kirtikar, K.R. and B.D. Basu, 1935.

Indian Medicinal Plants. 2nd Edn., Lalit Mohan Basu,

Allahabad.

Moreira, E.D., S.C. Kim, D. Glasser and C. Gingell, 2006.

Sexual activity, prevalence of sexual problems and

associated help-seeking patterns in men and women aged

40-80 years in Korea: data from the Global Study of

Sexual Attitudes and Behaviors (GSSAB). J. Sex Med., 3:

201-211. DOI: 10.1111/j.1743- 6109.2006.00210.x

Moreland, R.B., I. Goldstein and A. Traish, 1998.

Sildenafil, a novel inhibitor of phosphodiesterase type 5

in human corpus cavernosum smooth muscle cells. Life

Sci., 62: 309-318. PMID: 9600334

Pal, S.K., P.K. Mukherjee and B.P. Saha, 1995. Studies on the

antiulcer activity of Moringa oleifera leaf extract on

gastric ulcer models in rats. Phytother Res., 9: 463-465.

DOI: 10.1002/ptr.2650090618 Seftel, A.D., R.J. Mack,

A.R. Secrest and T.M. Smith, 2004. Restorative increases

in serum testosterone levels are significantly correlated to

improvements in sexual functioning. J. Androl., 25:

963-972. PMID: 15477371 Udupa, S.L., A.L. Udupa and

D.R. Kulkarni, 1994. Studies on anti-inflammatory and

wound healing properties of Moringa oleifera and Aegle

marmelos. Fitoterapia, 65: 119-123. Wang, C., G.

Cunningham, A. Dobs, A. Iranmanesh and A.M.

Matsumoto et al., 2004. Long-term testosterone gel

(AndroGel) treatment maintains beneficial effects on

sexual function and mood, lean and fat mass and bone

mineral density in hypogonadal men. J. Clin. Endocrinol.Metab., 89: 2085-2098. DOI: 10.1210/jc.2003-032006

Wattanathorn, J., P. Pangphukiew, S. Muchimapura, K.

Sripanidkulchai and B. Sripanidkulchai, 2012.

Aphrodisiac activity of Kaempferia parviflora. Am. J.

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10.2844/ajabssp.2012.114.120 Xu, Y., B.S. Ku, H.Y.

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10.1016/j.ejphar.2005.06.002PHYTOTHERAPY RESEARCHPhytother.

Res. 21, 17-25 (2007)

Published online 6 November 2006 in Wiley InterScience unci Juciivc

(www.interscience.wiley.com) DOI: 10.1002/ptr.2023 0,1"
http://www.interscience.wiley.com/http://www.interscience.wiley.com/http://www.interscience.wiley.com/http://www.interscience.wiley.com/


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Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

REVIEWARTICLE

Moringa oleifera: A Food Plant with MultipleMedicinal Uses

Farooq Anwar1, Sajid Latif1, Muhammad Ashraf2 and Anwarul Hassan Gilani3*1Department of Chemistry, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad-38040, Pakistan 'Department of Botany, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad-38040,

Pakistan3Department of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, Aga Khan University Medical College, Karachi-74800, Pakistan

Mor inga oleiferaLam (Moringaceae) is a highly valued plant, distributed in many countries of the tropics and

subtropics. It has an impressive range of medicinal uses with high nutritional value. Different parts of this plant contain

a profile of important minerals, and are a good source of protein, vitamins, -carotene, amino acids and various

phenolics. The Moringaplant provides a rich and rare combination of zeatin, quercetin, j3- sitosterol, caffeoylquinic acid

and kaempferol. In addition to its compelling water purifying powers and high nutritional value, M. oleiferais very

important for its medicinal value. Various parts of this plant such as the leaves, roots, seed, bark, fruit, flowers and

immature pods act as cardiac and circulatory stimulants, possess antitumor, antipyretic, antiepileptic,

antiinflammatory, antiulcer, antispasmodic, diuretic, antihypertensive, cholesterol lowering, antioxidant, antidiabetic,hepatoprotective, antibacterial and antifungal activities, and are being employed for the treatment of different ailments

in the indigenous system of medicine, particularly in South Asia. This review focuses on the detailed phytochemical

composition, medicinal uses, along with pharmacological properties of different parts of this multipurpose tree.


Keywords: Moringa oleifera; phytomedicine; food plant; medicinal uses; pharmacological properties; natural coagulant.

