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American Human Spaceflight

Early Missions

- Mercury & Gemini

Lunar Missions

- Apollo

Space Stations Space Shuttle Future Missions

Reference Information

Apollo-Soyuz Test Project

(ASTP)

Select

Image

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Mercury - 1958 to 1963

The idea of human spaceflight

has been in the mind of humans

throughout recorded history. By

the late 1950s, technology had

developed to the level ideas

could be transformed into

hardware to achieve human

spaceflight.

In 1959, NASA asked the U.S.A.

military services to list members

who met specific qualifications.

The search was underway for

pilots for the new manned

spaceflight program. The first

seven NASA Astronauts for

Project Mercury were

announced on April 9, 1959.

Front row - left to right - Walter

Schirra, Donald Slayton, John

Glenn, and Scott Carpenter.

Back row - Alan Shepard, Virgil

“Gus” Grissom, and Gordon

Cooper.

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On January 31, 1961, a 44-month old

chimpanzee, named Ham, was the first

higher primate launched into outer space.

Ham is shown trying out his combination

couch and life support system on January

28, 1961 in preparation for his flight.

Ham was secured in a Mercury capsule

atop the Mercury Redstone-2 (MR-2) rocket

and launched from Cape Canaveral, FL.

During the flight, Ham successfully pushed

a lever within five seconds after seeing a

flashing blue light. Failure resulted in

negative reinforcement in the form of an

electric shock to the soles of his feet. He

landed 422 miles downrange after a 16.5

minute flight. Ham's capsule landed in the

Atlantic Ocean and was recovered by a

rescue ship. After the flight Ham lived for

17 years in the National Zoo in Washington

D.C., then at the North Carolina Zoo before

dying at the age of 27 on January 19, 1983.

The MR-2 flight was one in a series of

flights leading to the manned orbital flights

of the Mercury program.

Mercury Chimp “Ham” Prepares for Test Flight

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Mercury

Project Mercury put the first

Americans into space.

Astronaut Alan Shepard was the first

American in space during his sub-

orbital flight on May 5, 1961 aboard

Freedom 7. The Mercury - Redstone 3

rocket was launched from Pad LC-5 at

Cape Canaveral, FL.

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Mercury

Astronaut John Glenn became the first

American to orbit the Earth on February

20, 1962 aboard Friendship 7 launched

by the Mercury - Atlas 6 rocket from

Pad LC-14 at Cape Canaveral, FL.

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Project Gemini was an

intermediate step between

Mercury and Apollo developing

technologies needed for lunar

exploration.

Gemini-Titan 4 lift-off from Cape

Canaveral, FL carried James

McDivitt and Ed White for a four-

day mission on June 3, 1965. This

flight included the first space-

walk by an American astronaut,

accomplished by Ed White.

Gemini - 1962 to1966

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Gemini On June 3, 1965,

Edward White

became the first

American to step

outside his

Gemini 4

spacecraft.

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Gemini On December 15, 1965, Walter Schirra and

Thomas Stafford on Gemini 6 and Frank Borman

and James Lovell on Gemini 7 accomplished the

first space rendezvous. Gemini 6 views Gemini 7.

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Gemini Gemini 11 command pilot Charles Conrad climbs from the spacecraft hatch minutes after

splashdown on September 9, 1966. Pilot Richard Gordon still has his hatch closed. U.S.

Navy frogman team attached a flotation collar to the spacecraft.

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Apollo - 1963 to 1972

The purpose of the Apollo

Program was to land men on the

lunar surface and to return them

safely to Earth. Six missions

landed on the surface of the

moon; three others orbited the

moon without landing, including

the ill-fated Apollo 13.

The Apollo 11 Saturn V space

vehicle lifted off with astronauts

Neil Armstrong, Michael Collins

and Edwin Aldrin on July 16,

1969, from Launch Complex 39A

at the Kennedy Space Center, FL.

On July 20, 1969, Neil Armstrong

became the first human to walk

on the moon.

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Apollo

Apollo 16 Lunar Module (LM) pilot Charles

Duke photographed this Descartes Highlands

landing site on April 21, 1972. Commander

John Young is to the right of the LM and

directly behind the Lunar Roving Vehicle.

Thomas Mattingly remained with the Command

and Service Module (CSM) in lunar orbit.

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The Apollo 16 CSM approached the LM on April 23, 1972 for their final rendezvous.

