Chapter 14

I. Opening VignetteA. Around the end of the twentieth century, reactions to the empire building of the early modern period remain varied. 1. Uighur attempts to win independence from China 2. Native American protests against 500th anniversary of Columbus’s arrival in AmericaB. Early modern European colonies were massively significant. 1. Russians also constructed a major empire 2. Qing dynasty China doubled in size 3. Mughal Empire of India pulled together Hindus and Muslims 4. Ottoman Empire reestablished some of the older political unity of the Islamic heartlandC. The empires of the early modern era show a new stage in globalization.

II. European Empires in the AmericasA. Western European empires were marked by maritime expansion. 1. Spaniards in Caribbean, then on to Aztec and Inca empires 2. Portuguese in Brazil 3. British, French, and Dutch colonies in North America 4. Europeans controlled most of the Americas by the mid-nineteenth centuryB. The European Advantage 1. geography: European Atlantic states were well positioned for involvement in the Americas 2. need: Chinese and Indians had such rich markets in the Indian Ocean that there wasn’t much incentive to go beyond 3. marginality: Europeans were aware of their marginal position in Eurasian commerce and wanted to change it 4. rivalry: interstate rivalry drove rulers to compete 5. merchants: growing merchant class wanted direct access to Asian wealth 6. wealth and status: colonies were an opportunity for impoverished nobles and commoners 7. religion: a. crusading zeal b. persecuted minorities looking for more freedom 8. European states and trading companies mobilized resources well a. seafaring technology b. iron, gunpowder weapons, and horses gave Europeans an initial advantage over people in the Americas 9. Rivalries within the Americas provided allies for European invadersC. The Great Dying—the demographic collapse of Native American societies 1. pre-Columbian Western Hemisphere had a population of perhaps 60 million–80 million 2. no immunity to Old World diseases 3. Europeans brought European and African diseases a. mortality rate of up to 90 percent among Native American populations b. native population nearly vanished in the Caribbean c. Central Mexico : population dropped from 10 million–20 million to around 1 million by 1650 d. similar mortality in North AmericaD. The Columbian Exchange 1. massive native mortality created a labor shortage in the Americas 2. migrant Europeans and African slaves created entirely new societies 3. American food crops (e.g., corn, potatoes, and cassava) spread widely in the Eastern Hemisphere a. potatoes especially allowed enormous population growth b. corn and sweet potatoes were important in China and Africa 4. exchange with the Americas reshaped the world economy

a. importation of millions of African slaves to the Americas

b. new and lasting link among Africa, Europe, and the Americas

5. network of communication, migration, trade, transfer of plants and animals (including microbes) is called “the Columbian exchange”

a. the Atlantic world connected four continents b. Western Europeans got most of the rewards

III. Comparing Colonial Societies in the Americas

A. Europeans did not just conquer and govern established societies: they created wholly new societies.

1. all were shaped by mercantilism—theory that governments should encourage exports and accumulate bullion to serve their countries

2. colonies should provide closed markets for the mother country’s manufactured goods 3. but colonies differed widely, depending on native cultures and the sorts of economy that were established 4. mercantilist thinking thus fueled the European wars and colonial rivalries around the world in the early modern eraB. In the Lands of the Aztecs and the Incas 1. Spanish conquest of the Aztec and Inca empires (early sixteenth century) a. the most wealthy, urbanized, and populous regions of the Western Hemisphere b. within a century, the Spaniards established major cities, universities, and a religious and bureaucratic infrastructure 2. economic basis of the colonial society was commercial agriculture and mining (gold and silver) 3. rise of a distinctive social order a. replicated some of the Spanish class hierarchy b. accommodated Indians, Africans, and racially mixed people c. Spaniards were at the top, increasingly wanted a large measure of self-government from the Spanish Crown d. emergence of mestizo (mixed-race) population e. gross abuse and exploitation of the Indians f. more racial fluidity than in North AmericaC. Colonies of Sugar 1. lowland Brazil and the Caribbean developed a different society a. regions had not been home to great civilizations and didn’t have great mineral wealth until the 1690s b. but sugar was in high demand in Europe c. these colonies produced almost solely for export 2. Arabs introduced large-scale sugar production to the Mediterranean

a. Europeans transferred it to Atlantic islands and Americas

b. Portuguese on Brazilian coast dominated the world sugar market 1570–1670

c. then British, French, and Dutch in the Caribbean broke the Portuguese monopoly

3. sugar transformed Brazil and the Caribbean a. production was labor intensive, worked best on large scale b. can be called the first modern industry c. had always been produced with massive use of slave labor d. Indians of the area were almost totally wiped out or fled

e. planters turned to African slaves—at least 80 percent of all African captives enslaved in the Americas ended up in Brazil and the Caribbean

4. much more of Brazilian and Caribbean society was of African descent 5. large mixed-race population provided much of urban skilled workforce and supervisors in sugar industry 6. plantation complex based on African slavery spread to southern parts of North America a. but in North America, European women came earlier

b. result was less racial mixing, less tolerance toward mixed blood

c. sharply defined racial system evolved d. slavery was less harsh D. Settler Colonies in North America 1. a different sort of colonial society emerged in British colonies of New England, New York, and Pennsylvania

a. British got into the game late; got the unpromising lands

b. but British society was changing more rapidly than Catholic Spain

2. many British colonists were trying to escape elements of European society 3. British settlers were more numerous; by 1750, they outnumbered Spaniards in New World by five to one

a. by 1776, 90 percent of population of North American colonies was European

b. Indians were killed off by disease and military policy c. small-scale farming didn’t need slaves 4. England was mostly Protestant; didn’t proselytize like the Catholics 5. British colonies developed traditions of local self-government

a. Britain didn’t impose an elaborate bureaucracy like Spain

b. British civil war (seventeenth century) distracted government from involvement in the colonies 6. North America gradually became dominant, more developed than South America

IV. The Steppes and Siberia: The Making of a Russian EmpireA. A small Russian state centered on Moscow began to emerge ca. 1500. 1. Moscow began to conquer neighboring cities 2. over three centuries grew into a massive empire 3. early expansion into the grasslands to south and east was for security against nomads 4. expansion into Siberia was a matter of opportunity (especially furs), not threatB. Experiencing the Russian Empire 1. conquest was made possible by modern weapons and organization

2. conquest brought devastating epidemics, especially in remote areas of Siberia—locals had no immunity to smallpox and measles

3. pressure to convert to Christianity 4. large-scale settlement of Russians in the new lands, where they outnumbered the native population (e.g., in Siberia) 5. discouragement of pastoralism 6. many natives were RussifiedC. Russians and Empire 1. with imperial expansion, Russians became a smaller proportion of the overall population 2. rich agricultural lands, furs, and minerals helped make Russia a great power by the eighteenth century 3. became an Asian power as well as a European one 4. long-term Russian identity problem a. expansion made Russia a very militarized state b. reinforced autocracy 5. colonization experience was different from the Americas

a. conquest of territories with which Russia had long interacted

b. conquest took place at the same time as development of the Russian state

c. the Russian Empire remained intact until 1991

V. Asian EmpiresA. Asian empires were regional, not global. 1. creation of Asian empires did not include massive epidemics 2. did not fundamentally transform their homelands like interaction with the Americas and Siberia did for European powersB. Making China an Empire 1. Qing dynasty (1644–1912) launched enormous imperial expansion to the north and west 2. nomads of the north and west were very familiar to the Chinese a. 80-year-long Chinese conquest (1680–1760) b. motivated by security fears; reaction to Zunghar state 3. China evolved into a Central Asian empire 4. conquered territory was ruled separately from the rest of China through the Court of Colonial Affairs a. considerable use of local elites to govern b. officials often imitated Chinese ways c. but government did not try to assimilate conquered peoples d. little Chinese settlement in the conquered regions 5. Russian and Chinese rule impoverished Central Asia and turned it into a backward regionC. Muslims and Hindus in the Mughal Empire 1. Mughals united much of India between 1526 and 1707

2. the Mughal Empire’s most important divide was religious: 20 percent of the population were Muslims, while most of the rest were Hindus

3. Emperor Akbar (r. 1556–1605) attempted serious accommodation of the Hindu majority a. brought many Hindus into the political-military elite b. imposed a policy of toleration c. abolished payment of jizya by non-Muslims d. created a state cult that stressed loyalty to the emperor

e. Akbar and his successors encouraged a hybrid Indian-Persian-Turkic culture 4. Mughal toleration provoked reaction among some Muslims a. Emperor Aurangzeb (r. 1658–1707) reversed Mughal policy, tried to impose Islamic supremacy b. Aurangzeb banned sati (widow burning), music and dance at court, various vices c. destruction of some Hindu temples d. reimposition of jizya 5. Aurangzeb’s policy provoked Hindu reactionD. Muslims, Christians, and the Ottoman Empire 1. the Ottoman Empire was the Islamic world’s most important empire in the early modern period 2. long conflict (1534–1639) between Sunni Ottomans and Shia Safavids 3. the Ottoman Empire was the site of a significant cross-cultural encounter a. in Anatolia, most of the conquered Christians converted to Islam b. in the Balkans, Christian subjects mostly remained Christian 4. in the Balkans, many Christians welcomed Ottoman conquest a. Ottoman taxed less and were less oppressive b. Christian churches received considerable autonomy c. Balkan elites were accepted among the Ottoman elite without conversion 5. Jewish refugees from Spain had more opportunities in the Ottoman Empire 6. devshirme: tribute of boys paid by Christian Balkan communities a. boys were converted to Islam, trained to serve the state b. the devshirme was a means of upward social mobility 7. the Ottoman state threatened Christendom 8. some Europeans admired Ottoman rule a. philosopher Jean Bodin (sixteenth century) praised Ottoman religious tolerance b. European merchants evaded papal bans on selling firearms to the Turks c. Ottoman women enjoyed relative freedom

VI. Reflections: Countering Eurocentrism . . . or Reflecting It?A. The chapter brought together stories of European, Russian, Chinese, Mughal, and Ottoman colonization to counteract a

Eurocentric view of the early modern world.B. Western European empires still receive more discussion space because they were different and more significant than the others. 1. they were something wholly new in human history 2. they had a much greater impact on the people they incorporatedC. Eurocentrism continues to be a controversial issue among world historians.