INTRODUCTION

Moringa oleifera Lam (syn. M. ptreygosperma Gaertn.) is one of

the best known and most widely distributed and naturalized species

of a monogeneric family Moringaceae (Nadkarni, 1976;

Ramachandran et al., 1980). The tree ranges in height from 5 to 10

m (Morton, 1991). It is found wild and cultivated throughout theplains, especially in hedges and in house yards, thrives best under

the tropical insular climate, and is plentiful near the sandy beds of

rivers and streams (The Wealth of India, 1962; Qaiser, 1973). It

can grow well in the humid tropics or hot dry lands, can survive

destitute soils, and is little affected by drought (Morton, 1991). It

tolerates a wide range of rainfall with minimum annual rainfall

requirements estimated at 250 mm and maximum at over 3000 mm

and a pH of 5.0-9.0 (Palada and Changl, 2003).

Moringa oleifera, native of the western and sub- Himalayan

tracts, India, Pakistan, Asia Minor, Africa and Arabia (Somali et

al., 1984; Mughal et al., 1999) is now distributed in the

Philippines, Cambodia, Central America, North and South

America and the Caribbean Islands (Morton, 1991). In some parts

of the worldM. oleifera is referred to as the 'drumstick tree' or the'horse radish tree', whereas in others it is known as the

* Correspondence to: Professor Anwarul Hassan Gilani, Department of

Biological and Biomedical Sciences, Aga Khan University Medical College,

Karachi-74800, Pakistan. E-mail:[email protected]

kelor tree (Anwar and Bhanger, 2003). While in the Nile valley,

the name of the tree is 'Shagara al Rauwaq', which means 'tree for

purifying' (Von Maydell, 1986). In Pakistan, M. oleifera is locally

known as 'Sohanjna' and is grown and cultivated all over the

country (Qaiser, 1973; Anwaret al., 2005).

Moringa oleifera is an important food commodity which has

had enormous attention as the 'natural nutrition of the tropics'. The

leaves, fruit, flowers and immature pods of this tree are used as ahighly nutritive vegetable in many countries, particularly in India,

Pakistan, Philippines, Hawaii and many parts of Africa (D'souza

and Kulkarni, 1993; Anwar and Bhanger, 2003; Anwar et al.,

2005). Moringa leaves have been reported to be a rich source of

-carotene, protein, vitamin C, calcium and potassium and act as a

good source of natural antioxidants; and thus enhance the shelf-life

of fat containing foods due to the presence of various types of

antioxidant compounds such as ascorbic acid, flavonoids,

phenolics and carotenoids (Dillard and German, 2000; Siddhuraju

and Becker, 2003). In the Philippines, it is known as 'mother's best

friend' because of its utilization to increase woman's milk

production and is sometimes prescribed for anemia (Estrella et al.,2000; Siddhuraju and Becker, 2003).

A number of medicinal properties have been ascribed to various

parts of this highly esteemed tree (Table 1). Almost all the parts of

this plant: root, bark, gum, leaf, fruit (pods), flowers, seed and seed

oil have been used for various ailments in the indigenous medicine

of South Asia, including the treatment of inflammation and

infectious diseases along with cardiovascular, gastrointestinal,

hematological and hepatorenal disorders
mailto:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]


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18 F. ANWARET AL.

Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Phytother. Res. 21, 17-25 (2DOI: 10.100

Table 1. Some common medicinal uses of different parts ofMoringa oleiferaMedicinalUses

Antilithic,rubefacient,vesicant,carminative,antifertility,anti-inflammatory,stimulantinparalyticafflictions;actasacardiac/circulatorytonic,usedasa

laxative,abortifacient,treatingrheumatism,inflammations,articularpains,

lowerbackorkidneypainandconstipation,

Purgative,appliedaspoulticetosores,rubbedonthetemplesfor

headaches,usedforpiles,fevers,sorethroat,bronchitis,eyeandear

infections,scurvyandcatarrh;leafjuiceisbelievedtocontrolglucose

levels,appliedtoreduceglandularswelling

Rubefacient,vesicantandusedtocureeyediseasesandforthetreatment

ofdeliriouspatients,preventenlargementofthespleenandformationof

tuberculousglandsoftheneck,todestroytumorsandtohealulcers.The

juicefromtherootbarkisputintoearstorelieveearachesandalsoplaced

inatoothcavityasapainkiller,andhasanti-tubercularactivity

Usedfordentalcaries,andisastringentandrubefacient;Gum,mixedwith

sesameoil,isusedtorelieveheadaches,fevers,intestinalcomplaints,

dysentery,asthmaandsometimesusedasanabortifacient,andtotreat

syphilisandrheumatism

Highmedicinalvalueasastimulant,aphrodisiac,abortifacient,cholagogue;

