alternative data and global agriculture: from the trans-Atlantic … · 2017. 10. 30. ·...

Economic policy ldquoalternative datardquo and global agriculture from

the trans-Atlantic slave trade to agroecology

M Chang (marinachangcoventryacuk)1 C-H Huang2 and IS Mian3

1Centre for Agroecology Water and Resilience Coventry University2Department of Applied Mathematics National Sun Yat-sen University

3Department of Computer Science University College London

October 30 2017

Abstract

We use heterogeneous public datasets and informa-tion (re)sources to aid the task of identifying techni-cal legal financial policy and other mechanisms ca-pable of serving the diverse needs of practitioners ofagroecology (primarily small scale farmers) and ad-vocates of food sovereignty Disparate material inthe public domain and open source software toolsare utilised to tell a story of interest to audiencesranging from the general public to policy and deci-sion makers A variety of financial and non-financial(ldquoalternativerdquo) datasets are employed to explore thepast present and future of agriculture Historicalmacroeconomic data released by the Bank of Eng-land in conjunction with other freely available dataare utilised to paint a broad brush strokes pictureof the impacts of Britain on the lands agriculturesand economies of peoples and regions across the globeover five centuries The overarching and intercon-nected topics considered are (a) the trans-Atlanticslave trade and European Empires (b) 21st centurylarge-scale land acquisitions and (c) traditional farm-ing systems agricultural biodiversity and climatechange The three sets of background notes anddata-driven visualisations ndash cartograms and timelinesoverlaid with event data ndash are autonomous yet in-terlinked and complemenary By weaving togetherhistorical geographical political economic and so-cial threads this triptych illustrates how the Bankhas been and remains integral to agriculture nation-ally regionally and globally Finally we discuss howdata science could contribute to specific problems inthree poorly-studied areas of agricultural policy (a)whole food systems policy the Community-led Lon-don Plan through the lens of food (b) research anddevelopment policy public funds allocated to basic

and applied studies in agroecology and (c) small scalefarmer-scientist collaborations

Keywords Bank of England Trans-Atlantic slavetrade European Empires Global large-scale land ac-quisitions Agroecology

1 Introduction

Fiscal policy refers to government actions regardingtaxation and spending whilst monetary policy refersto central banking actions regarding the money sup-ply and interest rates These two main strands ofeconomic policy determine and influence agriculturalpolicy laws and activities relating to domestic agri-culture and imports of foreign agricultural productsAn increasingly important objective of policy mak-ers and central bankers is preventing or mitigatingthe triggers of financial crises greater monetary andfinancial stablity (as embodied in issues such as in-come inequality) are emerging as much more promi-nent aspects of the work of the Bank of England andthe central banks of other countries [1 2 3] Since itsestablishment in 1694 [4] in the age of mercantilismthrough the industrial revolution and beyond the his-tory of the Bank of England is intertwined with thatof the trans-Atlantic slave trade [5 6] and the BritishEmpire [7] times when societies were treated as partsof economies rather than economies being consideredparts of societies

In February 2015 the Bank of England launched itsOne Bank Research Agenda a wide-ranging and am-bitious framework aimed at transforming and guid-ing its future research and as part of a committmentto forging closer ties between policy makers and re-searchers published a selection of its datasets [8]The Agenda theme ldquoCentral bank response to funda-

1

Economic policy ldquoalternative datardquo and global agriculture Chang Huang amp Mian

mental technological institutional societal and envi-ronmental changerdquo posed the question ldquoWhat is therole of central banks in addressing risks from climatechangerdquo [1] Seven months later Bank of EnglandGovernor Mark Carney delivered a speech at Lloydrsquosof London an institution that was founded in 1688at a time when ldquoLondonrsquos importance as a trade cen-tre led to an increasing demand for ship and cargoinsurancerdquo and that ldquodevelops the essential complexand critical insurance needed to underwrite humanprogressrdquo [9] He warned that ldquoclimate change is thetragedy of the horizonrdquo noting that insurers are ldquoan-ticipating broader global impacts on property migra-tion and political stability as well as food and watersecurityrdquo [10]

A June 2017 publication by the Bank of Englandstates ldquoClimate change and societyrsquos responses to itpresent financial risks which impact upon the Banksobjectives These risks arise through two primarychannels the physical effects of climate change andthe impact of changes associated with the transitionto a lower-carbon economyrdquo [11] Given the Bankrsquosmission is to ldquodeliver monetary and financial stabilityfor the British peoplerdquo [12] the economic health ofwhole food systems [13] as well as the (re)building ofrural and urban agricultural economies at home [14]and abroad [15] ndash including across the Atlantic [16] ndashare of more than passing interest

Here our specific aim is to illuminate the evolv-ing relationship between fiscal policy monetary pol-icy and agricultural policy by painting a general pic-ture of the impacts of Britain on the lands agricul-tures and economies of peoples and regions acrossthe globe over five centuries Our overall objective isto highlight ldquoagroecologyrdquo as defined and describedin the 2015 Report of the International Forum forAgroecology not just agriculture but the full diver-sity of food production gathering and consumptionndash knowledge that is the outcome of diverse historicalexperiences and practices [17 18] That is a trans-disciplinary participatory applied science embeddedin a social context [19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 2728] Agroecologyrsquos multiple benefits include ensuringfood sovereignty [29] sustaining and improving hu-man health [30 31] providing meaningful livelihoods[32] sustaining resilient communities [33] mitigatingthe effects of climate change [34 35 36 37] and pro-moting local and stable economies [38 39]

We propose that agroecology [18 19 21 40] ndash un-dergirded by food sovereignty [29] land sovereignty[41] the right to water [42] agricultural biodiver-sity [43] and environmental health [44] ndash providesa shared direct and cost-effective response to issuesof concern to society writ large as well as the Bank

of England fundamental technological institutionalsocietal and environmental change in general and cli-mate change in particular [1]

Although not our focus trade labour accumu-lated wealth and land were of concern domesticallyduring the period we consider ndash notably the Scot-tish clearances and Parliamentary Enclosures [45]As elsewhere in the world land and its ownershipremains a pressing issue farms in England under50 hectares are in danger of vanishing by 2050 eventhough they ldquocreate greater diversity in food produc-tion and conservation both of which shape rural her-itage and rural economiesrdquo [46] In Britain a pol-icy of increasing access to land would support newentrants to farming [47] Indeed a significant in-crease in the number of small agroecological marketgardens (including those less than 5 hectares) coulddeliver environmental and social benefits such as re-ducing the trade gap for fruit and vegetables provid-ing year-round employment and rejuvenating com-munities [48] Clearly agroecology- and whole foodsystems-related policies and issues are critical todayas well as tomorrow in the post-Brexit era [49 50]

This paper is organised as follows Section 2 is anoverview of the trans-Atlantic slave trade and Eu-ropean Empires Section 3 considers 21st centurylarge-scale land acquisitions Section 4 explores tra-ditional farming systems agricultural biodiversityand climate change Each section contains back-ground notes and visualisations of publicly available(macro)economic and alternative datasets With re-spect to the timelines and events chart and car-tograms our aim is not that each one be interpretedinspected and analysed in minute detail Ratherthese visual surveys of diverse information (re)sourcesare designed to highlight broad trends and to illus-trate points andor themes discussed in one or moreof the aforementioned sections Whether locallynationally regionally and internationally evidence-informed policy for agrocology and whole food sys-tems requires not just data but also ideas and argu-ments (the human element) [51] In large part thisis because predictions arising from the application ofmachine learning methods to data are necessary butnot sufficient when making decisions for policy prob-lems data have limits [52] and the ldquoera of blind faithin big data must endrdquo [53] Bearing this caveat inmind Section 5 identifies three under-investigatedbut critical aspects of agricultural policy and dis-cusses how and when data science could contribute toaddressing specific problems (a) whole food systemspolicy the Community-led London Plan through thelens of food (a grassroot efforts to transform the pol-icy of a large and complex city) (b) research and

Data for Policy 2017 discussion paperpre-print 2 October 30 2017


development policy public funds allocated to basicand applied studies in agroecology (the public in-frastructure pertinent to the science developmentfinancing and practice of agroecology) and (c) smallscale farmer-scientist collaborations Finally Sec-tion 6 provides practical information about how toaccess the code and data needed to recreate the visu-alisations (reproducible research)

2 The trans-Atlantic slavetrade and European Empires

21 Background notes

The 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas [54] and the 1529Treaty of Zaragoza [55] defined a pattern for explo-ration and conquest of non-Christian worlds outsideEurope by Iberian colonial interests Whereas theformer treaty granted lands to the east and west ofthe Cape Verde Islands to Spain and Portugal re-spectively (essentially the Americas and Africa) thelatter employed the Moluccan Islands as the basis forrecognising Spainrsquos dominion over the Americas andmost of the Pacific whilst solidifying Portugalrsquos claimto the Indian Ocean and all of Asia Although otherEuropean maritime powers contested the commercialarrangement [56] in the ldquoNew Worldrdquo irrespective ofwhether the traders were British French SpanishPortuguese Dutch Norwegian Swedish or Danish inorigin [57] humans [58] remained the most attractivecommodity in trans-Atlantic trade crossings [59 60]

Europe Africa and the Americas were the geo-graphic pillars of the trans-Atlantic slave trade [61]that took place from the 16th through to the 19th

century a network of routes and an economic sys-tem lubricated by humans Manufactured and luxurygoods such as textiles guns knives copper kettlesmirrors and beads from Europe were exported to thewest African coast where they were exchanged for en-slaved Africans The slaves were sent forcibly to theNew World where their labour underpinned the pro-duction of agricultural commodities such as sugar to-bacco rice cotton mahogony and indigo raw goodswhose import by Britain fuelled the countryrsquos Indus-trial Revolution [62] and satisfied its lifestyle [63]During 35000 slave voyages over 12 million Africanswere transported forcibly to the Americas [60] Moreslaves were imported from Africa into Haiti (SaintDomingue) than into North America [64] By 1789the latter was producing 60 of Britain and Francersquoscoffee and 75 of the worldrsquos sugar ndash Saint Domingueowed its profitability entirely to slavery [65]

During the 16th and 17th centuries financial com-

mercial legal and insurance institutions emerged tobuttress Britainrsquos overseas trade and imperial ambi-tions [4] Banks and banking were essential in mak-ing capital available to and securing profits from thetransnational business of enslavement [66] and em-pire [67] When set up in 1694 the Bank of Eng-land braced the entire system of commercial credit[7] needed for the trans-Atlantic slave trade Ac-knowledging the centrality of slave-grown cotton tothe economy of north west England [68] and recogis-ing the importance of Manchester as a commercialcentre the Bank of England established a branch[69] there in 1826 The plantation slave economyndash from slave-trading through slave-ownership to theshipping trading finance and insurance of slave pro-duce ndash contributed materially to the foundations of19th-century London [70] In the early 19th centurycotton was a commodity that determined the wealthof nations [71]

Governors of the Bank of England [72] were well-placed to facilitate creation of the political and regu-latory milieu necessary to (re)orient the performancestructure behaviour and decision-making of nationalregional and global economies For instance SirJohn Houblon (1694 ndash1697) [73] Sir William Scawen(1697 ndash 1699) [74] and Sir Francis Eyles (1707 ndash1709) [75] were also directors of the East India Com-pany [76] a firm chartered in 1600 that rose to havea near monopoly of the worldrsquos trade particularlyin agricultural commodities such as cotton silk in-digo dye salt saltpetre tea and opium [77] Afterthe hundred year military and administrative rule oflarge swathes of the Indian subcontinent by this cor-poration by the ldquooriginal corporate raidersrdquo [78] theBritish Crown assumed direct control of India in themid-19th century Governors turned their gaze notonly East but also West Sir Humphrey Morice (1727ndash 1729) [79] was both a trans-Atlantic slave traderand a Member of Parliament