Chapter 15

I. Opening Vignette

A. The Atlantic slave trade was and is enormously significant.

B. The slave trade was only one part of the international trading networks that shaped the world between 1450 and 1750.

1. Europeans broke into the Indian Ocean spice trade

2. American silver allowed greater European participation in the commerce of East Asia

3. fur trapping and trading changed commerce and the natural environment

C. Europeans were increasingly prominent in long-distance trade, but other peoples were also important.

D. Commerce and empire were the two forces that drove globalization between 1450 and 1750.

II. Europeans and Asian Commerce

A. Europeans wanted commercial connections with Asia .

1. Columbus and Vasco da Gama both sought a route to Asia

2. motivation above all was the desire for spices (though other Eastern products were also sought)

3. European civilization had recovered from the Black Death

4. national monarchies were learning to govern more effectively

5. some cities were becoming international trade centers

6. the problems of old trade systems from the Indian Ocean network

a. Muslims controlled supply

b. Venice was chief intermediary for trade with Alexandria ; other states resented it

c. desire to find Prester John and enlist his support in the Crusades

d. constant trade deficit with Asia

B. A Portuguese Empire of Commerce

1. Indian Ocean commerce was highly rich and diverse

2. Portuguese did not have goods of a quality for effective competition

3. Portuguese took to piracy on the sea lanes

a. Portuguese ships were more maneuverable, carried cannons

b. established fortified bases at key locations ( Mombasa , Hormuz, Goa, Malacca, Macao )

4. Portuguese created a “trading post empire”

a. goal was to control commerce, not territories or populations

b. operated by force of arms, not economic competition

c. at height, controlled about half of the spice trade to Europe

5. Portuguese gradually assimilated to Indian Ocean trade patterns

a. carried Asian goods to Asian ports

b. many Portuguese settled in Asian or African ports

c. their trading post empire was in steep decline by 1600

C. Spain and the Philippines

1. Spain was the first to challenge Portugal ’s control of Asian trade

2. establishment of a Spanish base in the Philippines

a. first encountered when Ferdinand Magellan circumnavigated the globe (1519–1521)

b. Philippines were organized in small, competitive chiefdoms

c. Spaniards established full colonial rule there (takeover occurred 1565–1650)

d. the Philippines remained a Spanish colonial territory until 1898, when the United States assumed control

3. major missionary campaign made Filipino society the only major Christian outpost in Asia

4. Spaniards introduced forced relocation, tribute, taxes, unpaid labor

a. large estates for Spanish settlers, religious orders, and Filipino elite

b. women’s ritual and healing roles were attacked

5. Manila became a major center with a diverse population

6. periodic revolts by the Chinese population; Spaniards expelled or massacred them several times

D. The East India Companies

1. Dutch and English both entered Indian Ocean commerce in the early seventeenth century

a. soon displaced the Portuguese

b. competed with each other

2. ca. 1600: both the Dutch and the English organized private trading companies to handle Indian Ocean trade

a. merchants invested, shared the risks

b. Dutch and British East India companies were chartered by their respective governments

c. had power to make war and govern conquered peoples

3. established their own trading post empires

a. Dutch empire was focused on Indonesia

b. English empire was focused on India

c. French company was also established

4. Dutch East India Company

a. controlled both shipping and production of cloves, cinnamon, nutmeg, and mace

b. seized small spice-producing islands and forced people to sell only to the Dutch

c. destroyed the local economy of the Spice Islands ; made the Dutch rich

5. British East India Company

a. was not as well financed or as commercially sophisticated as the Dutch; couldn’t break into the Spice Islands

b. established three major trade settlements in India during the seventeenth century: Bombay , Calcutta , and Madras

c. British navy gained control of Arabian Sea and Persian Gulf

d. could not compete with the Mughal Empire on land

e. negotiated with local rulers for peaceful establishment of trade bases

f. Britons traded pepper and other spices, but cotton textiles became more important

6. Dutch and English also became involved in “carrying trade” within Asia

7. both gradually evolved into typical colonial domination

E. Asian Commerce

1. European presence was much less significant in Asia than in Americas or Africa

2. Europeans were no real military threat to Asia

3. the case of Japan

a. Portuguese reached Japan in the mid-sixteenth century

b. Japan at the time was divided by constant conflict among feudal lords (daimyo) supported by samurai

c. at first, Europeans were welcome

d. but Japan unified politically under the Tokugawa shogun in the early seventeenth century

i. increasingly regarded Europeans as a threat to unity

ii. expulsion of missionaries, massive persecution of Christians

iii. Japanese were barred from travel abroad

iv. Europeans were banned, except the Dutch at a single site

e. Japan was closed off from Europe from 1650 to 1850

4. Asian merchants continued to operate, despite European presence

a. overland trade within Asia remained in Asian hands

b. tens of thousands of Indian merchants lived throughout Central Asia, Persia , and Russia

III. Silver and Global Commerce

A. The silver trade was even more important than the spice trade in creating a global exchange network.

1. enormous silver deposits were discovered in Bolivia and Japan in the mid-sixteenth century

2. in the early modern period, Spanish America produced around 85 percent of the world’s silver

B. China’s economy was huge and had a growing demand for silver.

1. 1570s: the Chinese government consolidated taxes into a single tax to be paid in silver

a. value of silver skyrocketed

b. foreigners with silver could purchase more Chinese products than before

C. Silver was central to world trade.

1. “silver drain” to Asia: bulk of the world’s silver supply ended up in China (most of the rest reached other parts of Asia )

2. Spanish silver brought to Europe was used to buy Asian goods

3. silver bought African slaves and Asian spices

4. the Spanish “piece of eight” was widely used for international exchange

5. Potosí , Bolivia , became the largest city in the Americas (population: 160,000) because it was at the world’s largest silver mine

a. the city’s wealthy European elite lived in luxury

b. Native American miners lived in horrid conditions

D. Silver vastly enriched the Spanish monarchy.

1. caused inflation, not real economic growth in Spain

a. Spanish economy was too rigid

b. Spanish aristocrats were against economic enterprise

2. Spain lost its dominance when the value of silver fell ca. 1600

E. The Japanese government profited more from silver production than did Spain .

1. Tokugawa shoguns used silver revenues to defeat rivals and unify the country

2. worked with the merchant class to develop a market-based economy

3. heavy investment in agriculture and industry

4. averted ecological crisis, limited population growth

F. In China , silver further commercialized the country’s economy.

1. people needed to sell something to obtain silver to pay their taxes

2. economy became more regionally specialized

3. deforestation was a growing problem; wasn’t addressed as it was in Japan

G. Europeans were essentially middlemen in world trade.

1. funneled American silver to Asia

2. Asian commodities took market share from European products

IV. The “World Hunt”: Fur in Global Commerce

A. Europe’s supply of fur-bearing animals was sharply diminished by 1500.

B. There was intense competition for the furs of North America .

1. French were prominent in St. Lawrence valley, Great Lakes, and along the Mississippi

2. British traders moved into Hudson Bay region

3. Dutch moved into what is now New York

C. North American fur trade

1. Europeans usually traded with Indians for furs or skins, rather than hunting or trapping animals themselves

2. beaver and other furry animals were driven to near extinction

3. by the 1760s, hunters in the southeastern British colonies took around 500,000 deer every year

4. trade was profitable for the Indians

a. received many goods of real value

b. Huron chiefs enhanced their authority with control of European goods

c. but Indians fell prey to European diseases

d. fur trade generated much higher levels of inter-Indian warfare

5. Native Americans became dependent on European trade goods.

a. iron tools and cooking pots

b. gunpowder weapons

c. European textiles

d. as a result, many traditional crafts were lost

e. many animal species were depleted through overhunting

f. alcohol’s deeply destructive effect on Indian societies

D. Russian fur trade

1. profits of fur trade were the chief incentive for Russian expansion

2. had a similar toll on native Siberians as it had on Indians

a. dependence on Russian goods

b. depletion of fur-bearing animal populations

3. Russians didn’t have competition, so they forced Siberians to provide furs instead of negotiating commercial agreements

4. private Russian hunters and trappers competed directly with Siberians

V. Commerce in People: The Atlantic Slave Trade

A. Between 1500 and 1866, the Atlantic slave trade took an estimated 12.5 million people from Africa and deposited some 10.7 million of them in the Americas .

1. around 1.8 million died during the transatlantic crossing

2. millions more died in the process of capture and transport to the African coast

3. vast human tragedy

4. African slave trade transformed the societies of all participants

a. the African diaspora created racially mixed societies in the Americas

b. slave trade and slavery enriched many

c. slavery became a metaphor for many types of social oppression

B. The Slave Trade in Context

1. most human societies have had slaves

2. Africans had practiced slavery and sold slaves for centuries

a. trans-Saharan trade took slaves to the Mediterranean world

b. East African slave trade

3. slavery took many forms, depending on the region and time period

a. slaves were often assimilated into their owners’ households

b. children of slaves were sometimes free, sometimes slaves

c. Islamic world preferred female slaves; Atlantic slave trade favored males

d. not all slaves had lowly positions (in Islamic world, many slaves had military or political status)

e. most premodern slaves worked in households, farms, or shops

4. distinctiveness of slavery in the Americas

a. the scale and importance of the slave trade in the Americas was enormous

b. largely based on plantation agriculture, with slaves denied any rights at all

c. slave status was inherited

d. little hope of manumission

e. widespread slavery in society that valued human freedom and equality—unlike anywhere else except maybe ancient Greece

f. slavery was wholly identified with Africa and with “blackness”