usedtocureinflammations,musclediseases,hysteria,tumors,and

enlargementofthespleen;lowertheserumcholesterol,phospholipid,

triglyceride,VLDL,LDLcholesteroltophospholipidratioandatherogenic

index;decreaselipidprofileofliver,heartandaortain

hypercholesterolaemicrabbitsandincreasedtheexcretionoffaecal

cholesterol

Seedextractexertsitsprotectiveeffectbydecreasingliverlipidperoxides,

antihypertensivecompoundsthiocarbamateandisothiocyanateglycosids

havebeenisolatedfromtheacetatephaseoftheethanolicextractof

Mo r i nga pods

(The Wealth of India, 1962; Singh and Kumar, 1999; Morimitsu et

al., 2000; Siddhuraju and Becker, 2003).

The seeds ofMoringa are considered to be antipyretic, acrid,

bitter (Oliveira et al., 1999) and reported to show antimicrobial

activity (The Wealth of India, 1962). The seed can be consumed

fresh as peas; or pounded, roasted, or pressed into sweet,

non-desiccating oil, commercially known as 'Ben oil' of high

quality. The unique property is the ability of its dry, crushed seed

and seed press cake, which contain polypeptides, to serve as natu-

ral coagulants for water treatment (Ndabigengesere and Narasiah,

1998).

So far no comprehensive review has been compiled from the

literature encompassing the efficacy of this plant in all dimensions.Its versatile utility as a medicine, functional food, nutraceutical and

water purifying potential motivated us to bridge the information

gap in this area, and to write a comprehensive review on the

medicinal, phytochemical and pharmacological attributes of this

plant of high economic value.

PHYTOCHEMISTRY

Moringa oleifera is rich in compounds containing the simple

sugar, rhamnose and a fairly unique group of compounds called

glucosinolates and isothiocyanates (Fahey et al., 2001; Bennett et

al., 2003). The stem bark has been reported to contain twoalkaloids, namely moringine and moringinine (Kerharo, 1969).

Vanillin, -sitosterol [14], -sitostenone, 4-hydroxymellin and

octacosanoic acid have been isolated from the stem ofM. oleifera

(Faizi et al., 1994a).

Purified, whole-gum exudate from M. oleifera has been found to

contain L-arabinose, -galactose, -glucuronic acid, and L-rhamnose,

-mannose and -xylose, while a homogeneous, degraded-gum

polysaccharide consisting of L-galactose, -glucuronic acid and

L-mannose has been obtained on mild hydrolysis of the whole gum

with acid (Bhattacharya et al., 1982).

Flowers contain nine amino acids, sucrose, D-glucose, traces of

alkaloids, wax, quercetin and kaempferat; the ash is rich in

potassium and calcium (Ruckmani et al., 1998). They have also

been reported to contain some flavonoid pigments such as

alkaloids, kaempherol, rhamnetin, isoquercitrin and kaempferitrin

(Faizi et al., 1994a; Siddhuraju and Becker, 2003).

Antihypertensive compounds thiocarbamate and isothiocyanateglycosides have been isolated from the acetate phase of the ethanol

extract ofMoringa pods (Faizi et al., 1998). The cytokinins have

been shown to be present in the fruit (Nagaret al., 1982). A new

0-ethyl-4-(a-L-rhamnosyloxy)benzyl carbamate [11]

Plantpart References Root The Wea l t h o f I nd ia , 1962;Padmaraoe t a l . ,

1996;Dahot,1988;

Ruckmani e t a l . , 1998

Morton,1991;Fuglie,2001;

Makonnen e t a l . , 1997;

The Wea l t h o f I nd ia ,

1962;Dahot,1988

Bhatnagar e t a l . , 1961;

Siddhuraju and Becker,

2003

Leave

Stembark

GumFuglie,2001

Nair and Subramanian,

1962;Bhattacharya e t a l . ,

1982; Dahot, 1998;

Siddhuraju and Becker,

2003;Mehta e t a l . , 2003

Flower

Seed Faizi e t a l ., 1998; Lalas

andTsaknis,2002


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ORINGA OLEIFERA 19


together with seven known bioactive compounds, 4(a-

L-rhamnosyloxy)-benzyl isothiocyanate [3], niazimicin [4], 3-

O-(6'- O-oleoyl--D -glucopyranosyl)- -sitosterol [15],

^-sitosterol-3-O-^-D-glucopyranoside [16], niazirin

[12] , ^-sitosterol [14] and glycerol-1-(9-octadecanoate)[13] have been isolated from the ethanol extract of the Moringaseed (Guevara et al., 1999). Figure 1 shows the structures of

selected phytochemicals fromMoringa.