Aboard the LM, John Young and Charles Duke returned to the CSM in lunar orbit after

three successful days on the lunar surface. Thomas Mattingly piloted the CSM.

Apollo

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Apollo

The photograph of the Earth rising over the Moon's horizon was taken from the Apollo 11

CSM in July 1969.

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ASTP was the first human spaceflight

mission conducted jointly by two nations.

This led to future cooperative missions.

Soyuz was launched prior to the American

Apollo launch on the same day. The two

spacecrafts docked on July 17, 1975 and

joint operations were conducted for two full

days. The docking module served as an

airlock and transfer corridor between the

two spacecrafts.

Astronaut Donald Slayton and cosmonaut

Aleksey Leonov are shown in Soyuz.

Apollo Command

and Service Module

Docking

Module

Soyuz

Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP) - 1975

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Skylab- 1973 to 1974

Skylab, the first American space station, was adapted from the

third stage of an Apollo Saturn V rocket and launched into orbit on

May 14, 1973. Three successive crews of three astronauts each

occupied Skylab. The longest mission, ending on February 8, 1974,

lasted almost three months.

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Skylab

Skylab 3 astronaut Jack Lousma takes a shower

in the crew quarters of the Orbital Workshop

(OWS) on July 1, 1973.

Skylab 4 astronauts Gerald Carr (right) and

William Pogue are shown in the OWS on

February 1, 1974.

17 Shuttle / MIR - 1994 to 1998

Seven American astronauts spent nearly 1000 days

living in orbit with cosmonauts on the Russian space

station Mir. American shuttles rendezvoused ten times

with Mir. The Shuttle-Mir Program prepared the way for

the International Space Station and began an era of

cooperation and exploration. Soyuz cosmonauts took

the photograph during a fly-around on July 4, 1995.

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International Space Station (ISS) - 1998 to present

In 1998, the first two ISS modules

were launched and joined in orbit.

Other components soon followed and

the first crew arrived in 2000.

A crewmember onboard the Soyuz

TMA-20 photographed the ISS and the

docked space shuttle Endeavour after

the two spacecrafts undocked May 23,

2011.

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Space Shuttle - 1981 to 2011

The space shuttle orbiters were

the first spacecraft capable of

routinely launching into orbit

like rockets and then returning

to Earth as gliders. The

orbiters were part of the Space

Transportation System used for

scientific research and space

applications. The space shuttle

was retired in July 2011 after

Atlantis delivered 8,000 lbs of

supplies and spare parts to the

International Space Station.

The first shuttle, Columbia,

STS-1, is shown being launched

April 12, 1981 from Pad 39A at

Kennedy Space Center, FL

carrying astronauts John Young

and Robert Crippen. The Earth

orbital mission lasted 54 hours

and ended with an un-powered

landing at Edwards Air Force

Base, CA.

Palapa B-2 and Westar VI Satellite Retrieval Mission

The Palapa B-2 and Westar VI satellites failed to achieve proper orbits during the STS-41B

mission in February, 1984. STS-51A Astronaut Dale Gardner is shown approaching the

Westar VI in November 1984 and preparing to capture the 1200 lb satellite using a

“stinger” docking device. He is propelled by the Manned Maneuvering Unit, a robotic

backpack with its own thrusters and controls. The Challenger remote manipulator arm end

effector (to the right of Gardner) later grappled the satellite and moved it to Challenger.

Astronaut Joe Allen retrieved Palapa B-2 two days earlier. After Palapa B-2 and Westar VI

were returned to Earth by Challenger, they were refurbished, relaunched and successfully

operated as communications satellites.

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Hubble Space Telescope Launch and Deployment Mission

The Hubble Space Telescope (HST) was launched on the Space Shuttle Discovery STS-31

mission on April 24, 1990. The IMAX Cargo Bay Camera shows the telescope at the

moment of release by the Discovery remote manipulator arm on April 25.

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Hubble Space Telescope First Repair Mission

After the Hubble Space

Telescope (HST) deployment,

scientists realized the primary

mirror had a flaw resulting in an

inability to focus the light.

Corrective Optics Space

Telescope Axial Replacement

(COSTAR) was developed by

Ball Aerospace as an effective

means of countering the effects

of the flawed shape of the

mirror.

On December 8, 1993, STS-061,

Space Shuttle Endeavour,

Astronaut Kathryn C. Thornton

lifts the COSTAR prior to its

installation on the HST.