5. origins of Atlantic slavery lay in the Mediterranean and with sugar production

a. sugar production was the first “modern” industry (major capital investment, technology, disciplined workers, mass market)

b. the work was very difficult and dangerous—slaves were ideal

c. at first, Slavs from the Black Sea region provided most slaves for Mediterranean sugar plantations

d. Portuguese found an alternative slave source in West Africa

6. Africans became the primary source of slave labor for the Americas

a. Slavs weren’t available

b. Indians died of European diseases

c. Europeans were a bad alternative: Christians from marginal lands couldn’t be enslaved; indentured servants were expensive

d. Africans were farmers, had some immunity to diseases, were not Christian, and were readily available

e. much debate over how much racism was involved

C. The Slave Trade in Practice

1. slave trade was driven by European demand

2. but Europeans didn’t raid Africa for slaves; they traded freely with African merchants and elites

a. from capture to sale on the coast, trade was in African hands

b. Africans received trade goods in return, often bought with American silver

3. destabilization of African societies

a. many smaller societies were completely disrupted by slave raids from their neighbors

b. even larger states were affected (e.g., kingdom of Kongo )

c. some African slave traders were themselves enslaved by unscrupulous Europeans

4. increasing pace of Atlantic slave trade

a. during the sixteenth century, annual slave exports from Africa averaged under 3,000 annually

b. in the seventeenth century, average of 10,000 slaves per year taken to the Americas

5. Who was enslaved?

a. people from West Africa (present-day Mauritania to Angola )

b. mostly people from marginal groups (prisoners of war, debtors, criminals)

c. Africans generally did not sell their own peoples

6. 80 percent of slaves ended up in Brazil and the Caribbean

a. 5–6 percent in North America

b. the rest in mainland Spanish America or in Europe

c. about 15 percent of those enslaved died during the Middle Passage

D. Comparing Consequences: The Impact of the Slave Trade in Africa

1. created new transregional linkages

2. slowed Africa’s growth, while Europe and China expanded in population

a. sub-Saharan Africa had about 18 percent of the world’s population in 1600 but only 6 percent in 1900

b. slave trade generated economic stagnation and political disruption in Africa

i. those who profited in the trade did not invest in production

ii. did not generate breakthroughs in agriculture or industry—since Europeans didn’t increase demand for Africa ’s products, just for its people

3. political effects

a. some kingdoms (Kongo, Oyo) gradually disintegrated

b. some took advantage of the slave trade

c. Benin was one of the most developed states of the coastal hinterland

i. state dates back to about the eleventh century c.e. ii. monarch (oba) controlled trade iii. largely avoided involvement in the slave trade iv. diversified its exports d. Aja-speaking peoples to the west of Benin i. slave trade disrupted several small, weak states ii. inland kingdom of Dahomey rose in the early eighteenth century iii. was a highly authoritarian state iv. turned to deep involvement in the slave trade, but under royal control v. annual slave raids by the army vi. government depended on slave trade for revenue VI. Reflections: Economic Globalization—Then and NowA. A study of global commerce in the early modern period shows both how different from and how similar we are to people of the past.B. Globalization isn’t just a twentieth-century phenomenon. 1. but early modern globalization was much slower and on a smaller scale 2. early modern globalization was not yet centered on Western civilizations 3. early modern economic life was mostly preindustrial 4. early modern globalization was tied to empire building and slavery

Chapter 16

I. Opening VignetteA. In the early modern world, the West spread Christianity to Asians, Africans, and Native Americans. At the same time, the West

developed a modern scientific outlook that sharply challenged Western Christianity. 1. Christianity achieved a global presence for the first time 2. the Scientific Revolution fostered a different approach to the world 3. there is continuing tension between religion and science in the Western worldB. The early modern period was a time of cultural transformation. 1. both Christianity and scientific thought connected distant peoples 2. Scientific Revolution also caused new cultural encounter, between science and religion 3. science became part of the definition of global modernityC. Europeans were central players, but they did not act alone.

II. The Globalization of ChristianityA. In 1500, Christianity was mostly limited to Europe. 1. small communities in Egypt, Ethiopia, southern India, and Central Asia 2. serious divisions within Christianity (Roman Catholic vs. Eastern Orthodox) 3. on the defensive against Islam

a. loss of the Holy Land by 1300 b. fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans in 1453 c. Ottoman siege of Vienna in 1529 B. Western Christendom Fragmented: The Protestant Reformation 1. Protestant Reformation began in 1517 a. Martin Luther posted the Ninety-five Theses, asking for debate about ecclesiastical abuses b. Luther was one of many who criticized the Roman Catholic Church c. Luther’s protest was more deeply grounded in theological difference

d. put forth a new understanding of salvation as coming through faith alone rather than through good works, with the Bible, not Church teaching, as the source of religious authority

e. questioned the special role of the clerical hierarchy (including the pope) 2. Luther’s ideas provoked a massive schism in Catholic Christendom a. fed on political, economic, and social tension, not just religious differences b. some monarchs used Luther to justify independence from the papacy c. gave a new religious legitimacy to the middle class d. commoners were attracted to the new religious ideas as a tool for protest against the whole social order 3. many women were attracted to Protestantism, but the Reformation didn’t give them a greater role in church or society a. Protestants ended veneration of Mary and other female saints b. Protestants closed convents, which had given some women an alternative to marriage c. only Quakers among the Protestants gave women an official role in their churches d. some increase in the education of women, because of emphasis on Bible reading 4. the recently invented printing press helped Reformation thought spread rapidly 5. as the Reformation spread, it splintered into an array of competing Protestant churches 6. religious difference made Europe’s fractured political system even more volatile a. 1562–1598: French Wars of Religion (Catholics vs. Huguenots) b. 1618–1648: the Thirty Years’ War 7. Protestant Reformation provoked a Catholic Counter-Reformation a. Council of Trent (1545–1563) clarified Catholic doctrines and practices b. corrected the abuses and corruption that the Protestants had protested c. new emphasis on education and supervision of priests d. crackdown on dissidents e. new attention given to individual spirituality and piety f. new religious orders (e.g., the Society of Jesus [Jesuits]) were committed to renewal and expansion 8. the Reformation encouraged skepticism toward authority and tradition a. fostered religious individualism

b. in the following centuries, the Protestant habit of independent thinking led to skepticism about all revealed religion

C. Christianity Outward Bound 1. Christianity motivated and benefited from European expansion a. Spaniards and Portuguese saw overseas expansion as a continuation of crusading tradition b. explorers combined religious and material interests 2. imperialism made the globalization of Christianity possible a. settlers and traders brought their religion with them b. missionaries, mostly Catholic, actively spread Christianity c. missionaries were most successful in Spanish America and the PhilippinesD. Conversion and Adaptation in Spanish America

1. process of population collapse, conquest, and resettlement made Native Americans receptive to the conquering religion

2. Europeans claimed exclusive religious truth, tried to destroy traditional religions instead of accommodating them a. occasional campaigns of destruction against the old religions b. some overt resistance movements (e.g., Taki Onqoy in central Peru) 3. blending of two religious traditions was more common

a. local gods (huacas) remained influential b. immigrant Christianity took on patterns of pre-Christian life c. Christian saints took on functions of precolonial gods d. leader of the church staff (fiscal) was a prestigious native who carried on the role of earlier religious specialists e. many rituals survived, often with some Christian influenceE. An Asian Comparison: China and the Jesuits 1. Christianity reached China during the powerful, prosperous Ming and Qing dynasties a. called for a different missionary strategy; needed government permission for operation b. Jesuits especially targeted the official Chinese elite 2. no mass conversion in China a. some scholars and officials converted b. Jesuits were appreciated for mathematical, astronomical, technological, and cartographical skills c. missionary efforts gained 200,000–300,000 converts in 250 years 3. missionaries didn’t offer much that the Chinese needed a. Christianity was clearly an all-or-nothing religion that would call for rejection of much Chinese culture b. early eighteenth century: papacy and other missionary orders opposed Jesuit accommodation policy

III. Persistence and Change in Afro-Asian Cultural TraditionsA. African religious elements accompanied slaves to the Americas

1. development of Africanized forms of Christianity in the Americas, with divination, dream interpretation, visions, spirit possession

2. Europeans often tried to suppress African elements as sorcery 3. persistence of syncretic religions (Vodou, Santeria, Candomble, Macumba)B. Expansion and Renewal in the Islamic World 1. continued spread of Islam depended not on conquest but on wandering holy men, scholars, and traders 2. the syncretism of Islamization was increasingly offensive to orthodox Muslims a. helped provoke movements of religious renewal in the eighteenth century b. series of jihads in West Africa (eighteenth/early nineteenth centuries) attacked corrupt Islamic practices c. growing tension between localized and “pure” Islam 3. the most well-known Islamic renewal movement of the period was Wahhabism a. developed in the Arabian Peninsula in mid-eighteenth century b. founder Abd al-Wahhab (1703–1792) was a theologian c. aimed to restore absolute monotheism, end veneration of saints d. aimed to restore strict adherence to the sharia (Islamic law)

e. movement developed a political element when Abd al-Wahhab allied with Muhammad Ibn Saud; led to creation of a state

f. the state was “purified”

g. the political power of the Wahhabis was broken in 1818, but the movement remained influential in Islamic world

h. reform movements persisted and became associated with resistance to Western cultural intrusionC. China: New Directions in an Old Tradition 1. Chinese and Indian cultural/religious change wasn’t as dramatic as what occurred in Europe a. Confucian and Hindu cultures didn’t spread widely in early modern period b. but neither remained static 2. Ming and Qing dynasty China still operated within a Confucian framework a. addition of Buddhist and Daoist thought led to creation of Neo-Confucianism b. both dynasties embraced the Confucian tradition 3. considerable amount of debate and new thinking in China

a. Wang Yangming (1472–1529): anyone can achieve a virtuous life by introspection, without Confucian education

b. Chinese Buddhists also tried to make religion more accessible to commoners—withdrawal from the world not necessary for enlightenment

c. similarity to Martin Luther’s argument that individuals could seek salvation without help from a priestly

hierarchy d. kaozheng (“research based on evidence”) was a new direction in Chinese elite culture 4. lively popular culture among the less well educated a. production of plays, paintings, and literature b. great age of novels, such as Cao Xueqin’s The Dream of the Red Chamber (mid-eighteenth century)D. India: Bridging the Hindu/Muslim Divide 1. several movements brought Hindus and Muslims together in new forms of religious expression 2. bhakti movement was especially important a. devotional Hinduism b. effort to achieve union with the divine through songs, prayers, dances, poetry, and rituals c. appealed especially to women d. often set aside caste distinctions e. much common ground with Sufism, helped to blur the line between Islam and Hinduism in India f. Mirabai (1498–1547) is one of the best-loved bhakti poets 3. growth of Sikhism, a religion that blended Islam and Hinduism

a. founder Guru Nanak (1469–1539) had been part of the bhakti movement; came to believe that Islam and Hinduism were one

b. Nanak and his successors set aside caste distinctions and proclaimed essential equality of men and women c. gradually developed as a new religion of the Punjab d. evolved into a militant community in response to hostility

IV. A New Way of Thinking: The Birth of Modern Science

A. The Scientific Revolution was an intellectual and cultural transformation that occurred between the mid-sixteenth century and the early eighteenth century.