Lately, interest has been generated in isolating hormones/growth

promoters from the leaves of M. oleifera. Nodulation of

black-gram (Vigna munga L.)

14: R= H

15: R= 6'-0-oleoyl-P-D-glucop5Tanosyl 16: R =

P-D-glucopyranosylFiqure 1. Structures of selected phytochemicals from Moringa: niazinin A [1], 4-(4'-0-acetyl-a-L-rhamnopyranosyloxy)benzyl isothiocyanate [2],4-(-L-rhamnopyranosyloxy)benzyl isothiocyanate [3], niazimicin [4], 4-(a-L-rhamnopyranosyloxy)benzyl glucosinolate [5], benzyl isothiocyanate [6], aglyconofdeoxy-niazimicine(N-benzyl,S-ethylthioformate) [7],pterygospermin [8],niaziminin [9 + 10], 0-ethyl-4-(a-L-rhamnosyloxy)benzylcarbamate [11],niazirin [12],glycerol-1-(9-octadecanoate) [13],^-sitosterol [14],3-0-(6'-0-oleoyl- -D-glucopyranosyl)-3-sitosterol [15],^-sitosterol-3-O-^-D-glucopyranoside [16].


12/17

20 F. ANWARET AL.


has been shown to increase vigorously with the application of an

aqueous-ethanol extract (Bose, 1980) of M. oleifera leaves,

although the nature of the active ingredient is still unknown.

Moringa leaves act as a good source of natural antioxidant due to

the presence of various types of antioxidant compounds such as

ascorbic acid, flavonoids, phenolics and carotenoids (Anwaret al.,

2005; Makkar and Becker, 1996). The high concentrations of

ascorbic acid, oestrogenic substances and -sitosterol [16], iron,

calcium, phosphorus, copper, vitamins A, B and C, a-tocopherol,

riboflavin, nicotinic acid, folic acid, pyridoxine, -carotene,

protein, and in particular essential amino acids such as methionine,

cystine, tryptophan and lysine present in Moringa leaves and pods

make it a virtually ideal dietary supplement (Makkar and Becker,

1996).The composition of the sterols of Moringa seed oil mainly

consists of campesterol, stigmasterol, -sitosterol, A5-avenasterol

and clerosterol accompanied by minute amounts of

24-methylenecholesterol, A7-campestanol, stigmastanol and

28-isoavenasterol (Tsaknis et al., 1999; Anwar and Bhanger, 2003;

Anwaret al., 2005; Table 2). The sterol composition of the major

fractions ofMoringa seed oil differs greatly from those of most of

the conventional edible oils (Rossell, 1991). The fatty acid com-

position ofM. oleifera seed oil reveals that it falls in the category

of high-oleic oils (C18:1, 67.90%-76.00%). Among the other

component fatty acids C16:0 (6.04%- 7.80%), C18:0

(4.14%-7.60%), C20:0 (2.76%-4.00%), and C22:0 (5.00%-6.73%)

are important (Tsaknis etal., 1999; Anwar and Bhanger, 2003;

Anwar et al., 2005). Moringa oleifera is also a good source ofdifferent tocopherols (a-, y-and 5-); the concentration of those is

reported to be 98.82-134.42, 27.90-93.70, and 48.0071.16 mg/kg,

respectively (Anwar and Bhanger, 2003; Tsaknis et al., 1999).

MEDICINAL USES AND PHARMACOLOGICAL

PROPERTIES

Moringa oleifera also has numerous medicinal uses, which have

long been recognized in the Ayurvedic and

Unani systems of medicine (Mughal et al., 1999). The medicinal

attributes (Table 1) and pharmacological activities ascribed to

various parts ofMoringa are detailed below.

Antihypertensive, diuretic and cholesterol lowering

activities

The widespread combination of diuretic along with lipid and blood

pressure lowering constituents make this plant highly useful in

cardiovascular disorders. Moringa leaf juice is known to have a

stabilizing effect on blood pressure (The Wealth of India, 1962;

Dahot, 1988). Nitrile, mustard oil glycosides and thiocarbamate

glycosides have been isolated from Moringa leaves, which were

found to be responsible for the blood pressure lowering effect

(Faizi et al., 1994a; 1994b; 1995). Most of these compounds,

bearing thiocarbamate, carbamate or nitrile groups, are fully

acetylated glycosides, which are very rare in nature (Faizi et al.,

1995). Bioassay guided fractionation of the active ethanol extract

of Moringa leaves led to the isolation of four pure compounds,

niazinin A [1], niazinin [1] B, niazimicin [4] and niazinin A + B

which showed a blood pressure lowering effect in rats mediatedpossibly through a calcium antagonist effect (Gilani et al., 1994a).