Thornton is anchored to a foot

restraint on the end of the

Endeavor robotic arm.

Astronaut Thomas D. Akers,

assisting in the COSTAR

installation, is at the lower left.

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Many of the International

Space Station (ISS) large

components were

transported into space by

the space shuttle. In 1998,

construction of the ISS was

just getting under way. The

first shuttle to visit the

space station was

Endeavour, which launched

on STS-88 mission on

December 4, 1998 and

carried the first American

module, the Unity node, to

the station. Unity was

connected to the first space

station segment, the

Russian Zarya module,

which Russia had launched

less than a month before on

a Russian Proton rocket.

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First Space Shuttle Visit to the International Space Station

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Endeavour Transports AMS-2 to the ISS

On May 18, 2011, the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer-2 (AMS-2) was grasped by the space

shuttle Endeavour’s robotic arm prior to being installed on the station's starboard truss.

The AMS-2 is used in the unique environment of space to study the universe and its

origin by searching for antimatter and dark matter while performing precision

measurements of cosmic rays composition and flux.

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Space Shuttle Program Final Mission

The space shuttle Atlantis landed for the

final time at KSC on July 21, 2011. Atlantis

flew 200 orbits around Earth on a journey

of 5,284,862 miles on the STS-135 mission

and final flight for the Space Shuttle

Program.

The shuttle program flew 135 missions for

about 30 years. The life of the program has

cost $113.7 billion (not adjusted for

inflation).

The final flight of the Space Shuttle Program

was launched on July 8, 2011 from Launch

Pad 39A at Kennedy Space Center (KSC), FL.

The space shuttle, STS-135, Atlantis is seen

over the Bahamas from the International

Space Station (ISS) on July 10, 2011. The

image was taken just prior to Atlantis

docking with the ISS. The Raffaello multi-

purpose logistics module, packed with

supplies and spare parts for the ISS, is at

the aft end of the cargo bay. Part of the

Russian Progress resupply spacecraft is in

the upper foreground.

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Commercial Crew Program - Future

The three firms are planning to carry a crew of seven to and from low Earth orbit and

the International Space Station.

The SNC Dream Chaser flight vehicle is shown in August 2013 being prepared for 60

mile/hour tow tests on taxi and runways at Dryden Flight Research Center at Edwards

Air Force Base, CA. Ground testing at 10, 20, 40 and 60 mile/hour helped SNC validate

the performance of the spacecraft's braking and landing systems prior to captive-carry

and free-flight tests scheduled for later in 2013.

- The 25,000 lb spacecraft has a length of 29.5 ft with a wing span of 22.9 ft.

- The vehicle would launch vertically on an Atlas V and return from space by gliding and

landing at almost any runway in the world.

SpaceX and The Boeing Company are developing a capsule system similar to Apollo.

In 2009, NASA began commercial

crew initiatives to stimulate the

private sector to develop and

demonstrate human spaceflight

capabilities. This will ultimately lead

to the availability of human

spaceflight services for both

commercial and government

customers.

In 2012, three commercial firms were

selected by NASA to complete end-to-

end design for a crew vehicle system:

Sierra Nevada Corporation (SNC),

Space Exploration Technologies

(SpaceX), and The Boeing Company.

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Human Space Exploration - Future

NASA is beginning a new era in space exploration focusing on sending astronauts to an

asteroid and eventually to Mars.

The NASA Authorization Act of 2010 requires the following minimum capabilities:

- The Orion M-PCV must be able to serve as the primary crew vehicle for missions

beyond low Earth orbit (LEO).

-- The vehicle must be able to conduct regular in-space operations such as rendezvous,

docking and extravehicular activity, in conjunction with payloads delivered by the Space

Launch System or other vehicles in preparation for missions beyond LEO.

-- The Orion M-PCV must provide an alternative means of crew and cargo transportation

to and from the International Space Station, in the event other vehicles, whether

commercial or partner-supplied, are unable to perform that function.

-- The vehicle must have the capability for efficient and timely evolution.

The image shows the

Orion Multi-Purpose

Crew Vehicle (M-PCV)

orbiting the Earth. This

could be the first of

Orion’s many planned

journeys into deep space

and will allow the

preliminary testing of its

operational capabilities

outside of low Earth

orbit.