British slave-ownership was instrumental in trans-mitting the fruits of colonial slavery [80] to metropoli-tan Britain shaping the country and bequethinga commercial cultural historical imperial physi-cal social economic and political legacy [81 82]that reaches into the present [83 84] AlthoughParliament finally abolished slavery in the BritishCaribbean Mauritius and the Cape in 1833 ldquoin placeof slavery the negotiated settlement established a sys-tem of apprenticeship tying the newly freed menand women into another form of unfree labour forfixed terms It also granted pound20 million in compen-sation to be paid by British taxpayers to the for-mer slave-ownersrdquo [82] That sum constituted 40 ofthe British statersquos expenditure in 1834 ndash the modern



equivalent of pound17 billion [85] the largest governmentpay-out prior to the bailout of the banks in 2009 Therecipients of compensation clustered overwhelminglyin the southern strongholds of high society included100 Members of Parliament (over and above the WestIndia lobby) and 150 Anglican clergymen ndash ldquothus didmammon assert its priority over humanity and reli-gionrdquo [86] Whereas British taxpayers subsidised theBritish Empirersquos scheme for abolition the slaves inSaint Domingue who emancipated themselves fromthe French were forced to compensate their formerslave owners payments in service of the Indepen-dence Debt imposed by France on Haiti in 1825 con-tinued until 1947 ndash an amount estimated to be $21billion [65 86]

Consider the Neave Baronetcy [87] created in 1795for Richard Neave [88] a London Jamaica merchantwhose wife seven children (such as son Sir ThomasNeave [89] and daughter Harriet Trevelyn [90]) andtheir descendants were claimants andor financialbeneficaries of slave ownership Sir Richard Neavewas a Director of the Bank of England for 48 yearsas well as its Governor (1783 ndash 1785) a positionheld later by his son-in-law Beeston Long (1806 ndash1808) [91] and grandson Sheffield Neave (1857 ndash 1859)[92] the latter also a Director for 27 years As-sisted by representatives of the colonial assembliesthe London Society of West India Planters and Mer-chants (whose chairmen included Sir Richard Neaveand Beeston Long) formed the West India Interestswhich ldquothrough publications depositions before par-liament and direct lobbying of government minis-ters defended their self-proclaimed right to importAfrican slaves based on constitutional precedent anda right to enjoy the fruits of their fixed property in thecoloniesrdquo [93] Founded in 1735 ldquoten out of fifteenmembers of one of the most important committeesof the Society of Planters and Merchants held seatsin the English Parliamentrdquo [94 page 94] Today theSociety exists as the West India Committee [95] aregistered charity promoting agriculture trade andmanufacturing in the Caribbean and providing ser-vices to corporations institutions government andother organisations

Two other examples illustrate the transmission ofthe benefits of slave ownership across generationsEstablished six years before the Bank of Englandldquowhen Lloydrsquos was a coffee house and nothing moremany advertisements in the London Gazette aboutrunaway slaves listed Lloydrsquos as the place where theyshould be returned Lloydrsquos like other insurancecompanies insured slaves and slave ships and wasvitally interested in legal decisions as to what consti-tuted lsquonatural deathrsquo and lsquoperils of the searsquo One of

the most distinguished chairmen of Lloydrsquos in its longhistory was Joseph Marryat a West Indian planterwho successfully and brilliantly fought to maintainLloydrsquos monopoly of maritime insurance against a ri-val company in the House of Commons in 1810rdquo [94page 121] Joseph Marryat (1757 ndash 1824) was a mem-ber of the House of Commons (1808 ndash 1824) chair-man of Lloydrsquos (1811 ndash 1824) an Agent for Trinidad(1805 ndash 1812) an Agent for Grenada (1815 ndash 1824)and an important figure in the defence of slavery [9697] Likewise his son Joseph Marryat II (1790 ndash1876) was a member of the House of Commons (1826ndash 1834) an Agent for Grenada (1831 ndash 1851) andan individual who resisted moves towards emancipa-tion [98 99] Yet a major recipient of compensationby the British taxpayer was Joseph Marryat amp Co afirm whose partners were Joseph Marryat II and hisbrother Charles Marryat (1803 ndash 1884) [100] Theancestors of David Cameron UK Prime Minister(2010 ndash 2016) ldquowere among the wealthy families whoreceived generous reparation payments that would beworth millions of pounds in todayrsquos moneyrdquo [101]

The system of plantations pioneered by the Span-ish perfected by the Dutch and adopted eagerly bythe English were key to the internationally integratedtrading network encouraged approved regulated andmonitored by Parliament and lubricated by the Bankfor England Amongst those that thrived within thislegal and financial infrastructure were the City ofLondonrsquos Corporation Lloydrsquos a host of bankingfacilities and (domestic) industries which providedgoods for exchange in Africa equipped the slave plan-tations of the Americas and processed and sold theimported slave grown produce [102] Many of thefinancial arts cultural religious educational andother institutions in London [103] Greater Manch-ester [104] Oxford [105] and elsewhere were foundedon the wealth gained from the trans-Atlantic slavetrade That profits trickled back to all levels andsections of British society ndash government companiesand households ndash is illustrated by ldquoDividend Day atthe Bank of Englandrdquo [106] an 1859 painting de-picting investors from a broad range of social classesreceiving their dividends In contemporary life theEmpirersquos legacy is evident in social structures pub-lic monuments and art [107] Echoing Britain ldquotheslave-based economy generated the profits that al-lowed the US to industrialize and also enabled theseprocesses to happen much quicker and much more ex-tensively than could have been done without slaveryThe factories and industrial-related employment pro-vided allowed the US to absorb the millions of peopleimmigrating from especially Europe in the late 1800s-early 1900s Without this capability emigration from



Europe would have been much more limitedrdquo [108]The late 16th and early 17th century settlement of

islands and regions in the Carribean and North Amer-ican mainland formed the basis of the British Empire[109] By 1922 this ldquoempire on which the sun neversetsrdquo [110] held sway over one-fifth of the worldrsquos pop-ulation and covered almost a quarter of the Earthrsquostotal land area In the mid 20th the collapse of theformal British empire gave birth to a financial em-pire where the UK managed to retain a significantdegree of influence over global flows of money [111112] ldquoBritain structured its economy not aroundmanufacturing and productive sectors but around fi-nance City of London banks provided the financingfor the Empire and the colonies would pay interest tothe City Britain would create trade agreements withits colonies that would allow them to export a cer-tain amount of their goods to the UK thus enablingthem to pay the interest on their loans The Empireallowed the financial sector in the UK to take on arole and importance which financial sectors did nothave in other countriesrdquo [113]

22 Visualisations what data can tellus about

For the following visualisations the principle re-sources utilised are (1) a broad set of historicalmacroeconomic data from the Bank of England suchas the contribution of different parts of the indus-trial and agricultural sectors to Gross Domestic Prod-uct (GDP) [114] (2) a collection of geographic im-puted voyage and other data drawn from librariesand archives around the Atlantic world on the trans-Atlantic slave trade [60] and (3) various entries inWikipedia related to possessions and colonies of Eu-ropean countries

Our first goal is to illuminate British economicgrowth (1270 ndash 1870) from the perspective of twodistinct labour forces (a) the internal workforce con-sisting of the population of England (1086 ndash 1870)and Great Britain (1700 ndash 1870) and (b) the externalworkforce consisting of slaves and individuals fromthe dominions colonies protectorates mandates andother territories ruled or administered by BritainOur second goal is to show the geographic extent ofEuropean empires and the global reach of the BritishEmpire

British economic growth (1270 ndash 1870) andthe population of England (1086 ndash 1870) andGreat Britain (1700 ndash 1870)

English and British population plus English and

British agricultural production (crops) This interac-tive timelines chart shows (a) English and Britishpopulation (million) (b) English and British agricul-tural production (1270 ndash 1870) total arable output ndashwheat rye barley oats and pulses (million bushels)Data sources [(a) A2 (b) A3 Table 306]

English and British population plus English andBritish agricultural production (livestock) This inter-active timelines chart shows (a) English and Britishpopulation (million) (b) English and British agri-cultural production (1270 ndash 1870) total output oflivestock products ndash milk (million gals) beef (millionlb) veal (million lb) mutton (million lb) port (mil-lion lb) wool (million lb) hides (million lb) and hay(milllion tons) Data sources [(a) A2 (b) A3-Table304]

English and British population plus English andBritish industrial production This interactive time-lines chart shows (a) English and British population(million) (b) English and British industrial produc-tion (1270 ndash 1870) output of key industries ndash tiniron coal wooltextiles leather foodstuffs construc-tion and printed books Data sources [(a) A2 (b)A4-Table 402]

English and British population plus English andBritish GDP(O) This interactive timelines chartshows (a) English and British population (million)(b) English and British GDP(O) (1271 ndash 1700) RealGDP ndash agriculture industry services and GDP Datasources [(a) A2 (b) A6 A7]

English and British population plus regional tradeThis interactive timelines chart shows (a) Englishand British population (million) (b) Regional tradeshares (1665 ndash 2015) export of goods to EuropeAfrica Asia North Americal including West Indies to1972 South and Central America and Australia im-port of goods from these same regions Data sources[(a) A2 (b) A42]

British economic growth (1270 ndash 1870) thenumber of captives transported and the yeara former British colony or dominion gained itsindependence

Number of captives transported plus English andBritish agricultural production (crops) This interac-tive timelines and events chart shows (a) Estimatesof the number of captives embarked and disembarkedat major sites in the Atlantic rim (1501 ndash 1866) (b)English and British agricultural production (1270 ndash1870) total arable output ndash wheat rye barley oatsand pulses (million bushels) (c) The year a colony ordominion gained its independence from Britain Datasources [(a)] [(b) A3-Table 306] [(c)]



Number of captives transported plus English andBritish agricultural production (livestock) This inter-active timelines and events chart shows (a) Estimatesof the number of captives embarked and disembarkedat major sites in the Atlantic rim (1501 ndash 1866) (b)English and British agricultural production (1270 ndash1870) total output of livestock products ndash milk (mil-lion gals) beef (million lb) veal (million lb) mutton(million lb) port (million lb) wool (million lb) hides(million lb) and hay (milllion tons) (c) The yeara colony or dominion gained its independence fromBritain Data sources [(a)] [(b) A3-Table 304] [(c)]

Number of captives transported plus English andBritish industrial production This interactive time-lines and events chart shows (a) Estimates of thenumber of captives embarked and disembarked at ma-jor sites in the Atlantic rim (1501 ndash 1866) (b) Englishand British industrial production (1270 ndash 1870) out-put of key industries ndash tin iron coal wooltextilesleather foodstuffs construction and printed books(c) The year a colony or dominion gained its indepen-dence from Britain Data sources [(a)] [(b) A4-Table402] [(c)]

Number of captives transported plus English andBritish GDP(O) This interactive timelines and eventschart shows (a) Estimates of the number of captivesembarked and disembarked at major sites in the At-lantic rim (1501 ndash 1866) (b) English and BritishGDP(O) (1271 ndash 1700) Real GDP ndash agriculture in-dustry services and GDP (c) The year a colony ordominion gained its independence from Britain Datasources [(a)] [(b) A6 A7] [(c)]

Number of captives transported plus regional tradeThis interactive timelines and events chart shows (a)Estimates of the number of captives embarked anddisembarked at major sites in the Atlantic rim (1501ndash 1866) (b) Regional trade shares (1665 ndash 2015) ex-port of goods to Europe Africa Asia North Ameri-cal including West Indies to 1972 South and CentralAmerica and Australia import of goods from thesesame regions (c) The year a colony or dominiongained its independence from Britain Data sources[(a)] [(b) A42] [(c)]