Another study on the ethanol and aqueous extracts of whole

pods and its parts, i.e. coat, pulp and seed revealed that the blood

pressure lowering effect of seed was more pronounced with

comparable results in both ethanol and water extracts indicating

that the activity is widely distributed (Faizi et al., 1998).

Activity-directed fractionation of the ethanol extract of pods ofM.

oleifera has led to the isolation of thiocarbamate and

isothiocyanate glycosides which are known to be the hypotensive

principles (Faizi et al., 1995). Methyl p- hydroxybenzoate and

-sitosterol (14), investigated in the pods ofM. oleifera have also

shown promising hypotensive activity (Faizi et al., 1998).

Moringa roots, leaves, flowers, gum and the aqueous infusion of

seeds have been found to possess diuretic activity (Morton, 1991;Caceres et al., 1992) and such diuretic components are likely to

play a complementary

Table 2. Sterol composition (grams per 100 g of fatty acids) of the M. oleiferaoilsSterol AnwarandBhanger,

2003

LalasandTsaknis,

2002

Tsaknis e t a l . , 1999

Cholesterol Notreported 0.10 0.13

Brassicasterol Notreported 0.05 0.06

24-methylenecholesterol 1.49 0.08 0.88

Campesterol 16.00 15.29 15.13

Campestanol Notreported 0.33 0.35

A7-campestanol 0.50 Notreported Notreported

Stigmasterol 19.00 23.06 16.87

Ergostadienol Notreported 0.35 0.39

Clerosterol 1.95 1.22 2.52

Stigmastanol 1.00 0.64 0.86

^-sitosterol 46.65 43.65 50.07

A -avenasterol 0.96 Notdetected 1.11

A5-avenasterol 10.70 11.61 8.84

28-isoavenasterol 0.50 0.25 1.40

A7,14

Stigmastadienol Notreported 0.39 Notreported

A,

Stigmastanol Notreported 0.85 0.44


13/17

ORINGA OLEIFERA 21


role in the overall blood pressure lowering effect of this plant.

The crude extract of Moringa leaves has a significant

cholesterol lowering action in the serum of high fat diet fed rats

which might be attributed to the presence of a bioactive

phytoconstituent, i.e. -sitosterol (Ghasi et al., 2000). Moringafruit has been found to lower the serum cholesterol, phospholipids,

triglycerides, low density lipoprotein (LDL), very low density

lipoprotein (VLDL) cholesterol to phospholipid ratio, atherogenic

index lipid and reduced the lipid profile of liver, heart and aorta in

hypercholesteremic rabbits and increased the excretion of fecal

cholesterol (Mehta et al., 2003).

Antispasmodic, antiulcer and hepatoprotective

activities

M. oleifera roots have been reported to possess antispasmodic

activity (Caceres et al., 1992). Moringa leaves have been

extensively studied pharmacologically and it has been found that

the ethanol extract and its constituents exhibit antispasmodic

effects possibly through calcium channel blockade (Gilani et al.,

1992; 1994a; Dangi et al., 2002). The antispasmodic activity of the

ethanol extract of M. oleifera leaves has been attributed to the

presence of 4-[a-(L-rhamnosyloxy) benzyl]- o-methyl

thiocarbamate [3] (trans), which forms the basis for its traditional

use in diarrhea (Gilani et al., 1992). Moreover, spasmolytic

activity exhibited by different constituents provides

pharmacological basis for the traditional uses of this plant in

gastrointestinal motility disorder (Gilani et al., 1994a).

The methanol fraction of M. oleifera leaf extract showed

antiulcerogenic and hepatoprotective effects in rats (Pal et al.,

1995a). Aqueous leaf extracts also showed antiulcer effect (Pal et

al., 1995a) indicating that the antiulcer component is widely

distributed in this plant.Moringa roots have also been reported to

possess hepatoprotective activity (Ruckmani et al., 1998). The

aqueous and alcohol extracts from Moringa flowers were also

found to have a significant hepatoprotective effect (Ruckmani et

al., 1998), which may be due to the presence of quercetin, a well

known flavonoid with hepatoprotective activity (Gilani et al.,

1997).