Credit: European

Space Agency

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Orion Crew Vehicle Configuration Launch Abort System (LAS)

The LAS propels the CM to safety in the event of an

emergency during launch or the climb to orbit.

It protects the crew module from dangerous

atmospheric loads and heating then jettisons after it is

through the initial mission phase of ascent to orbit.

Crew Module (CM)

The CM is the transportation capsule that provides a

safe habitat for the crew, storage for consumables and

research instruments, and serves as the docking port for

crew transfer.

It is the only part of Orion that returns to Earth.

Service Module (SM)

The SM supports the CM from launch through

separation prior to reentry.

- It provides propulsion capability for orbital transfer,

attitude control, and high altitude ascent aborts.

- The SM provides all the CM consumables needed to

maintain a habitable environment.

- It transports unpressurized cargo and scientific

payloads.

Spacecraft Adapter

The shroud encapsulates the SM and provides the

structural transition to the launch vehicle. The shroud is

jettisoned.

Launch

Abort

System

Crew

Module

Service

Module

Spacecraft

Adapter

Orion Crew Vehicle Mission Phases

Launch

Launch Abort System

Jettison

Mission

Operations Re-entry Landing/Recovery

Preparation for

Leaving Earth Orbit

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Space Launch System - Future

NASA is developing an advanced heavy-lift

launch vehicle that will provide an entirely new

national capability for human exploration

beyond low Earth orbit.

The NASA Authorization Act of 2010 requires

the following minimum capabilities:

- The Space Launch System (SLS) vehicle must

be able to initially lift 154,000 - 220,000 lbs (70 -

100 metric-tons) to low Earth orbit, and must be

evolvable to 286,000 lbs (130 metric-tons) or

more.

- The vehicle must be able to lift an Orion Multi-

Purpose Crew Vehicle.

- The vehicle must be capable of serving as a

backup system for supplying and supporting

cargo and crew delivery requirements for the

International Space Station in the event such

requirements are not met by available

commercial or partner-supplied vehicles.

- The SLS rocket incorporates technological

investments from the Space Shuttle and

Constellation Programs in order to take

advantage of proven hardware and cutting-edge

tooling and manufacturing technology.

-- The SLS initial lift version is shown launching

the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle.

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First Orion Crewed Flight - Asteroid Redirect Mission

The NASA Fiscal Year 2014

budget proposal includes a

plan to robotically capture

a small near-Earth asteroid

and redirect it safely to a

stable orbit in the Earth-

moon system where

astronauts can visit and

explore it.

The Asteroid Redirect

Robotic Vehicle (ARRV) and

asteroid combination is

shown attached to Orion.

- Astronauts would

spacewalk from Orion to

the aft end of the ARRV

capture bag to investigate

the asteroid.

In April 2010, President Barack Obama announced a human mission to an asteroid.

The budget leverages NASA’s human and robotic activities for the mission and also

accelerates efforts to address potentially hazardous asteroids:

- To protect our planet.

- To advance exploration capabilities and technologies for human space flight.

- To learn how to best utilize space resources.

The 2014 budget aligns relevant portions of NASA’s science, space technology, and

human exploration capabilities to plan for the mission.

ARRV and Asteroid

Combination

Orion

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Potential Mission - Martian Moon Deimos A Deimos mission is an achievable goal

that will set the stage for a future Mars

landing, avoiding the expense and

difficulty of developing the significant

technological advancements.

The mission provides important

scientific and exploration value despite

not landing on the surface.

- Deimos is a far better vantage point to

explore Mars than being on the surface.

-- Astronauts stationed on Deimos can

explore more Martian sites using robots

operated via tele-operation.

- Exploration of Deimos can reveal clues

about how the Mars system came to be in

its current state.

-- The origin of Deimos is a great mystery

in the planetary science community.

--- The moon’s irregular shape, porous

composition, and low albedo (i.e., less

reflective) is comparable to C- and D-type

asteroids, but the nearly circular orbit and

negligible inclination are unexpected for a

captured object. Concept Credit:

Lockheed Martin

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Deep Space Rover and Habitat Development - Future

NASA is testing concepts for a new generation

of roving Space Exploration Vehicles (SEV) for

deep space. Astronauts will need surface

mobility to explore multiple sites across the

lunar and Martian surfaces. The SEV surface

concept has a small, pressurized cabin

mounted on a wheeled chassis that would

enable a mobile form of exploration.