1. was based on careful observations, controlled experiments, and formulation of general laws to explain the world 2. creators of the movement saw themselves as making a radical departure 3. Scientific Revolution was vastly significant a. fundamentally altered ideas about the place of humankind within the cosmos b. challenged the teachings and authority of the Church c. challenged ancient social hierarchies and political systems d. also used to legitimize racial and gender inequality e. by the twentieth century, science had become the chief symbol of modernity around the worldB. The Question of Origins: Why Europe? 1. the Islamic world was the most scientifically advanced realm in period 800–1400

2. China’s technological accomplishments and economic growth were unmatched for several centuries after the millennium

3. but European conditions were uniquely favorable to rise of science

a. evolution of a legal system that guaranteed some independence for a variety of institutions by twelfth/thirteenth centuries

b. idea of the “corporation”—collective group treated as a legal unit with certain rights c. universities became zones of intellectual autonomy 4. in the Islamic world, science remained mostly outside of the system of higher education 5. Chinese authorities did not permit independent institutions of higher learning a. Chinese education focused on preparing for civil service exams b. emphasis was on classical Confucian texts 6. Western Europe could draw on the knowledge of other cultures, especially that of the Arab world 7. sixteenth–eighteenth centuries: Europeans were at the center of a massive new information exchange a. tidal wave of knowledge shook up old ways of thinking b. explosion of uncertainty and skepticism allowed modern science to emergeC. Science as Cultural Revolution 1. dominant educated-European view of the world before the Scientific Revolution, derived from Aristotle and Ptolemy: a. the earth is stationary and at the center of the universe, with sun, moon, and stars revolving around it b. a universe of divine purpose

2. initial breakthrough was by Nicolaus Copernicus a. On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres (1543) b. promoted the view that the earth and the planets revolved around the sun 3. other scientists built on Copernicus’s insight a. some argued that there were other inhabited worlds b. Johannes Kepler demonstrated elliptical orbits of the planets c. Galileo Galilei developed an improved telescope 4. Sir Isaac Newton was the apogee of the Scientific Revolution a. formulated laws of motion and mechanics b. central concept: universal gravitation c. natural laws govern both the micro- and the macrocosm 5. by Newton’s death, educated Europeans had a fundamentally different view of the physical universe a. not propelled by angels and spirits but functioned according to mathematical principles b. the “machine of the universe” is self-regulating c. knowledge of the universe can be obtained through reason 6. the human body also became less mysterious 7. Catholic Church strenuously opposed much of this thinking a. burning of Giordano Bruno in 1600 for proclaiming an infinite universe b. Galileo was forced to renounce his belief that the earth moved around an orbit and rotated on its axis c. but no early scientists rejected ChristianityD. Science and Enlightenment 1. ideas of the Scientific Revolution gradually reached a wider European audience 2. scientific approach to knowledge was applied to human affairs a. Adam Smith (1723–1790) formulated economic laws b. people believed that scientific development would bring “enlightenment” to humankind 3. Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) defined Enlightenment as a “daring to know” 4. Enlightenment thinkers believed that knowledge could transform human society a. tended to be satirical, critical, and hostile to established authorities b. attacked arbitrary government, divine right, and aristocratic privilege c. John Locke (1632–1704) articulated ideas of constitutional government d. many writers advocated education for women 5. much Enlightenment thought attacked established religion a. in his Treatise on Toleration, Voltaire (1694–1778) attacked the narrow particularism of organized religion

b. many Enlightenment thinkers were deists, believing in a remote deity who created the world but doesn’t intervene

c. some were pantheists—equated God and nature d. some even regarded religion as a fraud

e. example of Confucianism—supposedly secular, moral, rational and tolerant—encouraged Enlightenment

thinkers to imagine a future for European civilization without the kind of supernatural religion they found so offensive in the Christian West

6. Enlightenment thought was influenced by growing global awareness 7. central theme of Enlightenment: the idea of progress 8. some thinkers reacted against too much reliance on human reason a. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778) argued for immersion in nature rather than book learning b. the Romantic movement appealed to emotion and imagination c. religious awakenings made an immense emotional appealE. Looking Ahead: Science in the Nineteenth Century 1. modern science was cumulative and self-critical

2. in the nineteenth century, science was applied to new sorts of inquiry; in some ways, it undermined Enlightenment assumptions

3. Charles Darwin (1809–1882) argued that all of life was in flux 4. Karl Marx (1818–1883) presented human history as a process of change and struggle

5. Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) cast doubt on human rationalityF. European Science beyond the West 1. science became the most widely desired product of European culture 2. Chinese had selective interest in Jesuits’ teaching a. most interested in astronomy and mathematics b. European science had substantial impact on the Chinese kaozheng movement 3. Japan kept up some European contact via trade with the Dutch a. import of Western books allowed, starting in 1720 b. a small group of Japanese scholars was interested in Western texts, anatomical studies in particular 4. Ottoman Empire chose not to translate major European scientific works a. Ottoman scholars were only interested in ideas of practical utility (e.g., maps, calendars) b. Islamic educational system was conservative, made it hard for theoretical science to do well

V. Reflections: Cultural Borrowing and Its HazardsA. Ideas shape peoples’ mental or cultural worlds and influence behavior.B. The development of early modern ideas took place in an environment of great cultural borrowing. 1. borrowing was selective 2. borrowing sometimes caused serious conflict 3. foreign ideas and practices were often “domesticated”

Chapter 17

I. Opening Vignette

A. In 1989, celebration of the bicentennial of the French Revolution coincided with the Chinese government’s crackdown on demonstrators in Tiananmen Square.

1. The French Revolution was the centerpiece of a revolutionary process all around the Atlantic world between 1775 and 1875

2. Atlantic revolutions had an impact far beyond the Atlantic world a. French invasions of Egypt, Poland, and Russia b. inspired efforts to abolish slavery, give women greater rights, and extend the franchise in many countries c. nationalism was shaped by revolutions d. principles of equality eventually gave birth to socialism and communism

II. Comparing Atlantic RevolutionsA. The revolutions of North America, Europe, Haiti, and Latin America influenced each other. 1. they also shared a set of common ideas 2. grew out of the European Enlightenment a. notion that it is possible to engineer, and improve, political and social life b. traditional ways of thinking were no longer sacrosanct

3. the core political idea was “popular sovereignty”—that the authority to govern comes from the people, not from God or tradition

4. except in Haiti, the main beneficiaries of the Atlantic revolutions were middle-class white males a. but in the long term, the revolutions gave ammunition to groups without political rights

b. their goal was to extend political rights further than ever before, thus they can be called “democratic revolutions”

5. considerable differences between the Atlantic revolutionsB. The North American Revolution, 1775–1787 1. basic facts of the American Revolution are well known 2. a bigger question is what it changed 3. American Revolution was a conservative political movement a. aimed to preserve colonial liberties, rather than gain new ones b. for most of seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the British North American colonies had much local

autonomy c. colonists regarded autonomy as their birthright d. few thought of breaking away from Britain before 1750 4. colonial society a. was far more egalitarian than in Europe b. in manners, they were republican well before the revolution 5. Britain made a new drive to control the colonies and get more revenue from them in the 1760s a. Britain needed money for its global war with France b. imposed a number of new taxes and tariffs on the colonies c. colonists were not represented in the British parliament d. appeared to deny the colonists’ identity as true Englishmen e. challenged colonial economic interests f. attacked established traditions of local autonomy 6. British North America was revolutionary for the society that had already emerged, not for the revolution itself a. no significant social transformation came with independence from Britain b. accelerated democratic tendencies that were already established c. political power remained in the hands of existing elites 7. Many Americans thought they were creating a new world order a. overseas supporters acclaimed the United States as “the hope and model of the human race” b. declaration of the “right to revolution” inspired other colonies around the world c. the U.S. Constitution was one of the first lasting efforts to put Enlightenment political ideas into practiceC. The French Revolution, 1789–1815 1. thousands of French soldiers had fought for the American revolutionaries 2. French government was facing bankruptcy a. had long attempted to modernize the tax system and make it fairer, but was opposed by the privileged classes b. King Louis XVI called the Estates General into session in a new effort to raise taxes c. first two estates (clergy and nobility) were about 2 percent of population; third estate included everybody else

3. when the Estates General convened in 1789, third estate representatives broke loose and declared themselves the National Assembly

a. drew up the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen b. launched the French Revolution 4. unlike the American Revolution, the French rising was driven by pronounced social conflicts a. titled nobility resisted monarchic efforts to tax them b. middle class resented aristocratic privileges c. urban poor suffered from inflation and unemployment d. the peasants were oppressed 5. Enlightenment ideas gave people a language to articulate grievances 6. French Revolution was more violent, far-reaching, and radical than American Revolution a. ended hereditary privilege b. even abolished slavery (for a time) c. the Church was subjected to government authority d. king and queen were executed (1793) e. the Terror (1793–1794) killed tens of thousands of people regarded as enemies of the revolution 7. effort to create a wholly new society a. 1792 became Year I of a new calendar b. briefly passed a law for universal male suffrage c. France was divided into 83 territorial departments d. created a massive army (some 800,000 men) to fight threatening neighbors e. spurt of nationalism, with revolutionary state at the center f. radicals especially pushed the idea of new beginnings 8. influence of French Revolution spread through conquest a. Napoleon Bonaparte (r. 1799–1814) seized power in 1799

b. preserved many moderate elements of the revolution c. kept social equality, but got rid of liberty d. subdued most of Europe e. imposed revolutionary practices on conquered regions f. resentment of French domination stimulated national consciousness throughout EuropeD. The Haitian Revolution, 1791–1804 1. Saint Domingue (later called Haiti) was a French Caribbean colony a. regarded as the richest colony in the world b. vast majority of population were slaves 2. example of the French Revolution sparked a spiral of violence a. but revolution meant different things to different people b. massive slave revolt began in 1791 c. became a war between a number of factions d. power gradually shifted to the slaves, who were led by former slave Toussaint Louverture 3. the result was a unique revolution—the only completely successful slave revolt in world history a. renamed the country Haiti (“mountainous” or “rugged” in Taino) b. identified themselves with the original native inhabitants c. declared equality for all races d. divided up plantations among small farmers 4. Haiti’s success generated great hope and great fear a. created new “insolence” among slaves elsewhere, inspired other slave rebellions b. caused horror among whites, led to social conservatism c. increased slavery elsewhere, as plantations claimed Haiti’s market share d. Napoleon’s defeat in Haiti convinced him to sell Louisiana Territory to the United StatesE. Spanish American Revolutions, 1810–1825 1. Latin American revolutions were inspired by earlier revolutionary movements