Antibacterial and antifungal activities

Moringa roots have antibacterial activity (Rao et al., 1996) and are

reported to be rich in antimicrobial agents. These are reported to

contain an active antibiotic principle, pterygospermin [8], which

has powerful antibacterial and fungicidal effects (Ruckmani et al.,1998). A similar compound is found to be responsible for the

antibacterial and fungicidal effects of its flowers (Das et al., 1957).

The root extract also possesses antimicrobial activity attributed to

the presence of 4-a-L-rhamnosyloxy benzyl isothiocyanate [3]

(Eilert et al., 1981). The aglyc- one of deoxy-niazimicine

(N-benzyl, S-ethyl thiofor- mate) [7] isolated from the chloroform

fraction of an ethanol extract of the root bark was found to be

responsible for the antibacterial and antifungal activities (Nikkon

et al., 2003). The bark extract has been shown to possess antifungal

activity (Bhatnagaret al., 1961), while the juice from the stem bark

showed antibacterial effect against Staphylococcus aureus (Mehta

et al., 2003). The fresh leaf juice was found to inhibit the growth of

microorganisms (Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus

aureus), pathogenic to man (Caceres et al., 1991).

Antitumor and anticancer activities

Makonnen et al. (1997) found Moringa leaves to be a potential

source for antitumor activity. O-Ethyl-

4-(a-L-rhamnosyloxy)benzyl carbamate [11] together with

4(a-L-rhamnosyloxy)-benzyl isothiocyanate [3], niazimicin [4] and

3-O-(6'-O-oleoyl-^-D-glucopyranosyl)- -sitosterol [15] have been

tested for their potential antitumor promoting activity using an in

vitro assay which showed significant inhibitory effects on Epstein-Barr virus-early antigen. Niazimicin has been proposed to be a

potent chemopreventive agent in chemical carcinogenesis

(Guevara et al., 1999). The seed extracts have also been found to

be effective on hepatic carcinogen metabolizing enzymes,

antioxidant parameters and skin papillomagenesis in mice (Bharali

et al., 2003). A seed ointment had a similar effect to neomycin

against Staphylococcus aureus pyodermia in mice (Caceres and

Lopez, 1991).

It has been found that niaziminin [9 + 10], a thiocarbamate

from the leaves of M. oleifera, exhibits inhibition of

tumor-promoter-induced Epstein-Barr virus activation. On the

other hand, among the isothiocyanates, naturally occurring

4-[(4'-O-acetyl-a-i-rhamnosyloxy) benzyl] [2], significantly

inhibited tumor-promoter- induced Epstein-Barr virus activation,suggesting that the isothiocyano group is a critical structural factor

for activity (Murakami et al., 1998).

Other diverse activities

Moringa oleifera has also been reported to exhibit other diverse

activities. Aqueous leaf extracts regulate thyroid hormone and can

be used to treat hyperthyroidism and exhibit an antioxidant effect

(Pal et al., 1995a; 1995b; Tahiliani and Kar, 2000). A methanol

extract of M. oleifera leaves conferred significant radiation

protection to the bone marrow chromosomes in mice (Rao et al.,

2001). Moringa leaves are effective for the regulation of thyroid

hormone status (Tahiliani and Kar, 2000).

A recent report showed that M. oleifera leaf may be applicableas a prophylactic or therapeutic anti-HSV (Herpes simplex virus

type 1) medicine and may be effective against the

acyclovir-resistant variant (Lipipun et al., 2003). Table 1 depicts

some common medicinal uses of different parts of this plant. The

flowers and leaves also are considered to be of high medicinal

value with anthelmintic activity (Bhattacharya et al., 1982). An

infusion of leaf juice was shown to reduce glucose levels in rabbits

(Makonnen et al., 1997).

Moringa oleifera is coming to the forefront as a result of

scientific evidence that Moringa is an important source of naturally

occurring phytochemicals and this provides a basis for future

viable developments. Different parts of M. oleifera are also

incorporated in various marketed health formulations, such as

Rumalaya andSeptilin (the Himalaya Drug Company, Bangalore, India),

Orthoherb (Walter Bushnell Ltd, Mumbai, India), Kupid Fort

(Pharma Products Pvt. Ltd, Thayavur, India) and Livospin

(Herbals APS Pvt. Ltd, Patna, India), which are reputed as

remedies available for a variety of human health disorders (Mehta

et al., 2003).