The maximum extent of European Em-pires and major coastal regions involved in thetrans-Atlantic slave trade

European Empires and the trans-Atlantic slave tradeThis interactive cartogram shows (a) The countriesand territories ruled or administered formerly by Bel-gium France Italy Portugal Spain the Nether-lands Britain or another country The colour ofa region indicates the last colonial ruler for exam-

ple Guyana is shown as a former British Colony eventhough it was colonised first by the Netherlands Likeother visualisations this cartogram is for illustrativepurposes only and is by no means a definitive his-tory of European colonialism and imperialism (b)Major sites in the Atlantic Rim from which captivesembarked and disembarked the size of the circle in-dicates the number of slaves involved Data sources[BE] [FR] [IT] [PT] [ES] [NL] [GB] [Other] [Captivestransported]

3 21st century large-scale landacquisitions and their conse-quences

31 Background notes

Since the turn of the century estimates of the landacquired globally by international entities range fromsim 48 million [115] to sim 67 million [116] hectares ndash con-centrated mostly in middle and low income countriesConcommitant to the land this massive and grow-ing phenomenon appropriates the freshwater [117118] available therein plus any associated soil min-eral and hydrocarbon resources [119] The appro-priation of green water (precipitation stored in soilsand consumed by plants through evapotranspiration)and blue water (water extracted from rivers lakesaquifers and dams) poses socioenvironmental andpolitical challenges [120] Two major events in 2005contributed to this global land rush launch of theEuropean Union Emissions Trading System (carbontrading or ldquocap and traderdquo) [121] and passage of theUSA Energy Policy Act that contained provisionspromoting biofuels and setting targets [115]

ldquo21st century colonialismrdquo [122] and ldquoland grab-bingrdquo [123] are terms that have been applied to thetransfer of the right to own or use the land from localcommunities to foreign investors through large-scaleland acquisitions intended primarily though not ex-clusively for agriculture forestry conservation bio-fuels and tourism [124 125 126] Although enabledby investment de-regulation and trade liberalisationof the present particularly international free tradeagreements and laws [127] the corporate land rushis bolstered by history [117] notably the seizures oflands by colonial rulers In essence todayrsquos economicdispossessions are co-mingled with the forced dispos-sessions of the trans-Atlantic slave trade and Euro-pean empires

The concentration of lands under increasinglylarger holdings controlled by fewer people is affect-ing adversely the lives and livelihoods of small scale



farmers and communities in Africa Asia and LatinAmerica [128] as well as in Europe [129] Analy-sis of the geospatial and socio-ecological contexts of139 transnational land acquisitions (gt200 hectare perdeal) in the Global South found that 35 of thedeals targetted densely populated and easily acces-sible croplands 34 remote forests with lower pop-ulations and 26 moderately populated and acces-sible shrub- or grasslands [130] In the 28 countriesmost affected by the global land rush from 2000 to2014 one potential impact of transactions involvingagricultural areas is loss of income and employmentopportunities for over 12 million people in rural com-munities [131]

Green grabbing [132] is land appropriation for en-vironmental purposes such as carbon trading initia-tives Acquisition of forests and lands to establishforestry plantations intended to offset carbon emis-sions elsewhere in the world can take away local com-munitiesrsquo access to land [133] and hurt Africarsquos ruralpoor [134] Small scale farmers everywhere face theserious challenges of land ownership access to landand water rights from Africa [135] (particularly thesub-Saharan region [136]) through Haiti [137] to India[138] and Europe [139]

Particularly since the financial crisis of 2007 ndash 2009farmland has come to be seen as a safe investmenta precious global commodity ldquolike gold with yieldrdquo[140] It is an attractive alternative economic asset[116] for (global) investors [141] casting around forgreater returns with low risk in a time of volatilemarkets for publicly traded securities and in a nearzero interest rate environment for money-market andcash investments Many investors have diversifiedtheir portfolios by reducing their exposure to equitieswhilst reallocating funds to ldquorealrdquo or ldquohardrdquo assetsoverseas such as farmland [142] The ldquofinancialisa-tion of farmlandrdquo means that decisions to buy or sellthis ldquofictitious capitalrdquo is governed as much by thewider financial environment as by the agricultural usevalue of land the appeal of land as a financial assetis highly dependent on interest rates [140]

Central banks use the interest rate to shape mon-etary policy control the countryrsquos economy Perhapsthe most influential lever the Bank of England [143]and the Federal Reserve [144] have under their con-trol shifting this crucial rate has a drastic effect onthe building blocks of macroeconomics including thebehaviour of investors in the UK and USA withrespect to land internationally regionally and domes-tically As Britainrsquos farmland becomes a tax haven[145] prices outstripping even prime central Londonreal estate [146] an increasing proportion of land pur-chases are being undertaken by lifestyle buyers rather

than farmers [147] Private investors view (English)farms both as safe assets in which to store wealthand highly-prized places to live [148] Increases in theBank of England base rate place pressure on farmersreliant on loans [149] especially those used to supportcash flow

Marrying transnational commodity chains andglobal circuits of capital with agriculture andmedicine is vital for understanding the financial andphysical well-being of humans and communities aswell as disease emergence in plants and animalsThe field of Structural One Health [150] integratesthe global political economy and multispecies biology(notably wildlife livestock crop and human ecology)leading to for example propositions such as neolib-eral economics and land use providing the broadercontext in which Ebola emerged in West Africa [151]


For the following visualisations the principle re-sources utilised are (1) interest rates from the cen-tral banks [152] of Britain and the USA (2) thecontribution of the agricultural sector to the GDPof countries that are (major) targets of large-scaleland acquistions (3) international free trade agree-ments and (4) the land acquired in a country andthe countries targetted by investors from Britain andthe USA

Our first goal is to illuminate the increasing roleplayed by financial actors institutions markets andmotives in the operation of international and domes-tic economies by highlighting the connection betweenmonetary policy (banksrsquo lending practices) and the fi-nancialisation of land and agriculture ndash for examplerich investors tend to target (poorer) economies withabundant land and water resources [126]

Our second goal is to highlight how the growinginterlinkages between the financial and agrifood sec-tors are shaping the latter in areas ranging from foodretail to land ownership [153] For example ldquoprivateequity players and asset managers that acquire landor corporate farms do not see food production asa complex ecological process do not consider starva-tion obesity and malnutrition as challenges that theyhave to address and more importantly do not recog-nize the role and existence of small scale farmers Onthe contrary they see food production as any otherindustrial operation based on efficiency and satisfac-tion of the global demand a matter of competitionon the global market rather than a matter of sociallyand culturally embedded practices that can satisfythe needs and rights of the communities Massive



amounts of resources have thus been invested andwill be invested in production and distribution offood not on the basis of what is ecological sociallyacceptable healthy or capable of guaranteeing thelong-term resilience of land and the ecosystemrdquo [154]

The interest rates of the central banks ofBritain and the USA the economic contri-bution of agriculture to the GDP of countriesthat are the targets of global land acquisitionand international free trade agreements

Central bank interest rates and agricultural produc-tion in targets of land acquisition This interactivetimelines and events chart shows (a) Interest ratesfrom the Bank of England (1694 ndash present) [114] andthe Federal Reserve System (1919 ndash present) [155](b) The economic contribution of the agricultural sec-tor to the GDP (average percent) for 28 countriesthat have been the targets of significant large-scaleland acquisitions and all other countries (1980 ndash 2010)[131] The significantly grabbed countries are An-gola Argentia Benin Brazil Cameroon ColombiaCongo DRC Ethiopia Gabon Ghana GuatemalaIndonesia Liberia Madagascar Malaysia MoroccoMozambique Nigeria Papua New Guinea PeruPhilippines Russia Sierra Leone South Sudan andSudan Tanzania Uganda and Uruguay (c) Inter-national trade agreements multilateral free tradeagreements in operation [156] and Asian-AfricanConference of Bandung [157] Data sources [(a) UKA31] [(a) USA Federal Funds rate] [(b) Figure 1from [131]] [(c)]

The targets of global large-scale land acqui-sitions and major investor countries

Global large-scale land acquisition target countriesand investor countries This interactive cartogramshows countries that are targets of the land grab-bing phenomenon [158] The shading is proportionalto the percent of the land area of a country that hasbeen acquired in As of October 2017 the top two in-vestor countries involved in transnational land acqui-sitions in terms of the number of deals are the USA(143 deals) and the UK (129 deals) [159] the topinvestor country in terms of the area of land acquiredis the USA (9979713) [160] Flags mark countrieswhere investors from the USA [161] and the UK[162] have acquired land Data source [Land Matrix]

4 Traditional farming systemsagricultural biodiversity andclimate change

41 Background notes

In 2015 representatives of diverse constituencies fromall continents that produce sim70 of the food con-sumed by humanity issued the Declaration of theInternational Forum for Agroecology [17 18] Thisjoint vision of peasants fish harvesters fish workersmobile indigenous peoples and many others acrossthe world [163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170] iden-tified land and territories as well as collective rightsand access to the Commons as a fundamental pillarof agroecology Agrarian reform is a common strug-gle for small scale farmers [171] a group who pro-duce most of the worldrsquos food with less than a quar-ter of all farmland a paltry share that is shrinking[172] Despite the legacies of slavery and colonial-ism threats to indigenous peoplesrsquo livelihoods fromemerging technologies [173] attempts to replace nat-ural products with products containing synthetic bi-ology ingredients [174] disruptions caused by erraticweather patterns and other many challenges smallscale farmers in the Southern USA [175 176] Haiti[177 178 179] Honduras [175 180 181] Zimbabwe[182 183] the Andean region [30] Brazil [184] Mex-ico [185 186] Peru [187] Pakistan [188] India [189190] the Philippines [191] Tanzania [192] California[193] and elsewhere are feeding healing clothingand fueling many parts of the world Numerous suc-cess stories and multiple case studies [194] demon-strate the capacity of agroecological agriculture tomitigate the effects of climate change and addresshunger and poverty whilst respecting farmers and theenvironment [195 196 19 39]

Building on ancestral production systems devel-oped over many millenia the Declaration [17 18] em-phasized food sovereignty [29] as the framework offer-ing a collective path forward from todayrsquos food pub-lic health climate environmental and other crisesGiven the intimate connection between the ability tocope with (even prepare for) extreme climatic eventsand high levels of on-farm biodiversity traditionalfarming systems and agroecological strategies ndash par-ticularly biodiversification soil management and wa-ter harvesting ndash represent the ldquoonly viable and ro-bust path to increase the productivity sustainabilityand resilience of peasant-based agricultural produc-tion under predicted climate scenariosrdquo [197]

Agroecology has two interacting and complemen-tary pillars [21] soil quality (enhancing organic mat-



ter and biological activity) and plant health (enhanc-ing the habitat for beneficial biota) ndash that is improv-ing below-ground as well as above-ground commu-nity biodiversity and function Agrocological prac-tices such as building soil recycling nutrients dy-namically managing biodiversity and conserving en-ergy at all scales both lessen the adverse impacts offood systems on the climate (adaptation) and re-duce green house gas emissions (mitigation) In-novations created andor employed by small scalefarmers include ones that provide effective control ofpests and diseases [198 199 200] produce carbon-rich soil through sustainable grazing by ruminant an-imals [201] improve air quality through reduced ni-trogen pollution [202] enhance livelihoods throughsustainable food and fibre production [188] increaseknowledge through farmer training [192] developcultivarsbreeds from traditional varieties and stockthrough farmer-scientist collaborative research [191]and explore the design and implementation of closed-loop plant-based indigo production systems [203]