2. native-born elites (creoles) in Spanish colonies of Latin America were offended at the Spanish monarchy’s efforts to control them in the eighteenth century

3. reasons why Latin American independence movements were limited at first a. little tradition of local self-government b. society was more authoritarian, with stricter class divisions c. whites were vastly outnumbered 4. creole elites had revolution thrust upon them by events in Europe a. 1808: Napoleon invaded Spain and Portugal, put royal authority in disarray b. Latin Americans were forced to take action c. most of Latin America was independent by 1826 5. longer process than in North America a. Latin American societies were torn by class, race, and regional divisions b. fear of social rebellion from below shaped the whole independence movement

6. leaders of independence movements appealed to the lower classes in terms of nativism: all free people born in the Americas were Americanos

a. many whites and mestizos regarded themselves as Spanish b. but many leaders were liberals, influenced by the ideals of the Enlightenment and the French Revolution c. in reality, lower classes, Native Americans, and slaves got little benefit from independence 7. it proved impossible to unite the various Spanish colonies, unlike the United States a. distances were greater` b. colonial experiences were different c. stronger regional identities` 8. after Latin America gained independence, its traditional relationship with North America was gradually reversed a. the United States grew wealthier and more democratic, became stable b. Latin American countries became increasingly underdeveloped, impoverished, undemocratic, and unstable

III. Echoes of Revolution

A. Smaller revolutions occurred in Europe in 1830, 1848, and 1870. 1. led to greater social equality and liberation from foreign rule

2. enlarged voting rights: by 1914, major states of Western Europe, the United States, and Argentina had universal male suffrage

3. even in Russia, there was a constitutional movement in 1825 4. abolitionist, nationalist, and feminist movements arose to question other patterns of exclusion and oppressionB. The Abolition of Slavery 1. slavery was largely ended around the world between 1780 and 1890 2. Enlightenment thinkers were increasingly critical of slavery a. American and French revolutions focused attention on slaves’ lack of liberty and equality

b. religious groups, especially Quakers and Protestant evangelicals, became increasingly vocal in opposition to slavery

c. growing belief that slavery wasn’t necessary for economic progress

3. three major slave rebellions in the British West Indies showed that slaves were discontent; brutality of suppression appalled people

4. abolitionist movements were most powerful in Britain a. 1807: Britain forbade the sale of slaves within its empire b. 1834: Britain emancipated all slaves c. other nations followed suit, under growing international pressure d. most Latin American countries abolished slavery by 1850s e. emancipation of the Russian serfs (1861) 5. resistance to abolition was vehement among interested parties 6. abolition often didn’t lead to the expected results a. usually there was little improvement in the economic lives of former slaves

b. unwillingness of former slaves to work on plantations led to a new wave of global migration, especially from India and China

c. few of the newly freed gained anything like political equality d. most former Russian serfs remained impoverished e. more slaves were used within Africa to produce export cropsC. Nations and Nationalism 1. revolutionary movements gave new prominence to more recent kind of human community—the nation

a. idea that humans are divided into separate nations, each with a distinct culture and territory and deserving an independent political life

b. before the nineteenth century, foreign rule in itself wasn’t regarded as heinous c. most important loyalties were to clan, village, or region 2. independence movements acted in the name of new nations 3. erosion of older identities and loyalties a. science weakened the hold of religion b. migration to cities or abroad weakened local allegiances c. printing standardized languages 4. nationalism was often presented as a reawakening of older cultural identities 5. nationalism was enormously powerful in the nineteenth century a. inspired political unification of Germany and Italy b. inspired separatist movements by Greeks, Serbs, Czechs, Hungarians, Poles, Ukrainians, the Irish, and Jews c. fueled preexisting rivalry among European states 6. nationalism took on a variety of political ideologies a. “civic nationalism” identified the “nation” with a particular territory, encouraged assimilation b. some defined the nation in racial terms (e.g., Germany) 7. nationalism was not limited to EuropeD. Feminist Beginnings 1. a feminist movement developed in the nineteenth century, especially in Europe and North America 2. European Enlightenment thinkers sometimes challenged the idea that women were innately inferior a. during the French Revolution, some women argued that liberty and equality must include women

b. more educational opportunities and less household drudgery for middle-class women c. women increasingly joined temperance movements, charities, abolitionist movements, missionary work, etc. d. maternal feminism: argued women’s distinctive role as mothers 3. first organized expression of feminism: women’s rights conference in Seneca Falls, New York, in 1848 4. feminist movement was transatlantic from the beginning 5. by the 1870s, movements focused above all on suffrage a. became a middle-class, not just elite, movement b. most worked through peaceful protest and persuasion c. became a mass movement in the most industrialized countries by turn of century 6. by 1900: a. some women had been admitted to universities b. women’s literacy rates were rising c. some U.S. states passed laws allowing women to control their property and wages d. some areas liberalized divorce laws e. some women made their way into new professions: teaching, nursing, social work f. 1893: New Zealand became first country to grant universal female suffrage 7. the movement led to discussion of the role of women in modern society a. taboo sexual topics were aired b. deep debates over women’s proper roles 8. bitter opposition a. some argued that strains of education and life beyond the home would cause reproductive damage b. some saw suffragists, Jews, and socialists as “a foreign body” in national life 9. feminism spread beyond Europe and the United States, but less widely than nationalism

IV. Reflections: Revolutions Pro and ConA. The legacies of the Atlantic revolutions are still controversial. 1. to some people, they opened new worlds of human potential 2. but the revolutions also had many victims, critics, and opponents a. conservatives believed that societies were organisms that should evolve slowly; radical change invited disaster b. argued that revolutions were largely unnecessaryB. Historians also struggle with the pros and cons of revolutionary movements.

Chapter 18

I. Opening VignetteA. Mahatma Gandhi criticized industrialization as economic exploitation. 1. few people have agreed with him

2. every kind of society has embraced at least the idea of industrialization since it started in Great Britain in the late eighteenth century

B. The Industrial Revolution was one of the most significant elements of Europe’s modern transformation. 1. initial industrialization period was 1750–1900 2. drew on the Scientific Revolution 3. utterly transformed European society 4. pushed Europe into a position of global dominance 5. was more fundamental than any breakthrough since the Agricultural Revolution

II. Explaining the Industrial RevolutionA. The global context for the Industrial Revolution lies in a very substantial increase in human numbers from about 375 million

people in 1400 to about 1 billion in the early nineteenth century. Accompanying this growth was the utilization of fossil fuels, which made unprecedented proportions of energy available for human use. Access to this new energy gave rise to an enormously increased output of goods and services.

1. use of new energy sources (steam engines, petroleum engines) 2. in Britain, output increased some fiftyfold in the period 1750–1900 3. based on a “culture of innovation” 4. before 1750/1800, the major Eurasian civilizations were about equal technologically 5. greatest breakthrough was the steam engine a. soon spread from the textile industry to many other types of production b. agriculture was transformed 6. spread from Britain to Western Europe, then to the United States, Russia, and JapanB. Why Europe?

1. many scholars have debated why industrialization appeared first in Great Britain, and why it started in the late nineteenth century

2. earlier views attributing it to something unique in European society or culture have been challenged by:

a. the fact that other parts of the world (e.g., China, the Islamic world) have had times of great technological and scientific flourishing

b. the fact that Europe did not enjoy any overall economic advantage as late as 1750 c. the rapid spread of industrial techniques to much of the world in the past 250 years

3. contemporary historians tend to see the Industrial Revolution as a rather quick and unexpected eruption in the period 1750–1850

4. why it might have occurred in Europe a. some patterns of European internal development favored innovation b. European rulers had an unusual alliance with merchant classes 5. other societies developed market-based economies by the eighteenth century (e.g., Japan, India, and China) a. but Europe was at the center of the most varied exchange network b. contact with culturally different peoples encouraged change and innovation c. the Americas provided silver, raw materials, and foodsC. Why Britain? 1. Britain was the most commercialized of Europe’s larger countries a. small farmers had been pushed out (enclosure movement) b. market production fueled by a number of agricultural innovations c. guilds had largely disappeared 2. ready supply of industrial workers with few options 3. British aristocrats were interested in commerce 4. British commerce was worldwide 5. British political life encouraged commercialization and economic innovation a. policy of religious toleration (established 1688) welcomed people with technical skills regardless of faith b. British government imposed tariffs to protect its businessmen c. it was easy to form companies and forbid workers’ unions d. unified internal market, thanks to road and canal system e. patent laws protected inventors’ interests f. checks on royal authority gave more room for private enterprise 6. emphasis of the Scientific Revolution was different in Great Britain a. on the continent: logic, deduction, mathematical reasoning b. in Britain: observation and experiment, measurement, mechanical c. in Britain, artisan/craftsman inventors were in close contact with scientists and entrepreneurs d. the British Royal Society (founded 1660) took the role of promoting “useful knowledge” 7. Britain had plenty of coal and iron ore, often conveniently located 8. Britain was not devastated by the Napoleonic wars 9. social change was possible without revolution