Moringa seeds have specific protein fractions for skin and hair

care. Two new active components for the cosmetic industry have

been extracted from oil cake. Purisoft consists of peptides of the

Moringa seed. It protects the human skin from environmental

influences and combats premature skin aging. With dual activity,

antipollution and conditioning/strengthening of hair, the M.

oleifera seed extract is a globally acceptable innovative solution

for hair care (Stussi et al., 2002).

WATER PURIFYING ATTRIBUTES OF M.

OLEIFERA SEED


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22 F. ANWARET AL.


Moringaseeds as coagulant

Moringa seeds are one of the best natural coagulants discovered so

far (Ndabigengesere and Narasiah, 1998). Crushed seeds are a

viable replacement of synthetic coagulants (Kalogo et al., 2000).

In Sudan, seed crude extract is used instead of alum by rural

women to treat the highly turbid Nile water because of a traditional

fear of alum causing gastrointestinal disturbances and Alzheimer's

disease (Crapper et al., 1973; Milleret al., 1984; Martyn et al.,

1989; Muyibi, 1994).

Moringa seeds are very effective for high turbidity water and

show similar coagulation effects to alum (Muyibi and Evison,

1995b). The coagulation effectiveness of M. oleifera varies

depending on the initial turbidity and it has been reported that M.

oleifera could reduce turbidity by between 92% and 99% (Muyibi

and Evison, 1995b). Moringa seeds also have softening properties

in addition to being a pH correctant (alkalinity reduction), as well

as exhibiting a natural buffering capacity, which could handle

moderately high to high alkaline surface and ground waters. The

Moringa seeds can also be used as an antiseptic in the treatment of

drinking water (Obioma and Adikwu, 1997).

Ongoing research is attempting to characterize and purify the

coagulant components of Moringa seeds (Ndabigengesere et al.,

1995; Gassenschmidt et al., 1995). It is believed that the seed is an

organic natural polymer (Jahn, 1984). The active ingredients are

dimeric proteins with a molecular weight of about 1300 Da and an

iso-electric point between 10 and 11 (Ndabigengesere et al., 1995).

The protein powder is stable and totally soluble in water.

Moringa coagulant protein can be extracted by water or salt

solution (commonly NaCl). The amount and effectiveness of the

coagulant protein from salt and water extraction methods vary

significantly. In crude form, the salt extract shows a better

coagulation performance than the corresponding water extract

(Okuda et al., 1999). This may be explained by the presence of ahigher amount of soluble protein due to the salting-in

phenomenon. However, purification of the M. oleifera coagulant

protein from the crude salt extract may not be technically and

economically feasible.

The coagulation mechanism of the M. oleifera coagulant protein

has been explained in different ways. It has been described as

adsorption and charge neutralization (Ndabigengesere et al., 1995;

Gassenschmidt et al., 1995) and interparticle bridging (Muyibi and

Evison, 1995a). Flocculation by inter-particle bridging is mainly

characteristic of high molecular weight polyelectrolytes. Due to

the small size of the M. oleifera coagulant protein (6.5-13 kDa), a

bridging effect may not be considered as the likely coagulation

mechanism. The high positive charge (pI above 10) and small size

may suggest that the main destabilization mechanism could beadsorption and charge neutralization.

Microbial elimination with Moringaseeds

Moringa seeds also possess antimicrobial properties (Olsen, 1987;

Madsen et al., 1987). Broin et al. (2002) reported that a

recombinant protein in the seed is able to flocculate Gram-positive

and Gram-negative bacterial cells. In this case, microorganisms

can be removed by settling in the same manner as the removal of

colloids in properly coagulated and flocculated water (Casey,

1997). On the other hand, the seeds may also act directly upon

microorganisms and result in growth inhibition. Antimicrobial

peptides are thought to act by disrupting the cell membrane or byinhibiting essential enzymes (Silvestro et al., 2000; Suarez et al.,

2003). Sutherland et al. (1990) reported that Moringa seeds could

inhibit the replication of bacteriophages. The antimicrobial effects

of the seeds are attributed to the compound 4(a-L-rhamnosyloxy)

benzyl isothiocynate (Eilert et al., 1981).

Moringaseeds as biosorbent

Moringa seeds could be used as a less expensive biosorbent for

the removal of cadmium (Cd) from aqueous media (Sharma et al.,

2006). The aqueous solution of Moringa seed is a heterogeneous

complex mixture having various functional groups, mainly low

molecular weight organic acids (amino acids). These amino acids

have been found to constitute a physiologically active group of

binding agents, working even at a low concentration, which

because of the ability to interact with metal ions is likely to

increase the sorption of metal ions (Brostlap and Schuurmans,

1988). The proteineous amino acids have a variety of structurally

related pH dependent properties, generating a negatively charged

atmosphere and play an important role in the binding of metals

(Sharma et al., 2006).