The key attributes of the ideal food system areldquooffers adequate nutrition and healthrdquo ldquocreates bio-diversity and avoids negative ecological and environ-mental impactsrdquo and ldquoensures livelihood for farmersdiverse landscapes equitable access to land waterseeds and other inputsrdquo [204] Whilst the relation-ship between soil fertility and the health of humansand animals has been known for decades if not mil-lenia [205 206 207 208 209] recent efforts in pur-suit of yield may have compromised biodiversity andnutritional quality one culprit being soil depletionFor example analysis of historical data on the nutri-ent content of food in the UK (1940 ndash 2002) [210211] and in the US (1950 ndash 1999) [212] revealed de-clines during the periods studied [213] Possible rea-sons for this downward trend include changes in va-rietiescultivars farming practices the environmentsoil minerals and microbes (whole) food systems andthe acquistion andor evaluation of food compositiondata Across a wide range of plant species ndash includingfood crops elevated concentrations of atmosphericcarbon dioxide appear to reduce the concentrationsof vital minerals and elements such as nitrogen phos-phorus potassium calcium sulphur iron zinc cop-per and manganese in the plant [214] One protectiveresponse of a range of food crops to extreme weathersuch as drought conditions and increases in temper-ature is the synthesis of specific chemical compoundsthat could be harmful to human and animal healthif consumed for a prolonged period of time [215] Fi-nally external farming inputs such as fertilisers andpesticides affect the microbial communities in andaround plants [216] an important issue given that

the dynamic and reciprocal interactions at the soil-root interface influence root function and ultimatelyplant growth production and quality

Agroecology is a way to design climate change-resilient farming systems [217] whose social culturaleconomic and environmental benefits include the pro-vision of plant crops for human andor animal con-sumption that meet consumer demand for nutritionalquality and density One explanation is that agroeco-logical practices embody an understanding that eachplant growing in field conditions is not a single in-dividual but a community the myriad connectionsbetween a plant and its (a)biotic environments arecritical for meeting the challenges of food fuel andfibre production That is the cornucopia of aerial-and soil-based associations and interactions amongstand between plants and microbes exert a strong in-fluence on crop yield and economic viability [218] aswell as nutrient value

A keystone of agroecological practices is improvingthe well-being of the cornucopia of beneficial micro-and macro-organisms that reside in on and in thevicinity of plants and animals in general and cropsand livestock in particular The phyllosphere is theabove-ground portions of plants inhabited by com-mensal and other microorganisms [219] The rhizo-sphere is the narrow regions around a root wheremicroorganisms and processes important for plantgrowth and health are located [220] and whose func-tions include helping plants to acquire nutrients fromthe environment (notably nitrogen minerals and el-ements) improving water use efficiency and protect-ing against pathogens [221] A common mychorrhizalnetwork is the system of fungal hyphae that link to-gether the roots of most land plants [222] Plantsuse this underground network to warn neighbouringplants of imminent attack from diseases and pestsand to communicate unfavourable conditions such asdrought whilst the services performed by the fungiinclude uptake of phosphate and mineral nutrients[223 224] Collectively the phyllosphere rhizosphereand common mycorrhizal network are key mediatorsand determinants of the dynamic reciprocal mul-tifaceted and intimate relationship between agroe-cosystem health (crops as well as livestock) and hu-man health

In addition to food feed and medicines tangi-ble products of agroecosystems include fibre and dyeplants and animals [225 226 227 228 229] For ma-terials such as cotton (ldquowhite goldrdquo) new global andlocal perspectives on the entire value supply chainand the complete cycle of production processingconsumption and recycling include ldquoFrom Farm toFashionrdquo [230] and ldquosoil to soilrdquo [231] Regenerative



and sustainable agricultures and community-driventextile systems consider issues ranging from classi-cal plant breeding methods with hierloom naturallycoloured cotton varieties [232] through indigo cultiva-tion and processing [233] and community supportedcloth [234] to garment design and construction [235]ndash local fibres local dyes and local labour

These and other agroecological approaches to andeconomic frameworks for perhaps the most importantnatural fibre crop worldwide stand in stark contrastto those that existed during the trans-Atlantic slavetrade and British colonialism [236] At the turn of1800 the lives and communities of skilled middle-class weavers and textile artisans in the English coun-ties of Nottinghamshire Yorkshire and Lancashirewere being upended by low-skilled low-wage labour-ers toiling in dismal factories [237] Between 1811 and1813 a group of cotton and wool workers rebelledby smashing machines which were destroying theirtrades undercutting wages and forcing them into un-employment and destitution These ldquoLudditesrdquo re-sisting destruction of livelihoods by industrialisationwere opposed only to technology ldquohurtful to Com-monalityrdquo that is whilst sceptics about the dogmaof technology as progress they did not deny the realbenefits of some technologies [238 239] However theldquoexpansion of cotton manufacturing in Great Britaindepended on violence across the Atlanticrdquo [108] ndash theexpansion of cotton production overseas

ldquoWhat distinguishes the United States from vir-tually every other cotton-growing area in the worldwas plantersrsquo command of nearly unlimited suppliesof land labor and capital and their unparalleled po-litical power The coercion and violence requiredto mobilize slave labor was matched only by the de-mands of an expansionist war against indigenous peo-plesrdquo [240] Plantation owners in the Southern statesmelded agricultural science and labour managementto alter simplify and (re)organise humans and na-ture to meet the needs of capital [241] Indeed ldquomostof the cotton picked by Valley slaves was Petit Gulf(Gossypium barbadense) a hybrid strain developedin Rodney Mississippi patented in 1820 and prizedfor its lsquopickabilityrsquo The hegemony of this single plantover the landscape of the Cotton Kingdom producedboth a radical simplification of nature and a radi-cal simplification of human being the reduction oflandscape to cotton plantation and of human beingto lsquohandrsquo Cotton mono-cropping stripped the landof vegetation leached out its fertility and renderedone of the richest agricultural regions of the earthdependent on upriver trade for foodrdquo [242] Manyof the four million black slaves tilling fields in 1860were both workers and human capital the commodi-

ties produced for sale by the American slave-breedingindustry included not only agricultural items such astobacco rice sugar and cotton but also people [243]Today some prison industries have ldquoancestral rootsin the black chattel slavery of the Southrdquo [244] wherefor instance ldquomuch of the work on the 18000-acreformer slave plantation consists of backbreaking la-bor in the cotton corn and soybean fields presidedover by armed guards on horsebackrdquo [245]

The Bank of Englandrsquos new research agenda statesldquofundamental changes in the environment could af-fect economic and financial stability and the safetyand soundness of financial firms with clear potentialimplications for central banksrdquo [1] Thus the formu-lation and implementation of Bank policies that di-rectly andor indirectly strengthen small scale farm-ers and build rural and urban agroecology provide asimple shared and cost-effective way to tackle oneof the major challenges faced by todayrsquos national re-gional and global economies systemic environmen-tal risks such as climate change [35] In part this isbecause food sovereignty helps to weather economiccrises plus the established link between public healthand the economy [246] ndash the long term financial ben-efits of reduced mortality and morbidity flow to thestate

Agrocology-based strategies for addressing seriouseconomic and financial risks include increasing thecapacity of local communities to experiment evalu-ate and scale-up innovations [247] through farmer-to-farmer and field-based research and educationnationally regionally and internationally [248 249250] and where ldquoinnovationrdquo and ldquotechnologyrdquo arenot necessarily synonyms Crucial factors in the suc-cess of such endeavours are land sovereignty [41] (theldquoright of working peoples to have effective access touse of and control over land and the benefits of itsuse and occupation where land is understood as re-source territory and landscaperdquo) the right to water[251] (including in Europe [252]) and worldrsquos bio-diversity for food and agriculture [253] Ultimatelyldquowe need to address the agricultural research agendaif it is to serve the interests of farmers consumers andsociety as a whole rather than narrow but powerfuleconomic interestsrdquo [254]


For the following visualisations the principle re-sources utilised are (1) atmospheric oxygen and car-bon dioxide levels measured at nine locations aroundthe world [255] (2) the warm (El Nino) and cold (LaNinap) phases of complex weather patterns [256] that



result from fluctuations in temperature between theocean and atmosphere in the east-central EquatorialPacific and can last between 9 months to 2 years ElNino produces below-average rains and high temper-atures resulting in for instance reduced Asian mon-soons and triggering potentially prolonged droughts(3) organisations of small scale farmers and fisherfolks around the world that helped to formulate theDeclaration of the International Forum for Agroecol-ogy [17 18] (4) diverse complex locally adaptedagricultural systems developed over centuries andgenerations [206] and (5) centres of agricultural bio-diversity

Our first goal is to illuminate some of the weather-and climate-related conditions faced by the social bi-ological economic and political components of na-tional regional and global whole food systems ingeneral and small scale food producers in particularOur second goal is to highlight the global distribu-tion of agroecosystems (heritage and current farmingsystems) rich in agricultural biodiversity and associ-ated wildlife that are also repositories of indigenousknowledge and culture ndash especially materia dieteticaand materia medica Critical engagement with localand indigenous knowledge systems [257] provides abetter understanding of the challenges posed by cli-mate change and how to respond to it agroecologybeing one example [258 259]

The global atmospheric oxygen (O2) andcarbon dioxide (CO2) levels and El Nino andLa Nina episodes

Average global oxygen and carbon dioxide levels andEl NinoNina episodes This interactive timelines andevents chart shows (a) Global atmospheric O2 andCO2 levels based on measurements from nine differ-ent stations around the world (1989 ndash 2016 partsper million ppm) The values are the averages ofO2 and CO2 levels monitored at Alert Canada ColdBay Alaska Cape Kumukahi Hawaii La Jolla PierCalifornia Mauna Loa Observatory Hawaii Amer-ican Samoa Cape Grim Australia Palmer StationAntarctica and the South Pole [255] (b) El Nino(warm red) and La Nina (cold blue) episodes of theEl Nino-Southern Oscillation cycle (1950 ndash present)Data sources [(a) O2] [(a) CO2] [(b)]

Groups representing peasants and fisherfolk producing the majority of food consumedby humanity globally important agriculturalheritage systems and landscapes and centresof agricultural biodiversity

Small scale food producers and agricultural biodiver-

sity This interactive cartogram shows (a) Membersof La Via Campesina (LVC) an international move-ment which brings together over 200 million smallscale producers [163] ndash peasant small and medium-size farmers landless people women farmers indige-nous people migrants and agricultural workers fromaround the world (including Europe [260]) (b) Mem-bers of the World Forum of Fish Harvesters and FishWorkers (WFF) an international body encompassingsmall scale fishersrsquo organisations [167] (c) GloballyImportant Agricultural Heritage Systems (GIAHS)sites that have been created shaped and maintainedby generations of farmers and herders are based ondiverse natural resources and use locally adaptedmanagement practices [206] (d) Centres of diversityof agricultural crops and livestock ndash geographical ar-eas where groups of organisms either domesticated orwild first developed their distinctive properties [261]Data sources [(a)] [(b)] [(c)] [(d)]

5 Data science and agriculturalpolicy

51 Whole food systems policyCommunity-led London Planthrough the lens of food

Over the centuries London-based financial com-mercial legal insurance and other institutions but-tressed Britainrsquos overseas trade and imperial ambi-tions One legacy of these entities and their actionsis todayrsquos global agriculture That is whole food sys-tems are strategic sites for understanding everydayfinance law economics ethics equity ecosystemsenvironment society politics and history Food in-tegrates place people and pedagogy across multipletime scales and levels of organisation Since it playcritical roles in diverse areas food falls under the re-mit of disparate local regional national and interna-tional bodies and departments ndash transport housingpublic health education environent employment lo-cal economy and so on