III. The First Industrial SocietyA. There was a massive increase in output as industrialization took hold in Britain. 1. rapid development of railroad systems

2. much of the dramatic increase was in mining, manufacturing, and services

3. agriculture became less important by comparison (in 1891, agriculture generated only 8 percent of British national income)

4. vast transformation of daily life a. it was a traumatic process for many b. different people were affected in different waysB. The British Aristocracy 1. landowning aristocrats had little material loss in the Industrial Revolution 2. but the aristocracy declined, because urban wealth became more important a. many businessmen, manufacturers, and bankers were enriched b. aristocrats had declining political clout c. by 1900, businessmen led the major political parties 3. titled nobles retained great social prestige and personal wealth a. many found an outlet in Britain’s colonial possessionsC. The Middle Classes 1. the middle classes had the most obvious gains from industrialization 2. upper middle class: some became extremely wealthy, bought into aristocratic life 3. middle class: large numbers of smaller businessmen and professionals a. politically liberal b. stood for thrift, hard work, rigid morals, and cleanliness c. Samuel Smiles, Self-Help (1859): individuals are responsible for their own destiny

d. middle-class women were more frequently cast as homemakers, wives, and mothers; as the moral center of family life; and as managers of consumption

4. lower middle class: service sector workers (clerks, secretaries, etc.) a. by 1900, they were around 20 percent of Britain’s population b. employment opportunities for women as well as menD. The Laboring Classes 1. in the nineteenth century, about 70 percent of Britons were workers 2. laboring classes suffered most/benefited least from industrialization 3. rapid urbanization a. by 1851, a majority of Britain’s population was urban b. by 1900, London was the largest city in the world (6 million) 4. horrible urban conditions a. vast overcrowding b. inadequate sanitation and water supplies c. epidemics d. few public services or open spaces e. little contact between the rich and the poor 5. industrial factories offered a very different work environment a. long hours, low wages, and child labor were typical for the poor b. what was new was the routine and monotony of work, direct supervision, discipline c. industrial work was insecure d. many girls and young women workedE. Social Protest 1. “friendly societies,” especially of artisans, for self-help were common 2. other skilled artisans sometimes wrecked machinery and burned mills 3. some joined political movements, aimed to enfranchise working-class men 4. trade unions were legalized in 1824 a. growing numbers of factory workers joined them b. fought for better wages and working conditions c. at first, upper classes feared them 5. socialist ideas spread gradually

a. Karl Marx (1818–1883) laid out a full ideology of socialism, predicting that revolution would lead to the inevitable collapse of industrial capitalism and result in a classless socialist society

b. socialist ideas were attractive among more radical trade unionists and some middle-class intellectuals in the late nineteenth century

6. British working-class movement remained moderate a. material conditions for workers improved in second half of the century b. capitalists and impoverished working class didn’t polarize because of the large middle and lower middle class c. workers bettered their standard of living 7. but immense inequalities remained 8. by 1900, Britain was in economic decline relative to newly

IV. Variations on a Theme: Comparing Industrialization in the United States and RussiaA. The Industrial Revolution soon spread to continental Western Europe. 1. by 1900, it was established in the United States, Russia, and Japan 2. industrialization had broadly similar outcomes wherever it was established a. aristocratic, artisanal, and peasant classes declined b. middle-class women withdrew from paid labor altogether c. establishment of trade unions and socialist movements

3. but the spread of industrialization was affected by the cultures of the lands where it was established, pace and timing of industrialization, nature of major industries, role of the state, political expression of social conflict, etc.

a. French industrialization was slower, perhaps less disruptive b. Germany focused at first on heavy industry 4. variations are most apparent in the cases of the United States and RussiaB. The United States: Industrialization without Socialism 1. American industrialization began with New England textiles (1820s) 2. explosive growth after the Civil War a. by 1914, the United States was the world’s leading industrial power b. European countries provided about one-third of capital investment financing U.S. growth

3. U.S. government played an important role through tax breaks, land grants to railroads, laws making formation of corporations easy, absence of overt regulation

4. pioneering of mass production techniques 5. creation of a “culture of consumption” through advertising, catalogs, and department stores 6. self-made industrialists became cultural heroes (Ford, Carnegie, Rockefeller) 7. serious social divisions rose a. growing gap between rich and poor b. constant labor of the working class c. creation of vast slums d. growing labor protest

e. no major socialist movement emerged in the United States, due to conservatism of American unions, heterogeneity of U.S. population, American workers’ higher standard of living

f. “populists” denounced corporate interests g. Progressives were more successful, especially after 1900 h. socialism was labeled as fundamentally “un-American”C. Russia: Industrialization and Revolution 1. Russia was an absolute monarchy, with the greatest state control of anywhere in the Western world a. in 1900: no national parliament, no legal political parties, no nationwide elections b. dominated by a titled nobility (many highly Westernized) c. until 1861, most Russians were serfs 2. in Russia, the state, not society, usually initiated change a. Peter the Great (r. 1689–1725) was an early example of “transformation from above” b. Catherine the Great (r. 1762–1796) also worked to Europeanize Russian culture and intellectual life c. the state directed freeing of the serfs in 1861 d. the state set out to improve Russia’s economic and industrial backwardness

3. Russian Industrial Revolution was launched by the 1890s a. focused on railroads and heavy industry b. substantial foreign investment c. industry was concentrated in a few major cities d. fewer but larger factories than was typical in Western Europe 4. growing middle class disliked Russia’s deep conservatism, sought a greater role in political life a. but they were dependent on the state for contracts and jobs b. also relied on the state to suppress worker radicalism 5. Russian working class (only about 5 percent of the population) rapidly radicalized a. harsh conditions b. no legal outlet for grievances c. large-scale strikes 6. Marxist socialism appealed to some educated Russians, gave them hope for the future a. founded the Russian Social-Democratic Labor Party (1898) b. got involved in workers’ education, union organizing, and revolutionary action 7. major insurrection broke out in 1905, after defeat in war by Japan a. in Moscow and St. Petersburg, workers went on strike, created their own representative councils (“soviets”) b. peasant uprisings, student demonstrations c. non-Russian nationalities revolted d. military mutiny e. brutally suppressed, but forced the tsar’s regime to make reforms 8. limited political reforms failed to pacify the radicals or bring stability a. growing belief that only a revolution would help b. World War I provided the revolutionary moment 9. Russian Revolution broke out in 1917 a. brought the most radical of the socialist groups to power—the Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov (Lenin)` b. only in Russia did industrialization lead to violent social revolution

V. The Industrial Revolution and Latin America in the Nineteenth CenturyA. Beyond Europe and North America, only Japan underwent major industrialization in the nineteenth century. 1. elsewhere, only modest experiments in industry 2. did not transform societies 3. nonindustrialized societies still felt the impact of European and North American developmentsB. After Independence in Latin America 1. the struggle for independence in Latin America took a long time and was very destructive 2. the four vice-royalties of Spanish America became eighteen separate countries 3. international wars hindered development of the new nations a. Mexico lost vast territories to the United States (1846–1848) b. Paraguay was devastated by war (1864–1870) 4. political life was highly unstable a. conservatives tried to maintain the old status quo

b. liberals attacked the Church, sought some social reforms, preferred federalism to a centralized government system

c. often, military strongmen (caudillos) gained power d. states ran through multiple constitutions 5. independence brought little fundamental change to social life a. slavery was abolished (though not until late 1880s in Brazil and Cuba) b. most legal distinctions between racial categories were abolished c. but creole whites remained overwhelmingly in control of productive economic resources d. small middle class allowed social mobility for a few e. the vast majority were impoverishedC. Facing the World Economy

1. second half of the nineteenth century: greater stability, integration into world economy 2. rapid growth of Latin American exports to industrializing countries a. exported food products and raw materials b. imported textiles, machinery, tools, weapons, luxury goods 3. major investment of European and U.S. capital in Latin AmericaD. Becoming like Europe? 1. rapid population increase 2. rapid urbanization 3. actively sought European immigrants 4. few people benefited from the export boom a. upper-class landowners did very well b. middle class grew some c. but over 90 percent of the population was still lower-class 5. industrial workers made up a modest segment of the lower class a. attempted unions and strikes b. harshly repressed 6. most of the poor remained rural 7. only in Mexico did conditions provoke a nationwide revolution a. overthrow of the dictator Porfirio Díaz (1876–1911) b. major, bloody conflict (1910–1920) c. huge peasant armies d. transformed Mexico 8. export boom did not cause a thorough Industrial Revolution in Latin America a. there was little internal market for manufactured goods b. rich landowners and cattlemen had little incentive to invest in manufacturing

c. governments supported free trade, so cheaper and higher-quality foreign goods were available than could be made at home

d. instead, economic growth was dependent on Europe and North America

VI. Reflections: History and Horse RacesA. Historians are fascinated by historic “firsts.”B. But a focus on “firsts” can be misleading. 1. most “first achievements” in history were not intentional 2. the Industrial Revolution was certainly an “unexpected outcome of converging circumstances”C. Europeans have used their development of industrialization to claim an innate superiority.

1. it’s important to emphasize the unexpectedness of the Industrial Revolution

2. spread of industrialization around the world diminishes the importance of the “why Europe?” question 3. industrialization will increasingly be seen as a global process

Chapter 19

I. Opening VignetteA. Japanese history textbooks became controversial around 2000, with the Chinese expressing outrage over what they regarded as

a whitewashing of Japanese offenses against China. 1. the controversy reflects Japan’s surprising rise to world importance, which started in the mid-nineteenth century 2. both Japan and China had to face the threat of European dominance

B. Most peoples of Asia, Middle East, Africa, and Latin America had to deal in some way with European imperialism as well as with internal challenges.