FUTURE PROSPECTS

So far numerous studies have been conducted on different parts of

M. oleifera, but there is a dire need to isolate and identify new

compounds from different parts of the tree, which have possible

antitumor promoters as well as inhibitory properties. Although

preliminary studies are under way in different laboratories to use

the antispasmodic, antiinflammatory, antihypertensive and diuretic

activities ofM. oleifera seed, these studies should be extended to

humans in view of the edible nature of the plant. Moringa roots and

leaves have been used traditionally to treat constipation. Studies to

verify these claims need to be carried out in the light of the reported

antispasmodic activities, which are contrary to its medicinal use as

a gut motility stimulant. Earlier studies on the presence of a

combination of spasmogenic and spasmolytic constituents in

different plants used for constipation (Gilani et al., 2000; 2005a;Bashiret al., 2006) might be of some guidance in designing experi-

ments in which the presence of antispasmodic constituents at

higher doses are explained as a possible mode to offset the

side-effects usually associated with high dose of laxative therapy.

Similarly, the known species differences in the pharmacological

actions of medicinal plants (Ghayur et al., 2005; Ghayur and

Gilani, 2006) may also be taken into account when planning

studies involving contradictory results.

Food plants are considered relatively safe as they are likely to

contain synergistic and/or side effect neutralizing combinations of

activities (Gilani and Atta-ur- Rahman, 2005). Moringa oleifera,

known to be rich in multiple medicinally active chemicals, may be

a good candidate to see if it contains effect enhancing and/or

side-effects neutralizing combinations. Medicinal plants arerelatively rich in their contents of calcium channel blockers

(CCBs) which are known to possess a wide variety of

pharmacological activities such as antihypertensive,

hepatoprotective, antiulcer, antiasthmatic, antispasmodic and

antidiarroeal (Stephens and Rahwan, 1992; Gilani et al., 1994b;

1999; 2005b; Yaeesh et al., 2006; Ghayur et al., 2006) and it

remains to be seen whether such activities reported to be present in

Moringa oleifera have a direct link with the presence of CCBs.

Niazimicin, a potent antitumor promoter in chemical

carcinogenesis is present in the seed; its inhibitory mechanism on

tumor proliferation can be investigated by isolating more pure

samples. The mechanism of action ofM. oleifera as prophylactic

or therapeutic anti- HSV medicines for the treatment of HSV-1

infection also needs to be examined.

The available information on the -, - and y- tocopherol

content in samples of various parts of this edible plant is very

limited. -Carotene and vitamins A and C present in M. oleifera,

serve as an explanation for their mode of action in the induction of

antioxidant profiles, however, the exact mechanism is yet to be


15/17

ORINGA OLEIFERA 23


elucidated. -Carotene of M. oleifera leaves exerts a more

significant protective activity than silymarin against anti-

tubercular induced toxicity. It would be interesting to see if it also

possesses hepatoprotective effect against other commonly used

hepatotoxic agents such as CCl4 and galactosamine, which areconsidered more suitable models and close to human viral hepatitis

(Gilani and Janbaz, 1995; Yaeesh et al., 2006).

Although Moringa leaves are considered a best protein source,

it still has to be shown whether or not this protein source could

compete with the more common protein sources in highly

productive growing or milk- producing ruminants.

Many studies have also been conducted on the performance of

Moringa seeds as an alternative coagulant, coagulant aid and in

conjunction with alum for treating waste water. Therefore, it is

important to identify the active constituents ofMoringa seed for a

better understanding of the coagulation mechanism. Reports on the

antimicrobial effects of the protein purified from M. oleifera are

very rare.

Since this plant naturally occurs in varying habitats, it is naive to

expect a great magnitude of variation in the concentration andcomposition of chemical ingredients in different parts of the tree.

However, the extent to which the chemical composition varies in

populations adapted to varying habitats is not known. Thus,

detailed studies are required to examine this aspect.

In view of its multiple uses, the M. oleifera plant needs to be

widely cultivated in most of the areas where climatic conditions

favor its optimum growth. In this way, a maximum yield of its

different useable parts could be achieved to derive the maximal

amount of commodities of a multifarious nature for the welfare of

mankind.

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