As the top-tier administrative body the GreaterLondon Authority (GLA) is responsible for co-ordinating land use planning in the 1579 km2 (610square miles) that make up Greater London Eng-land The individual London Borough Councils arebound legally to comply with the strategic plan theldquoLondon Planrdquo produced by the Mayor of LondonJust Space is ldquoa network of local and London-widemetropolitan groups campaigning on planning issuesndash housing transport services environment rights ofminorities but especially of working class and low-



income groups Activists and groups support eachother in influencing formal plans and policies at scalesranging from metropolitan through municipal to lo-calrdquo [262] Its main work is ldquodeveloping ideas aboutwhat a London Plan would be like if it were to priori-tise ndash or at least protect ndash the interests of its citizensits environment and the real economies in which wemeet each others needsrdquo That is to shape researchand policy development by the GLA planning teamsworking on the London Plan and the Mayorrsquos otherstrategies

In August 2016 Just Space and its member groupsreleased the document Towards a community-ledLondon Plan policy directions and proposals [263]and a year later additional material [264] Inspiredby the increasing interest in developing urban foodpolicy around the world [265] the main aims of thenewly proposed project Community-led London Planthrough the lens of food are to increase human andenvironmental health and wellbeing [266] supportfundamental and applied studies which result in inno-vations that are not ldquohurtful to commonalityrdquo [238]and reflect a genuine ldquopeoplersquos control of the researchagenda objectives and methodologyrdquo [17 18] Thisnew project provides a vehicle for grass-roots and un-derrepresented groups such as the working class uni-versities and policy makers to transform the wholefood system of a large and complex city wheneverand wherever possible to chart a roadmap for Lon-don to agroecology and food sovereignty

Like other evidence-informed policy areas [51]ideas arguments and data are three sources of use-ful information for creating policies for whole foodsystems An important challenge for the Just SpaceNetwork and its collaborators ndash individuals or or-ganisations at different levels in the planning hierar-chy (neighbourhood borough city government) ndash isidentifying (possibly generating) and analysing het-erogenous public data to support the decision makingprocess enable the development of guidelines and fa-cilitate the formulation of policies for the roadmapHowever it is worth bearing in mind the limits ofusing Big Data for prediction and addressing policyproblems [52 53]

52 Research and development policypublic funds allocated to basic andapplied studies in agroecology

A poorly investigated but critical aspect of agricul-tural policy is the public infrastructure pertinent tothe science development financing and practice ofagroecology One type investment made by govern-ments has particularly long term consequences re-

search projects supported by awards from nationalsupranational andor international agencies in theUK EU and USA Public data on successful re-search proposals could be used to study the allo-cation of public funds for research in agroecologywithin and between countries and regions as well asthe social cultural economic and political factorsproducing such text corpora Statistical analysis ofawards from US agencies [267] (for example [268269 270]) UK research councils [271] the Euro-pean Research Council [272] and other organisationsusing tools and techniques from natural language pro-cessing and machine learning provide a foundationfor domain experts to elucidate enumerate comparecontrast and understand the research and develop-ment landscapes and priorities of public agencies inthe global north The insights gained from such in-vestigations will be of interest to parties preparing areport on The State of the Worldrsquos Biodiversity forFood and Agriculture for the Sixteenth Regular Ses-sion (2017) of the Food and Agriculture Organisation[253] These approaches and overall strategy are suf-ficiently general that they could be adapted easily bythose wishing to study publicly funded research inother fields of science techology engineering mathe-matics and medicine This framework is of potentialutility to researchers policy makers and others inter-ested in microeconomics and macroeconomics at re-gional national transnational and international lev-els

The following observations from a 2017 examina-tion of increasing agricultural sustainability by ap-plying plant ecological knowledge [254] are notewor-thy ldquoThe modern lsquohypothetico-deductiversquo scientificmethod tells us how to test hypotheses but it saysnothing about how hypotheses are generated Wecan test hypotheses about how to increase yields withhigh inputs or hypotheses about increasing sustain-ability Which we choose is the research agenda Eu-ropean agriculture is developing in two very differentand fundamentally incompatible directions (i) In-dustrial agriculture high intensity high input un-sustainable industrial farming driven by large in-ternational agrochemical corporations (ii) A move-ment usually referred to as Agroecology which pro-motes lower intensity lower input more sustain-able farming driven by consumers environmental-ists public health professionals and some farmers The good news is that the science of ecology hasadvanced to a level where we have much of the knowl-edge necessary to build highly sustainable food pro-duction systems that can produce enough food to feedthe worldrsquos population More research will enable usto do this much better but to borrow a metaphor



from ecological science the lsquolimiting factorrsquo for thedevelopment of sustainable agricultural systems isnot our scientific knowledge but the political andeconomic structures within which agriculture is prac-tisedrdquo [254]

53 Small scale farmer-scientist col-laborations

The well-being of current and future generationsrequires (re)invigorating and (re)engaging agroecol-ogy by linking ecologists and traditional farmers[273] Whilst necessary this is likely insufficient be-cause additional inter- multi- and transdisciplinarypartnerships will need to be forged For instanceldquofrom grains to rainsrdquo [274] embodies the notion thatgrowing plants contribute to making rainfall via theice nucleation-active microorganisms they harbour(ldquobioprecipitationrdquo) [275]

Active microorganisms thrive among extremely di-verse communities in cloud water [276] A study oflarge areas of southern Australia [277] observed acorrelation between the dynamics of ice nuclei con-centrations and patterns of positive rainfall feedbackand suggested that wheat-growing areas irrigated re-gions and metropolitan areas provide more suitablehabitats for ice nucleating microorganisms than natu-ral vegetation The decline in precipitation observedin southwestern Australia during the twentieth cen-tury is believed to be caused by three factors effectiveon different spatial and temporal scales changingatmospheric circulations deforestation and anthro-pogenic aerosol emissions [278] An open access toolfor mapping rainfall feedback on a planetary scalefrom historical daily rainfall data and maps has beendeveloped [279] A framework to assess the contri-bution of bioaerosols to the outcome of meteorologi-cal contexts favourable for rainfall has been proposed[280] This tool and framework could be applied tomap the intensity and patterns of rainfall feedback atGIAHS the farmlands of LVC members and similarsites plus that at suitable ldquocontrolrdquo sites Theoret-ical and computational advances in the underlyingmethdology ndash for example the feedback index andits calculation from fragmented time series data [279Supplementary file] ndash would improve the ability toidentify trends within and between these field sitesand to generate hypotheses amenable to further in-vestigation

As landscapes and systems where the biospherelithosphere atmosphere and hydrosphere have co-evolved over millenia agricultural heritage sites andindigenous cultivation practices are propitious forafor investigating questions at the intersection of

agroecology geography aerobiology climatology ma-chine learning and communication theory For ex-ample do these diverse areas have a high propen-sity for bioprecipitation and can the locally-adaptednetworks of intercommunicating plants animals andmicrobes both induce and tailor weather patterns tosatisfy their growth and development needs Spa-tiotemporal analysis of (historical) rainfall data di-rect field measurements of ice nucleation active par-ticles and other biogeographic variables such as landuse and biodiversity could illuminate whether the mi-crobiomes of GIAHS the farmlands of LVC mem-bers and similar sites are particularly adept at forinstance influencing rainfall ndash seeding clouds to en-hance rain on a local or regional scale Do the culti-vation practices cultivars and rhizospherescommonmycorrhizal networks at these sites and farms influ-ence the nutrient content of the food crops they pro-duce Free-air carbon dioxide enrichment technol-ogy [281] could be used to understand the impactsof elevated levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide onthe macro- and micronutrient concentrations of cropsfrom heritage and modern-day agroecological farmingsystems Such studies are necessary and importantbecause current concerns about increasing levels ofcarbon dioxide leading to less nutritious crop plants[214] tend to be based on analysis of crops that arethe products of conventional farming systems [281]Thus small scale farmer-scientist collaborations havethe potential to generate fundamental new knowledgeabout biogeochemical processes and simultaneouslyidentify novel research directions for achieving foodfeed medicine fibre and dye sovereignty

6 Supplementary Material

All visualisations were produced using the R Projectfor Statistical Computing a free software environ-ment for statistical computing and graphics Repro-ducing this research requires the following resources

61 Files details and availability

The files used to produce the visualisations can bedownloaded as follows

bull R code

bull Datasets

62 Software details and availability

The R libraries and packages used to create the time-lines and events charts are



bull xts eXtensible Time Series ldquoProvide for uni-form handling of Rrsquos different time-based dataclasses by extending zoo maximizing native for-mat information preservation and allowing foruser level customization and extension whilesimplifying cross-class interoperabilityrdquo

bull dygraphs ldquoThe dygraphs package is an R inter-face to the dygraphs JavaScript charting libraryIt provides rich facilities for charting time-seriesdata in Rrdquo

The R libraries and packages used to create thecartograms are

bull Leaflet ldquoLeaflet is one of the most popular open-source JavaScript libraries for interactive mapsrdquo

bull rworldmap Mapping global data vector andraster ldquoEnables mapping of country level andgridded user datasetsrdquo

bull RColorBrewer ColorBrewer Palette ldquoProvidescolor schemes for maps (and other graphics) de-signed by Cynthia Brewerrdquo

bull Classes and Methods for Spatial Data ldquoClassesand methods for spatial data the classes docu-ment where the spatial location information re-sides for 2D or 3D data Utility functions areprovided eg for plotting data as maps spatialselection as well as methods for retrieving coor-dinates for subsetting print summary etcrdquo

bull maptools Tools for Reading and Handling Spa-tial Objects ldquoSet of tools for manipulating andreading geographic data in particular ESRIshapefiles C code used from shapelib It in-cludes binary access to GSHHG shoreline filesThe package also provides interface wrappers forexchanging spatial objects with packages such asPBSmapping spatstat maps RArcInfo Statatmap WinBUGS Mondrian and othersrdquo

7 Acknowledgements

We thank B Saxena for early work on the visualisa-tions

References

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www bankofengland co uk research

Documentsonebankdiscussionpdf

[2] M Kumhof Income inequality causes higherdebt leverage among all but the richest house-holds and makes economies more vulnerableto financial crises LSE US Centre 2015 urlhttp blogs lse ac uk usappblog

20150512income-inequality-causes-

higher - debt - leverage - among - all -

but - the - richest - households - and -

makes- economies- more- vulnerable- to-

financial-crises

[3] P Monnin Central banks financial stabilityand inequality Council on Economic Policies2015 url https www cepweb org

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and-inequality

[4] S Luscombe Timelines for the BritishEmpire The British Empire Where theSun Never Sets url http www

britishempire co uk timeline

timelinehtm

[5] SI Martin How African slaves created a pros-perous new Britain The Voice 2011 urlhttp www voice - online co uk

articlehow- african- slaves- created-

prosperous-new-britain

[6] Eight museums in Greater Manchester Re-vealing Histories Remembering Slavery urlhttprevealinghistoriesorguk

[7] J Walvin Slavery and the Building of BritainBBC History 2011 url http www

bbccoukhistorybritishabolition

building_britain_gallery_02shtml

[8] Bank of England One Bank research agendalaunched today 2015 url http www

bankofengland co uk publications

Pagesnews2015032aspx

[9] Lloydrsquos Lloydrsquos develops the essential com-plex and critical insurance needed to under-write human progress url httpswww

lloydscomlloydsabout-us

[10] M Carney Breaking the tragedy of the hori-zon ndash climate change and financial stabil-ity Speech given at Lloydrsquos of London 2015url httpwwwbankofenglandcoukpublicationsPagesspeeches2015844

aspx

[11] M Scott J van Huizen and C Jung TheBank of Englandrsquos response to climate changeQuarterly Bulletin 2017 url httpwwwbankofengland co uk publications