C. This chapter focuses on societies that faced internal crises while maintaining formal independence.D. Four main dimensions of European imperialism confronted these societies:

1. military might and political ambitions of rival European states 2. involvement in a new world economy that radiated from Europe 3. influence of aspects of traditional European culture (e.g., language, religion, literature) 4. engagement with the culture of modernity

II. The External Challenge: European Industry and EmpireA. The nineteenth century was Europe’s greatest age of global expansion. 1. became the center of the world economy 2. millions of Europeans moved to regions beyond Europe 3. explorers and missionaries reached nearly everywhere 4. much of the world became part of European coloniesB. New Motives, New Means 1. the Industrial Revolution fueled much of Europe’s expansion a. demand for raw materials and agricultural products b. need for markets to sell European products c. European capitalists often invested money abroad d. foreign markets kept workers within Europe employed 2. growth of mass nationalism in Europe made imperialism broadly popular a. Italy and Germany unified by 1871 b. colonies were a status symbol 3. industrial-age developments made overseas expansion possible a. steamships b. underwater telegraph c. quinine d. breech-loading rifles and machine gunsC. New Perceptions of the “Other” 1. in the past, Europeans had largely defined others in religious terms a. but had also adopted many foreign ideas and techniques b. mingled more freely with Asian and African elites c. had even seen technologically simple peoples at times as “noble savages” 2. the industrial age promoted a secular arrogance among Europeans a. was sometimes combined with a sense of religious superiority b. Europeans increasingly despised other cultures c. African societies lost status d. new kind of racism, expressed in terms of modern science 3. sense of responsibility to the “weaker races” a. duty to civilize them

b. bringing them education, health care, Christianity, good government, etc., was regarded as “progress” and “civilization”

4. social Darwinism: an effort to apply Darwin’s evolutionary theory to human history

III. Reversal of Fortune: China’s Century of CrisisA. In 1793, the Chinese emperor Qianlong rebuffed Britain’s request that China rescind or loosen restrictions on trade. 1. Chinese authorities had controlled and limited European activities for centuries 2. by 1912, Chinese empire had collapsed, became a weak junior member in European-dominated worldB. The Crisis Within 1. China was, to a large degree, the victim of its own success a. population had grown from about 100 million in 1685 to some 430 million in 1853 b. but China didn’t have an accompanying Industrial Revolution c. growing pressure on the land, impoverishment, starvation 2. Chinese bureaucracy did not keep pace with growing population a. by 1800, county magistrates had to deal with four times as many people as in 1400

b. central state gradually lost control of provincial officials and gentry 3. bandit gangs and peasant rebellions became common 4. culmination of China’s internal crisis: the Taiping Uprising a. affected much of China 1850–1864

b. leader Hong Xiuquan (1814–1864) proclaimed himself the younger brother of Jesus, sent to establish a “heavenly kingdom of great peace”

c. called for radical equality d. even planned to industrialize China e. Taiping forces established their capital at Nanjing (1853) f. armies mobilized by provincial gentry crushed the rebellion by 1864 5. resolution of the Taiping rebellion consolidated the power of the provincial gentry landowners even more a. intense conservatism, so China’s problems weren’t resolved b. the massive civil war had seriously weakened the Chinese economy c. 20 million–30 million people died in the rebellionC. Western Pressures 1. the Opium Wars show the transformation of China’s relationship with Europe a. opium had been used on a small scale in China for centuries b. British began to sell large quantities of Indian opium in China c. Chinese authorities recognized the dangers of opium addiction, tried to stop the trade d. European merchants bribed officials to smuggle opium in e. China suffered a specie drain from large quantities of silver spent on opium f. 1836: the emperor decided to suppress the trade 2. the British responded with the first Opium War (1839–1842), which they won decisively

a. war was ended by Treaty of Nanjing (1842), which imposed restrictions on Chinese sovereignty and opened five ports to European traders

b. forced Chinese to accept free trade and “proper” relations among countries 3. second Opium War (1856–1858) a. Europeans vandalized the imperial Summer Palace b. more treaty ports were opened to foreigners c. China was opened to foreign missionaries d. Western powers were given the right to patrol some of China’s interior waterways e. Chinese were forbidden to use the character for “barbarians” to refer to the British in official documents 4. China was also defeated by the French (1885) and the Japanese (1895) and lost control of Vietnam, Korea, and Taiwan 5. Qing dynasty was deeply weakened at a time when China needed a strong government to deal with modernization 6. “unequal treaties” inhibited China’s industrializationD. The Failure of Conservative Modernization 1. the Chinese government tried to act against problems a. policy of “self-strengthening” in 1860s and 1870s b. application of traditional Confucian principles, along with very limited borrowing from the West c. efforts to improve examination system d. restoration of rural social and economic order e. establishment of some modern arsenals and shipyards, some study of other languages and sciences f. foundation of a few industrial factories 2. conservative leaders feared that development would harm the landlord class

3. Boxer uprising (1900): militia organizations killed many Europeans and Chinese Christians, besieged foreign embassies in Beijing

a. Western powers and Japan occupied Beijing to crush the revolt b. imposed massive reparation payments on China 4. growing number of educated Chinese became disillusioned with the Qing dynasty a. organizations to examine the situation and propose reforms b. growing drive for a truly unified nation in which more people took part in public life c. Chinese nationalism was against both foreign imperialists and the foreign Qing dynasty

5. the government agreed to some reforms in the early twentieth century, but not enough—the imperial order collapsed in

1911

IV. The Ottoman Empire and the West in the Nineteenth CenturyA. Both China and the Ottoman Empire: 1. had felt that they did not need to learn from the West 2. avoided direct colonial rule, but were diminished 3. attempted “defensive modernization” 4. suffered a split in society between modernists and those holding traditional valuesB. “The Sick Man of Europe” 1. 1750: the Ottoman Empire was still strong, at center of the Islamic world; by 1900, was known as “the sick man of Europe” 2. region by region, Islamic world fell under Christian rule, and the Ottomans couldn’t prevent it a. Ottomans lost territory to Russia, Britain, Austria, and France b. Napoleon’s 1798 invasion of Egypt was especially devastating c. Greece, Serbia, Bulgaria, and Rumania attained independence 3. central Ottoman state had weakened a. provincial authorities and local warlords gained more power, limited the government’s ability to raise money b. the Janissaries had become militarily ineffective 4. the economy was hit hard by Western developments a. Europeans achieved direct access to Asia b. cheap European manufactured goods harmed Ottoman artisans c. foreign merchants won immunity from Ottoman laws and taxes d. government came to rely on foreign loans to finance economic development efforts 5. had reached a state of dependency on EuropeC. Reform and Its Opponents 1. Ottomans attempted ambitious reforms, going considerably further than the Chinese a. didn’t have an internal crisis on the scale of China b. did not have to deal with explosive population growth c. rulers were Turkic and Muslim, not like foreign Qing 2. late eighteenth century: Selim III tried to establish new military and administrative structures a. sent ambassadors to study European methods b. imported European advisers c. established technical schools 3. Selim III’s modest reforms stirred up so much hostility among the ulama and the Janissaries that he was deposed in 1807 4. after 1839: more far-reaching reformist measures (Tanzimat, or “reorganization”) emerged a. beginning of an extensive process of industrialization and modernization b. acceptance of the principle that all citizens are equal before the law c. tide of secular legislation and secular schools 5. supporters of reform saw the Ottoman Empire as a secular state a. reform created a new class of writers, etc.—the “Young Ottomans” b. urged creation of a constitutional regime c. Islamic modernism: accepted Western technology and science but not its materialism 6. Sultan Abd al-Hamid (r. 1876–1909) accepted a new constitution in 1876 that limited the sultan’s authority a. almost immediately suspended it b. turned to decisive autocracy in the face of a Russian invasion 7. opposition coalesced around the “Young Turks” (military and civilian elites) a. advocated a militantly secular public life b. shift to thinking in terms of a Turkish national state 8. after 1900, growing efforts to define a Turkish national character 9. military coup (1908) gave the Young Turks real power a. antagonized non-Turkic peoples in the Ottoman Empire b. stimulated Arab and other nationalisms

c. the Ottoman Empire completely disintegrated after World War ID. Outcomes: Comparing China and the Ottoman Empire 1. by 1900, both China and the Ottoman Empire were “semicolonies” 2. both gave rise to a new nationalist conception of society 3. China: the imperial system collapsed in 1911 a. followed by a vast revolution b. creation of a communist regime by 1949, within the same territory 4. Ottoman Empire: the empire collapsed following World War I 5. Chinese revolutionaries rejected Confucian culture much more than Turkish leaders rejected Islam

V. The Japanese Difference: The Rise of a New East Asian PowerA. Japan was forced to open up to more “normal” relations with the world by U.S. commodore Matthew Perry in 1853. 1. 1853–1900: radical transformation of Japanese society 2. Japan became powerful, modern, united, industrialized 3. Japan created its own East Asian empireB. The Tokugawa Background 1. Tokugawa shoguns had ruled since about 1600 a. main task was preventing civil war among rival feudal lords (the daimyo) b. Japan enjoyed internal peace from 1600 to 1850 c. daimyo were strictly regulated but retained considerable autonomy d. Japan wasn’t unified by a single law, currency, or central authority that reached to the local level e. hierarchical society: samurai at the top, then peasants, artisans, and merchants at the bottom 2. considerable change in Japan in the Tokugawa period a. samurai evolved into a bureaucratic/administrative class b. great economic growth, commercialization, and urban development c. by 1750, Japan was perhaps the world’s most urbanized country d. high literacy rates (40 percent of males, 15 percent of females) e. change made it impossible for the shogunate to freeze society 3. corruption was widespreadC. American Intrusion and the Meiji Restoration

1. U.S. sent Commodore Perry in 1853 to demand better treatment for castaways, right to refuel and buy provisions, and the opening of trade ports

2. the shogunate gave into Perry’s demands, triggering a civil war 3. in 1868, a group of young samurai from the south took over a. they claimed to be restoring the 15-year-old emperor Meiji to power b. aimed to save Japan from foreigners by transformation of Japanese society rather than by resistance 4. the West wasn’t as interested in Japan as it was in ChinaD. Modernization Japanese Style 1. first task was creating national unity a. attacked power and privileges of the daimyo and the samurai b. dismantled the Confucian-based social order c. almost all Japanese became legally equal 2. widespread interest in many aspects of the West, from science to hairstyles a. official missions were sent to the West b. hundreds of students studied abroad c. translation of Western books into Japanese 3. eventually settled down to more selective borrowing from the West 4. feminism and Christianity made little progress 5. Shinto was raised to the level of a state cult 6. state-guided industrialization program a. established model factories, opened mines, built railroads, created postal, telegraph, and banking systems b. many state enterprises were then sold to private investors

c. accomplished modernization without acquiring foreign debt d. by the early twentieth century, Japan’s industrialization was organized around large firms called zaibatsu 7. society paid a heavy price a. many peasant families were impoverished b. countryside suffered infanticide, sale of daughters, and famine c. early urban workers received harsh treatment d. efforts to organize unions were repressedE. Japan and the World 1. by the early twentieth century, Western powers readjusted treaties in Japan’s favor 2. Japanese empire building a. wars against China (1894–1895) and Russia (1904–1905) b. gained colonial control of Taiwan and Korea, won a foothold in Manchuria 3. Japan’s rise was widely admired 4. Japan’s colonial policies were at least as brutal as European ones

VI. Reflections: Success and Failure in HistoryA. We must be very careful in applying ideas of “success” and “failure” to historical complexities. 1. much depends on the criteria we apply 2. need to consider the issue of “success for whom?”