The pressurized cabin has a suitport that allows

the crew to get into their spacesuits and out of

the vehicle faster enabling multiple, short

spacewalks as an alternative to one long

spacewalk. To assess new technologies, NASA has

created the Habitat Demonstration Unit

(HDU) project. It develops surface habitat

configurations for testing and evaluating

living quarters for use on the lunar and

Martian surfaces. The HDU is a one story,

4-port habitat. Rovers can dock at two of

the ports. The Dust Mitigation Module

and Hygiene Module (toilet, hand wash

and whole body wash) are connected at

the other ports. An inflatable loft

accommodates additional volume.

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Reference Information

Images:

All images are from NASA except as noted

Images and Text:

Manned Maneuvering Unit Post Mission Summary Report STS 51A; Martin Marietta;

February 1985 - technical report summarizing the MMU STS 51A mission

Stepping Stones: Exploring a Series of Increasingly Challenging Destinations on the

Way to Mars; Lockheed Martin, Denver, CO - Orion missions are discussed

Red Rocks Report, Caley Buxton; Lockheed Martin, Denver, CO - includes detailed

discussion of Orion Mars missions

http://grin.hq.nasa.gov/

http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/

http://commons.wikimedia.org/

http://upload.wikimedia.org/

http://www-pao.ksc.nasa.gov/history/mercury/mercury-overview.htm

http://en.wikipedia.org/

http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/

http://images.jsc.nasa.gov/

http://www.nasa.gov/

http://mediaarchive.ksc.nasa.gov/

http://www.esa.int/

http://www.lockheedmartin.com/

http://www.youtube.com/

End

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Human Space Exploration Conduct a routine cadence of missions to solar system destinations including the Moon

and near Earth asteroids with the Mars’ surface as a horizon destination for human

exploration.

The objective is a capability-driven approach to human exploration rather than one

based on a specific destination and schedule.

- Establish missions defined by multiple possible destinations.

-- Define design reference missions (DRMs) to determine required functions and

capabilities.

- Utilize common elements across all of the DRMs.

-- Size element functionality and performance to support the missions.

-- The common element and DRM analyses are still in work, but appear feasible.

- Assess key contingencies and abort scenarios to determine and allocate any

additional key element(s) capabilities.

-- Iterate element sizing and functionality to ensure key contingency and abort

scenarios are addressed.

- Establish the key driving requirements for the common elements.

-- Determine the technology needs for each element.

- Identify the key decision points for the element/capability phasing.

-- Define the decision trees/paths for the transportation architecture and destination

architecture.

- Assess the various manifest scenarios for costing and other constraint analysis.

-- Select various strategies for the acquisition approach and affordability.

- Actively seek international and commercial involvement where possible.

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An unmanned, two orbit, Orion test flight is scheduled for 2014.

The flight will test Orion’s orbital ability and re-entry capabilities.

- The capsule will dive into Earth's atmosphere at more than 20,000 mph, giving

engineers key data on how the spacecraft responds to a re-entry at speeds closely

replicating what the vehicle will see when returning from deep space missions.

- A United Launch Alliance Delta 4-Heavy will be used to launch the spacecraft.

The manned crew module (CM) will hold 6 crew members for low Earth orbit (LEO)

missions and 4 for beyond LEO missions.

A maximum of 3 astronauts flew in the smaller Apollo and 7 in the larger space shuttle.

The CM has a 32.5° conical shape similar to the Apollo Command Module.

- It is 16.5 ft in diameter and 10.83 ft in length with a weight of 21,400 lbs (LEO) and

19,650 lbs (beyond LEO).

-- Apollo was 12.83 ft in diameter and 10.58 ft long.

The CM will be recovered after a water landing similar to Apollo.

- The Apollo CM was used once; the Orion CM will be reused for up to 10 flights.

The service module (SM) provides support to the CM from launch through CM separation

to enable LEO and beyond LEO missions with minimal impact to the CM.

The SM supports a 21.3 day crewed mission.

It provides accommodation for ISS un-pressurized cargo and beyond LEO mission

equipment.

The SM has a 16.5 ft in diameter stepped cylindrical shape that is 15.67 ft in length with

a weight of 19,418 lbs (LEO) and 27,198 lbs (beyond LEO).

The SM is based upon the European Space Agency's unmanned Automated Transfer

Vehicles that delivers supplies to the International Space Station.

Orion Crew Vehicle