Pages quarterlybulletin 2017 q2 a2

aspx



[12] Bank of England What does the Bank of Eng-land do url httpwwwbankofenglandcoukwhatPagesdefaultaspx

[13] C Hawkes We need a food system that worksfor everyone and our planet This is how wecan do it World Economic Forum 2016 urlhttpswwwweforumorgagenda2016

11we-need-a-food-system-that-works-

for-everyone-and-our-planet

[14] J Wright Only agroecology can tackle theglobal food and health crisis Ecologist 2015url http www theecologist org

blogs _ and _ comments commentators

2763323only_agroecology_can_tackle_

the _ global _ food _ and _ health _ crisis

html

[15] Centre for learning on sustainable agriculture(ILEIA) Building food sovereignty FarmingMatters Experiences in family farming andagroecology 331 2017 url httpswwwileiaorg201706268029

[16] E Holt-Gimenez Can agroecology bring jobsto americarsquos heartlands Huffington Post2017 url httpwwwhuffingtonpost

com entry can - agroecology - bring -

jobs- to- the- americas- heartlands_us_

58b4af62e4b0658fc20f992f

[17] Coordination Nationale des Organisa-tions Paysannes du Mali (CNOP) La ViaCampesina (LVC) Movimiento Agroecologicode America Latina y el Caribe (MAELA)Reseau des organisations paysannes etde producteurs de lrsquoAfrique de lrsquoOuest(ROPPA) World Forum of Fish Har-vesters and Fishworkers (WFF) WorldForum of Fisher Peoples (WFFP) WorldAlliance of Mobile Indigenous Peoples(WAMIP) and More and Better (MaB)Declaration of the International Forumfor Agroecology Nyeleni Mali 27 Febru-ary 2015 Development 58163ndash168 2015httpwwwfoodsovereigntyorgforum-

agroecology - nyeleni - 2015 - 2 urlhttpsdoiorg101057s41301-016-

0014-4

[18] A Ferrante D Bagna E Mpofu EMattheisen I Coulibaly J Hitchman L De-sai MN Salgado N Jaffer and A Naer-stad Report of the International Forum forAgroecology Nyeleni Center Selingue Mali24 ndash 27 February 2015 url http

www foodsovereignty org wp - content

uploads201510NYELENI-2015-ENGLISH-

FINAL-WEBpdf

[19] MA Altieri CI Nicholls and R MontalbaTechnological approaches to sustainable agri-culture at a crossroads an agroecologicalperspective Sustainability 9349 2017 urlhttpdxdoiorg103390su9030349

[20] Centre for learning on sustainable agriculture(ILEIA) Co-creation of knowledge FarmingMatters Experiences in family farming andagroecology 321 2016 url httpswwwileiaorg20160323co-creation-of-

knowledge

[21] Third World Network and SOCLA Agroecol-ogy key concepts principles and practices So-ciedad Cientifica Latinoamericana de Agroe-cologıa (SOCLA) and Third World Network2015 url httpswwwtwnmytitle2booksAgroecologyhtm

[22] VE Mendez CM Bacon R Cohen andSR Gliessman Agroecology A Transdis-ciplinary Participatory and Action-orientedApproach CRC Press 2015 url https

www crcpress com Agroecology - A -

Transdisciplinary - Participatory - and -

Action - oriented - Approach Mendez -

Bacon - Cohen - Gliessman p book

9781482241761

[23] Ecological livestock LEISA (Low External In-put Sustainable Agriculture) India 193 2017url httpleisaindiaorgmagazinesenglishecological-livestock

[24] Produccion de alimentos en sistemas re-silientes al clima LEISA (Low External In-put Sustainable Agriculture) Revista de Agroe-cologıa 332 2017 url httpwwwleisa-al org web index php volumen - 33 -

numero-2

[25] Assessoria e Servicos a Projetos em Agricul-tura Alternativa (AS-PTA) Agroecologia eos Objetivos do Desenvolvimento SustentavelRevista Agriculturas experiencias em agroe-cologia 13 2016 url httpasptaorgbrrevista-agriculturas

[26] Agricultures Network Listening to Pastoral-ists (Arabic) Farming Matters Experiencesin family farming and agroecology 2016 urlhttp www agriculturesnetwork org

magazinesfarming-matters-5



[27] Changement climatique et resilience dessystemes agroalimentaires Revue surlrsquoAgriculture Durable a Faibles ApportesExternes (AGRIDAPE) 33-2 2017url http www iedafrique org -

Changement- climatique- et- resilience-

des-systemes-agroalimentaires-html

[28] MELCA-Ethiopia Healthy food andAgriculture systems for productive citi-zens Wegel 2016 url http www

agriculturesnetworkorgmagazines

[29] Nyeleni 2007 ndash Forum for Food Sovereignty2007 url https nyeleni org spip

phparticle334

[30] J Suarez-Torres JR Suarez-LopezD Lopez-Paredes H Morocho LECachiguango-Cachiguango and W Del-lai Agroecology and Health Lessonsfrom Indigenous Populations Curr EnvirHealth Rpt 4244ndash251 2017 url https

dxdoiorg101007s40572-017-0146-

z

[31] M OrsquoRourke MS DeLonge and R Sal-vador Insights from agroecology and a criticalnext step integrating human health Agroe-cology and Sustainable Food Systems 41880ndash884 2017 url httpdxdoiorg10

10802168356520171326073

[32] I Coulibaly MN Salgado A Ferrante andJ Hitchman International Forum on Agroe-cology Declaration brings common under-standing of agroecology 2015 url https

viacampesina org en new -

peoples - declaration - brings - common -

understanding-of-agroecology

[33] Pesticide Action Network North AmericaAgroecology amp Farming Solutions url http www panna org key - issues

agroecology-farming-solutions

[34] M Altieri and CI Nicholls Agroecologi-cal approaches to enhance resilience amongsmall farmers Farming Matters Experiencesin family farming and agroecology 2017 urlhttps www ileia org 2017 06

26agroecological-approaches-enhance-

resilience-among-small-farmers

[35] J Milgroom M Florin and GRAIN Agroe-cology getting to the root causes of cli-mate change Farming Matters Experiencesin family farming and agroecology 2017 urlhttps www ileia org 2017 06

26agroecology- getting- root- causes-

climate-change

[36] Centre for learning on sustainable agriculture(ILEIA) Food and the climate crisis Farm-ing Matters Experiences in family farmingand agroecology 332 2017 url https

wwwileiaorgfood-and-the-climate-

crisis

[37] Climate Smart Agriculture Concerns COP21Statement Donrsquot be fooled Civil soci-ety says NO to ldquoClimate Smart Agricul-turerdquo and urges decision-makers to supportagroecology 2015 url http www

climatesmartagconcernsinfoenglish1

html

[38] L Silici Agroecology ndash What it is and what ithas to offer International Institute for Envi-ronment and Development (IIED) 2014 urlhttppubsiiedorg14629IIED

[39] Agricultures Network Regional magazines onfamily farming and agroecology for about amillion readers worldwide url httpwwwagriculturesnetworkorgmagazines

[40] Centre for learning on sustainable agriculture(ILEIA) Making the case for agroecologyFarming Matters Experiences in family farm-ing and agroecology 323 2016 url httpswwwileiaorg20160919making-

the-case

[41] J Franco S Borras Jr A Alonso-Fradejas NBuxton R Herre S Kay and T FeodoroffThe Global Land Grab A Primer Transna-tional Institute (TNI) 2013 url https

www tni org en publication the -

global-land-grab

[42] Centre for learning on sustainable agriculture(ILEIA) The wisdom of water Farming Mat-ters Experiences in family farming and agroe-cology 313 2015 url httpswwwileiaorg20150922the-wisdom-of-water

[43] P Mulvany Agricultural biodiversity ecolog-ical food provision and food sovereignty vi-tal interdependencies In Food SovereigntyA Critical Dialogue International Institute ofSocial Studies (ISS) The Hague The Nether-lands 2014 url http www iss nl

fileadmin ASSETS iss Research _ and _

projects Research _ networks ICAS 94 _

Mulvanypdf



[44] J Conant and P Fadem A community guideto environmental health Hesperian HealthGuides 2008 url httpenhesperianorg hhg A _ Community _ Guide _ to _

Environmental_Health

[45] S Fairlie A Short History of Enclosure inBritain The Land An occasional magazineabout land rights 7 2009 url http

wwwthelandmagazineorgukarticles

short-history-enclosure-britain

[46] Campaign to Protect Rural England Smallerfarms heading towards a cliff edge 2017url http www cpre org uk media -

centre latest - news - releases item

4648- smallerfarms- heading- towards-

a-cliff-edge

[47] Land Workersrsquo Alliance New Entrants pol-icy position paper 2017 url https

landworkersalliance org uk 2017 08

newentrants

[48] Land Workersrsquo Alliance A Matter of ScaleA study of the productivity financial via-bility and multifunctional benefits of smallfarms (20 ha and less) 2017 url https

landworkersalliance org uk 2017

07small-scale-agroecological-farms-

attract - uk - workers - produce - high -

yields - of - vegetables - and - deliver -

multiple - environmental - and - social -

benefits

[49] Land Workersrsquo Alliance Making FoodSovereignty a Reality Recommendations forPost-Brexit Agricultural Policy 2017 urlhttps landworkersalliance org uk

201706landworkers-alliance-comment-

on - newly - appointed - secretary - of -

state

[50] Land Workersrsquo Alliance Why we need smallfarms Farming in post-Brexit Britain 2017url httpslandworkersallianceorgukwp- contentuploads201704LWA-

Advocacy-Phase-5_WEBpdf

[51] W Pearce Evidence-based policydata has its limits Alliance for Use-ful Evicence 2014 url http www

alliance4usefulevidenceorgevidence-

based-policy-data-has-its-limits

[52] BR Jasny and R Stone Prediction andits limits Science 355468ndash469 2017 urlhttpsdxdoiorg101126science

3556324468

[53] C OrsquoNeil The era of blind faith in big datamust end TED Talk 2017 url https

wwwtedcomtalkscathy_o_neil_the_

era_of_blind_faith_in_big_data_must_

endtranscriptlanguage=en

[54] Wikipedia contributors Treaty of Tordesil-las Wikipedia The Free Encyclopedia urlhttpsenwikipediaorgwikiTreaty_

of_Tordesillas

[55] Wikipedia contributors Treaty of ZaragozaWikipedia The Free Encyclopedia urlhttpsenwikipediaorgwikiTreaty_

of_Zaragoza

[56] Understanding Slavery Initiative Tradeand Commerce url http www

understandingslavery com index

phpoption=com_contentampview=articleamp

id=307ampItemid=152

[57] European nations in dock over Caribbeanslave trade Channel 4 News 2014 url httpwwwchannel4comnewsslave-trade-

caribbean - st - vincent - reparations -

united-kingdom

[58] SM Mathuna Slavery and London Flame1999 url httpwwwfantompowanet

Flameslavery_in_londonhtml

[59] Understanding Slavery Initiative Supportingthe teaching and learning of transatlantichistories and legacies url http www

understandingslaverycom

[60] Emory University National Endowment forthe Humanities Hutchins Center for Africanand African American Research (Harvard Uni-versity) The University of Hull (UK) Uni-versidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (Brazil)and Victoria University of Wellington (NewZealand) The Trans-Atlantic Slave TradeDatabase url httpwwwslavevoyagesorg