3. historical actors are never completely free in making decisions and lack the benefit of hindsight

Chapter 20

I. Opening VignetteA. The author describes his experience in postcolonial Kenya. 1. discovery of reluctance to teach Africans English 2. colonial concern to maintain distance between whites and blacks B. The British, French, Germans, Italians, Belgians, Portuguese, Russians, andAmericans all had colonies. 1. colonial policy varied depending on time and country involved 2. the actions and reactions of the colonized people also shaped thecolonial experience

II. A Second Wave of European ConquestsA. The period 1750–1900 saw a second, distinct phase of European colonial conquest. 1. focused on Asia and Africa 2. several new players (Germany, Italy, Belgium, U.S., Japan) 3. was not demographically catastrophic like the first phase 4. was affected by the Industrial Revolution

5. in general, Europeans preferred informal control (e.g., Latin America, China, the Ottoman Empire)

B. The establishment of the second-wave European empires was based on military force or on the threat of using it. 1. original European military advantage lay in organization, drill, and command structure 2. over the nineteenth century, Europeans developed an enormous firepower advantage (repeating rifles and machine guns) 3. numerous wars of conquest: the Westerners almost always won C. Becoming a colony happened in a variety of ways. 1. India and Indonesia: grew from interaction with European trading firms 2. most of Africa, Southeast Asia, and the Pacific islands: deliberate conquest 3. decentralized societies without a formal state structure were the hardest to conquer

4. Australia and New Zealand: more like the colonization of North America (with massive European settlement and diseases killing off most of the native population)

5. Taiwan and Korea: Japanese takeover was done European-style

6. United States and Russia continued to expand 7. Liberia: settled by freed U.S. slaves 8. Ethiopia and Siam (Thailand) avoided colonization skillfully D. Asian and African societies generated a wide range of responses to the European threat.

III. Under European RuleA. European takeover was often traumatic for the colonized peoples; the loss of life and property could be devastating.B. Cooperation and Rebellion 1. some groups and individuals cooperated willingly with their new masters a. employment in the armed forces b. elite often kept much of their status and privileges 2. governments and missionaries promoted European education a. growth of a small class with Western education b. governments relied on them increasingly over time 3. periodic rebellions a. e.g., the Indian Rebellion of 1857–1858, based on a series of grievances b. rebellion began as a mutiny among Indian troops c. rebel leaders advocated revival of the Mughal Empire d. widened India’s racial divide; the British were less tolerant of natives e. led the British government to assume direct control over India C. Colonial Empires with a Difference 1. in the new colonial empires, race was a prominent point distinguishing rulers from the ruled

a. education for colonial subjects was limited and emphasized practical matters, suitable for “primitive minds”

b. even the best-educated natives rarely made it into the upper ranks of the civil service 2. racism was especially pronounced in areas with a large number of European settlers (e.g., South Africa) 3. colonial states imposed deep changes in people’s daily lives 4. colonizers were fascinated with counting and classifying their new subjects a. in India, appropriated an idealized caste system b. in Africa, identified or invented distinct “tribes” 5. colonial policies contradicted European core values and practices at home a. colonies were essentially dictatorships b. colonies were the antithesis of “national independence” c. racial classifications were against Christian and Enlightenment ideas of human equality d. many colonizers were against spreading “modernization” to the colonies

e. in time, the visible contradictions in European behavior helped undermine the foundations of colonial rule

IV. Ways of Working: Comparing Colonial EconomiesA. Colonial rule had a deep impact on people’s ways of working. 1. world economy increasingly demanded Asian and African raw materials 2. subsistence farming diminished a. need to sell goods for money to pay taxes b. desire to buy new products 3. artisans were largely displaced by manufactured goods 4. Asian and African merchants were squeezed out by EuropeansB. Economies of Coercion: Forced Labor and the Power of the State 1. many colonial states demanded unpaid labor on public projects 2. worst abuses were in the Congo Free State a. personally governed by Leopold II of Belgium b. reign of terror killed millions with labor demands c. forced labor caused widespread starvation, as people couldn’t grow their own crops

d. Belgium finally stepped in and took control of the Congo (1908) to stop abuses 3. “cultivation system” of the Netherlands East Indies (Indonesia) a. peasants had to devote at least 20 percent of their land to cash crops to pay as taxes b. the proceeds were sold for high profits, financed the Dutch economy c. enriched the traditional authorities who enforced the system 4. many areas resisted the forced cultivation of cash crops a. German East Africa: major rebellion in 1905 against forced cotton cultivation

b. Mozambique: peasant sabotage and smuggling kept the Portuguese from achieving their goals there

C. Economies of Cash-Crop Agriculture: The Pull of the Market 1. many people were happy to increase production for world markets 2. considerable profit to small farmers in areas like the Irrawaddy Delta 3. in the southern Gold Coast (Ghana), African farmers took the initiative to develop export agriculture a. leading supplier of cocoa by 1911 b. created a hybrid peasant-capitalist society

c. but labor shortages led to exploitation of former slaves, men marrying women for their labor power, influx of migrants

4. many colonies specialized in one or two cash crops, creating dependenceD. Economies of Wage Labor: Working for Europeans 1. wage labor in European enterprises was common 2. hundreds of thousands of workers came to work on Southeast Asian plantations 3. millions of Indians migrated to work elsewhere in the British Empire 4. especially in Africa, people moved to European farms/plantations because they had lost their own land a. European communities obtained vast amounts of land b. South Africa in 1913: 88 percent of the land belonged to whites c. much of highland Kenya was taken over by 4,000 white farmers d. many former farmers were sent to “native reserves” 5. mines employed many a. Malaysian tin mines attracted millions of Chinese workers b. South African diamond mines created a huge pattern of worker migration 6. colonial cities attracted many workers a. were seen as centers of opportunity b. segregated, unsanitary, overcrowded c. created a place for a native, Western-educated middle class d. created an enormous class of urban poor that could barely live and couldn’t raise families E. Women and the Colonial Economy: An African Case Study 1. in precolonial Africa, women were usually active farmers, had some economic autonomy 2. in the colonial economy, women’s lives diverged ever more from those of men a. men tended to dominate the lucrative export crops b. women were left with almost all of the subsistence work

c. large numbers of men (sometimes a majority of the population) migrated to work elsewhere

d. women were left home to cope, including supplying food to men in the cities 3. women coped in a variety of ways 4. the colonial economy also provided some opportunities to women a. especially small trade and marketing b. sometimes women’s crops came to have greater cash value c. some women escaped the patriarchy of husbands or fathers d. led to greater fear of witchcraft and efforts to restrict female travel and sexuality F. Assessing Colonial Development 1. What was the overall economic impact of colonial rule? a. defenders: it jump-started modern growth

b. critics: long record of exploitation and limited, uneven growth 2. colonial rule did help integrate Asian and African economies into a global exchange network 3. colonial rule did introduce some modernizing elements a. administrative and bureaucratic structures b. communication and transportation infrastructure c. schools d. health care 4. colonial rule did not lead to breakthroughs to modern industrial societies

V. Believing and Belonging: Identity and Cultural Change in the Colonial EraA. Education 1. getting a Western education created a new identity for many a. the almost magical power of literacy b. escape from obligations like forced labor c. access to better jobs d. social mobility and elite status 2. many people embraced European culture a. created a cultural divide between them and the vast majority of the population 3. many of the Western-educated elite saw colonial rule as the path to a better future, at least at first a. in India, they organized reform societies to renew Indian culture b. hopes for renewal through colonial rule were disappointed B. Religion 1. widespread conversion to Christianity in New Zealand, the Pacific islands, and non-Muslim Africa a. around 10,000 missionaries had gone to Africa by 1910 b. by the 1960s, some 50 million Africans were Christian 2. Christianity was attractive to many in Africa a. military defeat shook belief in the old gods b. Christianity was associated with modern education c. Christianity gave opportunities to the young, the poor, and many women d. Christianity spread mostly through native Africans 3. Christianity was Africanized a. continuing use of charms, medicine men b. some simply demonized their old gods c. wide array of “independent churches” was established 4. Christianity did not spread widely in India a. but it led intellectuals and reformers to define Hinduism b. Hindu leaders looked to offer spiritual support to the spiritually sick Western world

c. new definition of Hinduism helped a clearer sense of Muslims as a distinct community to emerge

C. “Race” and “Tribe” 1. notions of race and ethnicity were central to new ways of belonging 2. by 1900, some African thinkers began to define an “African identity” a. united for the first time by the experience of colonial oppression

b. some argued that African culture and history had the characteristics valued by Europeans (complex political systems, etc.)

c. some praised the differences between Africa and Europe 3. in the twentieth century, such ideas reached a broader public a. hundreds of thousands of Africans took part in World War I b. some Africans traveled widely 4. for most Africans, the most important new sense of belonging was the idea of “tribe” or ethnic identity a. ethnic groups were defined much more clearly, thanks to Europeans b. Africans found ethnic identity useful

VI. Reflections: Who Makes History?A. Winners don’t make history, at least not alone. 1. dominant groups are limited by the presence of subordinated peoplesB. A recent trend in historical study examines how subordinated peoples, even when oppressed, have been able to work for their own interests.