[61] A Rice Triangular trade and multiple prof-its Revealing Histories Remembering Slav-ery url http revealinghistories

org uk africa - the - arrival - of -

europeans - and - the - transatlantic -

slave - trade articles triangular -

trade-and-multiple-profitshtml

[62] Eight museums in Greater ManchesterHow did money from slavery help de-velop Greater Manchester Revealing Histo-ries Remembering Slavery url http

revealinghistories org uk how - did -



money - from - slavery - help - develop -

greater-manchesterhtml

[63] Eight museums in Greater Manchester Smok-ing drinking and the British sweet tooth Re-vealing Histories Remembering Slavery urlhttp revealinghistories org uk

smoking - drinking - and - the - british -

sweet-toothhtml

[64] The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation Haiti(Saint-Domingue) Slavery and Remember-ance A guide to sites museums and memoryurl httpslaveryandremembranceorgarticlesarticleid=A0111

[65] AD Phillips Haitirsquos Independence Debt andProspects for Restitution Institute for Jus-tice and Democracy in Haiti 2009 urlhttp ijdh org wordpress wp -

content uploads 2009 11 Haiti _

RestitutionClaimArticlePhilipps05- 09

pdf

[66] N Pocock and V Cook The Business of En-slavement BBC History 2011 url http

www bbc co uk history british

abolition slavery _ business _ gallery

shtml

[67] New World Encyclopedia British Empireurl httpwwwnewworldencyclopediaorgentryBritish_Empire

[68] Eight museums in Greater Manchester Whywas cotton so important in north west Eng-land Revealing Histories Remembering Slav-ery url httprevealinghistoriesorgukwhy- was- cotton- so- important- in-

north-west-englandhtml

[69] Eight museums in Greater Manchester Bankof England King Street Manchester Re-vealing Histories Remembering Slavery urlhttprevealinghistoriesorgukhow-

did-money-from-slavery-help-develop-

greater - manchester places bank - of -

england-king-street-manchesterhtml

[70] N Draper The City of London and slaveryevidence from the first dock companies 1795 ndash1800 The Economic History Review 61432ndash466 2007 url httpdxdoiorg10

1111j1468-0289200700400x

[71] G Chengu How Slaves Built American Cap-italism Counterpunch 2015 url httpswwwcounterpunchorg20151218how-

slaves-built-american-capitalism

[72] Wikipedia contributors Governor of the Bankof England Wikipedia The Free Encyclopediaurl httpsenwikipediaorgwiki

Governor_of_the_Bank_of_England

[73] Wikipedia contributors John HoublonWikipedia The Free Encyclopedia urlhttpsenwikipediaorgwikiJohn_

Houblon

[74] Wikipedia contributors William Scawen(banker) Wikipedia The Free Encyclopediaurl httpsenwikipediaorgwiki

William_Scawen_(banker)

[75] Wikipedia contributors Sir Gilbert Heath-cote 1st Baronet Wikipedia The Free En-cyclopedia url https en wikipedia

orgwikiSir_Gilbert_Heathcote_1st_

Baronet

[76] Wikipedia contributors East India Com-pany Wikipedia The Free Encyclopedia urlhttpsenwikipediaorgwikiEast_

India_Company

[77] British Library Opium and the expansionof trade url https www bl uk

learning histcitizen trading story

trade4tradingplaceshtml

[78] MC Dalgleish The New Alliance GainingGround in Africa In M Forte editor ForceMultipliers The Instrumentalities of Imperi-alism pages 107ndash123 Alert Press 2015 urlhttp www alertpress org vol - 5 -

ebookhtml

[79] N Pocock and V Cook Sir Humphry MoriceMerchant slave trader governor of the Bankof England and fraudster BBC History 2011url http www bbc co uk history

british abolition slavery _ business _

gallery_14shtml

[80] S Jones Follow the money investigatorstrace forgotten story of Britainrsquos slave tradeThe Guardian 2013 url https www

theguardian com world 2013 aug 27

britain-slave-trade

[81] Understanding Slavery Initiative Legaciesurl httpwwwunderstandingslaverycom index php - option = com _ content amp

view=articleampid=313_legaciesampcatid=

125_themesampItemid=225html

[82] Centre for the Study of the Legacies ofBritish Slave-ownership (LBS) LBS CentreOverview url httpswwwuclacuklbsproject



[83] C Walth Slave descendants sue Lloydrsquos forbillions The Guardian 2004 url httpswwwtheguardiancommoney2004mar

28insuranceusnews

[84] Much of Britainrsquos wealth is built on slavery Sowhy shouldnrsquot it pay reparations New States-man 2014 url httpwwwnewstatesmancomeconomics201404much-britains-

wealth-built-slavery-so-why-shouldnt-

it-pay-reparations

[85] D Olusoga The history of British slave own-ership has been buried now its scale can berevealed The Guardian 2015 url https

wwwtheguardiancomworld2015jul

12 british - history - slavery - buried -

scale-revealed

[86] S Thorne Capitalism and Slavery Compensa-tion Small Axe 16154ndash167 2012 url httpdxdoiorg10121507990537-1548155

[87] Wikipedia contributors Neave baronetsWikipedia The Free Encyclopedia urlhttpsenwikipediaorgwikiNeave_

baronets

[88] Legacies of British Slave-ownership SirRichard Neave 1st bart Profile amp LegaciesSummary 2nd Nov 1731 - 28th Jan 1814 urlhttps www ucl ac uk lbs person

view2146638551

[89] Legacies of British Slave-ownership SirThomas Neave 2nd Bart Profile amp LegaciesSummary 11th Nov 1761 - 11th Apr 1848 urlhttps www ucl ac uk lbs person

view25073

[90] Legacies of British Slave-ownership HarrietTrevelyan widow (nee Neave) Profile amp Lega-cies Summary 1773 - 1854 url https

wwwuclacuklbspersonview45679

[91] Wikipedia contributors Beeston LongWikipedia The Free Encyclopedia urlhttps en wikipedia org wiki

Beeston_Long

[92] Legacies of British Slave-ownership SheffieldNeave Profile amp Legacies Summary 11th Apr1799 - 22nd Sep 1868 url httpswww

uclacuklbspersonview-2042386574

[93] D Ryden The Society of West India Plantersand Merchants in the Age of Emancipationc1816-35 In Economic History Society An-nual Conference 2015 url http www

ehs org uk dotAsset e389027d - 9708 -

42cb-a13d-85106e90e947pdf

[94] E Williams Capitalism amp Slavery The Uni-versity of North Carolina Press Chapel Hill1944 url httpsarchiveorgdetailscapitalismandsla033027mbp

[95] The West India Committee About us urlhttpwestindiacommitteeorgabout-

us

[96] R Thorne Joseph Marryat (1757 ndash 1824)Horsham (1808 ndash 1812) Sandwich (1812 ndash1824) The History of Parliament the Houseof Commons 1790 ndash 1820 1986 url httpwwwhistoryofparliamentonlineorg

volume 1790 - 1820 member marryat -

joseph-1757-1824

[97] Legacies of British Slave-ownership JosephMarryat Senior Profile amp Legacies Summary1757 ndash 1824 url httpswwwuclacuklbspersonview2146630485

[98] DR Fisher Joseph Marryat (1790 ndash 1876)Sandwich (1826 ndash 1834) The History ofParliament the House of Commons 1820ndash 1832 1986 url http www

historyofparliamentonlineorgvolume

1820-1832membermarryat-joseph-1790-

1876

[99] Legacies of British Slave-ownership JosephMarryat Profile amp Legacies Summary 7th Oct1790 ndash 24th Sep 1876 url httpswwwuclacuklbspersonview11416

[100] Legacies of British Slave-ownership CharlesMarryat Profile amp Legacies Summary 1803 ndash7th Oct 1884 url httpswwwuclacuklbspersonview42069

[101] S Manning Britainrsquos colonial shame Slave-owners given huge payouts after abolitionThe Independent 2013 url httpwww

independentcouknewsukhome-news

britains-colonial-shame-slave-owners-

given- huge- payouts- after- abolition-

8508358html

[102] House of Commons Parliament andthe British Slave Trade Black His-tory Month UK 2016 url http

www blackhistorymonth org uk

article section history - of - slavery

parliament - and - the - british - slave -

trade

[103] Greater London Authority How the City Prof-ited From Slavery The New Black Magazineurl http thenewblackmagazine com

viewaspxindex=730



[104] Eight museums in Greater Manchester Manyof the grand buildings in Manchester reflectwealth generated through the transatlanticslave trade Revealing Histories RememberingSlavery url httprevealinghistoriesorgukhow- did- money- from- slavery-

help - develop - greater - manchester

placeshtml

[105] R Blackburn Enslavement and Industrialisa-tion BBC History 2011 url httpwwwbbccoukhistorybritishabolition

industrialisation_article_01shtml

[106] GE Hicks Dividend Day at the Bank of Eng-land Painting at the Bank of England Mu-seum url httpsartukorgdiscoverartworksdividend-day-at-the-bank-of-

england-50212

[107] Tate Britain Artist and Empire a major ex-hibition of art associated with the British Em-pire from the 16th century to the present day25 November 2015 ndash 10 April 2016 url http www tate org uk whats - on tate -

britainexhibitionartist-and-empire

[108] K Scipes Review Black Subjugationin America 2017 url https

www blackagendareport com black _

subjugation_in_america

[109] Wikipedia contributors British EmpireWikipedia The Free Encyclopedia urlhttps en wikipedia org wiki

British_Empire

[110] Wikipedia contributors The empire on whichthe sun never sets Wikipedia The Free En-cyclopedia url https en wikipedia

orgwikiThe_empire_on_which_the_sun_

never_sets

[111] N Shaxson Treasure Islands Tax Havens andthe Men Who Stole the World Vintage 2011url httptreasureislandsorg

[112] A Ramsay Britainrsquos Empire of Tax Eva-sion Foreign Policy 2016 url http

foreignpolicy com 2016 04 04

britains - empire - of - tax - evasion -

panama-papers-mossack-fonseca

[113] Deutsche Wirtschafts Nachrichten City ofLondon Capital of an invisible empire 2017url https deutsche - wirtschafts -

nachrichten de 2017 09 18 city -

london-capital-invisible-empire

[114] Bank of England A millennium of macroe-conomic data url http www

bankofengland co uk research Pages

datasetsdefaultaspxthreecenturies

[115] KF Davis MC Rulli and P OrsquoOdorico Theglobal land rush and climate change EarthrsquosFuture 3298ndash311 2015 url http dx

doiorg1010022014EF000281

[116] L Cotula The international political economyof the global land rush A critical appraisalof trends scale geography and drivers Jour-nal of Peasant Studies 39649ndash680 2012 urlhttpdxdoiorg10108003066150

2012674940

[117] J Franco S Kishimoto T Feodoroff and GPracucci The Global Water Grab A PrimerTransnational Institute (TNI) 2014 urlhttpswwwtniorgenpublication

the-global-water-grab-a-primer

[118] MC Rulli A Saviori and P DrsquoOdoricoGlobal land and water grabbing Proc NatlAcad Sci USA 110892ndash827 2013 urlhttps doi org 10 1073 pnas

1213163110

[119] A Evans-Pritchard The backlash beginsagainst the world landgrab The Telegraph2010 url http www telegraph

co uk finance comment ambroseevans _

pritchard 7997910 The - backlash -

begins - against - the - world - landgrab

html

[120] EL Johansson M Fader JW Seaquist andKA Nicholas Green and blue water demandfrom large-scale land acquisitions in AfricaProc Natl Acad Sci USA 11311471ndash114762016 url https doi org 10 1073

pnas1524741113

[121] O Reyes Life beyond emissions trading Cor-porate Europe Observatory 2014 url https corporateeurope org climate - and -

energy201401life-beyond-emissions-

trading

[122] D Smith Land Grabbing 21st Century Colo-nialism Economy Watch 2013 url http www economywatch com economy -

business-and-finance-newsland-grabs-

are-the-21st-century-colonialism17-

01html

[123] Wikipedia contributors Land grabbingWikipedia The Free Encyclopedia urlhttpsenwikipediaorgwikiLand_

grabbing



[124] Land matrix a global and independent landmonitoring initiative url http www

landmatrixorg

[125] GRAIN Farmland grab The global rush forfarmland and peoplesrsquo struggles against iturl httpswwwfarmlandgraborg

[126] J Lay and K Nolte Determinants of for-eign land acquisitions in low- and middle-income countries Journal of Economic Geog-raphy lbx0111ndash28 2017 url httpsdoiorg101093jeglbx011

[127] L Cotula Tackling the trade law dimensionof ldquoland grabbingrdquo International Institute forEnvironment and Development (iied) 2013url httpswwwiiedorgtackling-

trade-law-dimension-land-grabbing

[128] The Oakland Institute Land Rights Thepurchase and lease of vast tracts of landfrom poor developing countries by wealth-ier nations and international private investorshas led to debate about whether land in-vestment is a tool for development or forceof displacement url https www

oaklandinstitute org land - rights -

issue

[129] European Coordination Via Campesina(ECVC) and Hands-Off The Land (HOTL)Alliance Land concentration land grabbingand peoplersquos struggles in Europe Transna-tional Institute (TNI) 2013 url https

wwwtniorgenpublicationland-

concentration - land - grabbing - and -

peoples-struggles-in-europe-0

[130] P Messerli M Giger MB Dwyer T Breuand S Eckert The geography of large-scaleland acquisitions Analysing socio-ecologicalpatterns of target contexts in the global SouthApplied Geography 53449ndash459 2014 urlhttps doi org 10 1016 j apgeog

201407005

[131] KF Davis P DrsquoOdorico and MC RulliLand grabbing a preliminary quantification ofeconomic impacts on rural livelihoods PopulEnviron 36180ndash192 2014 url httpsdxdoiorg101007s11111-014-0215-2

[132] Interview with Melissa Leach Green grab-bing The social costs of putting a price onnature Transnational Institute (TNI) 2012url httpswwwtniorgenarticlegreen-grabbing

[133] The Oakland Institute Sweden Freezes Pay-ments in Global Carbon Trade Deal Af-ter Expose Reveals Green Resources CheatedLocal Communities url http www

oaklandinstituteorgsweden- freezes-

payments-global

[134] K Lyons and P Westoby How climate changeefforts by developed countries are hurtingAfricarsquos rural poor The Conversation 2015url httptheconversationcomhow-

climate-change-efforts-by-developed-

countries-are-hurting-africas-rural-

poor-47428

[135] W Dalrymple The East India CompanyThe original corporate raiders The Guardian2015 url httpwwwtheguardiancomworld2015mar04east-india-company-

original-corporate-raiders

[136] A White African farming is the new fron-tier for brave investors Sub Saharan Africais the promised land for long term specula-tors The Telegraph 2014 url httpwwwtelegraph co uk finance economics

10901154African-farming-is-the-new-

frontier-for-brave-investorshtml

[137] Haiti Grassroots Watch Behind HaitirsquosHunger Haiti Analysis 2013 url httphaitianalysis blogspot com 2013 10

behind-haitis-hungerhtml

[138] La Via Campesina Farmers leaders from 12countries gather in Bangalore for a semi-nar on Peasant Struggle In India 2015 urlhttpsviacampesinaorgenfarmers-

leaders-from-12-countries-gather-in-

bangalore- for- a- seminar- on- peasant-

struggle-in-india

[139] Access to Land A European network of grass-roots organisations securing land for agroe-cological farming url http www

accesstolandeu

[140] M Fairbairn rsquoLike gold with yieldrsquo evolvingintersections between farmland and financeJournal of Peasant Studies 41777ndash795 2014url http dx doi org 10 1080

030661502013873977

[141] Global AgInvesting The global meeting placefor critical information landmark eventstimely market research and up-to-the-minutenews for the agriculture investment commu-nity url httpwwwglobalaginvestingcom



[142] J Humphreys A Solomon and E Tumusi-ime US Investment in Large-Scale LandAcquisitions in Low- and Middle-IncomeCountries Oxfam America Research Back-grounder 2013 url https www

oxfamamericaorgstaticmediafiles

us-land-investmentpdf

[143] Bank of England Monetary Policy Commit-tee Decisions Minutes and Forecasts urlhttp www bankofengland co uk

monetarypolicyPagesdecisionsaspx

[144] Wikipedia contributors Federal funds rateWikipedia The Free Encyclopedia urlhttps en wikipedia org wiki

Federal_funds_rate

[145] P Heatherington Britainrsquos farmland hasbecome a tax haven Who dares reformit Guardian 2015 url http www

theguardiancomsociety2015sep02

britain-farmland-tax-haven-reform

[146] A Shirley UK farmland will the fields still begold after Brexit The Spectator 2016 urlhttpsblogsspectatorcouk2016

10uk-farmland-brexit

[147] Agrimoney British land prices ease as farmerbuyers step back 2015 url httpwww

agrimoney com news british - land -

prices - ease - as - farmer - buyers - step -

back--8628html

[148] M Fiddes The growing role of non-farmersin the farmland market has been one ofthe notable trends of the past three yearsStrutt amp Parker 2017 url httpswwwstruttandparker com knowledge - and -

researchthe-rise-of-non-farmers-in-

the-farmland-market

[149] A Black Public sale of farmland slows whileprivate sales grow Savills 2015 url http www savills co uk _news article

72418185788- 0012015public- sale-

of - farmland - slows - while - private -

sales-grow

[150] RG Wallace L Bergmann R Kock MGilbert L Hogerwerf R Wallace and MHolmberg The dawn of Structural OneHealth a new science tracking disease emer-gence along circuits of capital Soc Sci Med12968ndash77 2015 url httpdxdoiorg101016jsocscimed201409047

[151] RG Wallace R Kock L Bergmann MGilbert L Hogerwerf C Pittiglio R Mat-tioli and R Wallace Did NeoliberalizingWest African Forests Produce a New Nichefor Ebola Int J Health Serv 46149ndash1652016 url https doi org 10 1177

0020731415611644

[152] The history of central banks Contemporarycriticisms of banks echo debates from timespast The Economist 2017 url https

www economist com news briefing

21721354 - contemporary - criticisms -

central - banks - echo - debates - times -

past-history-central

[153] M Vander Stichele How financialization influ-ences the dynamics of the food supply chainIn Financialization in the food system Spe-cial Issue Mapping the Global Food Land-scape Volume 2 pages 258ndash266 CanadianFood Studies 2015 url httpsdxdoiorg1015353cfs-rceav2i2135

[154] T Ferrando The Financialization of Land andAgriculture Mechanisms Implications andResponses 2017 url httpsssrncomabstract=2916112

[155] Federal Reserve H15 Selected Interest Ratesurl httpswwwfederalreservegov

datadownloadChooseaspxrel=H15

[156] Wikipedia contributors List of multilateralfree-trade agreements Wikipedia The FreeEncyclopedia url httpsenwikipediaorgwikiList_of_multilateral_free-

trade_agreements

[157] 29 countries from Africa and Asia meeting atthe Bandung (Indonesia) International Con-ference Final Communique of the Asian-African conference of Bandung (24 April1955) Ministry of Foreign Affairs Repub-lic of Indonesia 1955 url http

frankeuchicagoeduFinal_Communique_

Bandung_1955pdf

[158] Land Matrix Global map of investments tar-get countries url http landmatrix

org en get - the - idea global - map -

investments

[159] Land Matrix Investor countries ordered bynumber of deals url httplandmatrixorgenget- the- detailby- investor-

countryorder_by=-deal_count

[160] Land Matrix Investor countries by area ac-quired url httplandmatrixorgenget-the-ideaweb-transnational-deals



[161] Land Matrix United States of America coun-tries targetted by this investor country urlhttp landmatrix org en get -

the - detail by - investor - country

united-states-of-americaorder_by=-

contract_size

[162] Land Matrix United Kingdom of GreatBritain and Northern Ireland countries tar-getted by this investor country url httplandmatrixorgenget-the-detailby-

investor- countryunited- kingdom- of-

greatbritain- and- northern- ireland

order_by=contract_size

[163] La Via Campesina International PeasantMovement url httpwwwviacampesinaorg

[164] Coordination Nationale des OrganisationsPaysannes du Mali (CNOP) url http

wwwcnop-maliorg

[165] Movimiento Agroecologico de America Latinay el Caribe (MAELA) http maela -

agroecologiaorg url httpsmaelacwordpresscom

[166] Reseau des organisations paysannes et de pro-ducteurs de lrsquoAfrique de lrsquoOuest (ROPPA)url httpwwwroppa-afriqueorg

[167] World Forum of Fish Harvesters amp Fish-workers (WFF) url http www

worldfisherforumorg

[168] World Forum of Fisher Peoples (WFFP) urlhttpworldfishersorg

[169] World Alliance of Mobile Indigenous Peoples(WAMIP) url httpwwwcenestaorgen category themes - en nomads - en

wamip-en

[170] More and Better (MaB) url httpwwwmoreandbetterorg

[171] La Via Campesina Agrarian reform urlhttps viacampesina org en s =

agrarian+reform

[172] GRAIN Hungry for land small farmers feedthe world with less than a quarter of all farm-land 2014 url httpswwwgrainorgarticleentries4929-hungry-for-land-

small - farmers - feed - the - world - with -

less-than-a-quarter-of-all-farmland

[173] Berne Declaration Center for Studies andResearch on Rural Law and Land ReformCatholic University Our Lady of the Assump-tion Asuncion Paraguay (CEIRAD) Mis-ereor Pro Stevia Switzerland SUNU andUniversity of Hohenheim The bitter sweettaste of stevia Commercialisation of Stevia-derived sweeteners by violating the rights ofindigenous peoples misleading marketing andcontroversial SynBio production Public Eye2015 url httpswwwpubliceyechenmedia press - release stevia _ derived _

sweeteners_violate_indigenous_rights

[174] ETC Group Synthetic Biology Biodiversityamp Farmers Case studies exploring the im-pact of synthetic biology on natural prod-ucts livelihoods and sustainable use of biodi-versity ETC Communique 2016 url http etcgroup org content synthetic -

biology-biodiversity-farmers

[175] H Gray Black Farmersrsquo Lives MatterThe significant contributions of Black Farm-ers in America 2015 url http

foodsovereigntyprize org black -

farmers-lives-matter-the-significant-

contributions - of - black - farmers - in -

america

[176] Federation of Southern CooperativesLandAssistance Fund url http www

federationcoop

[177] J Metzker Haitian Farmers Lauded for FoodSovereignty Work Inter Press Service NewsAgency 2013 url httpwwwipsnews

net201308haitian- farmers- lauded-

for-food-sovereignty-work

[178] M Remy and S Tramel Movement buildingat the heart of Haitian peasantsrsquo response toclimate change Farming Matters Experiencesin family farming and agroecology 2017 urlhttps www ileia org 2017 06 26

food-climate-movement-building-heart-

haitian - peasants - response - climate -

change

[179] S Araujo The Children of Haiti An Ongo-ing Fight for Food Sovereignty Why Hunger2014 url https whyhunger org

connectitem2704-children-of-haiti

[180] US Food Sovereignty Alliance FoodSovereignty Prize International WinnerBlack Fraternal Organization of Hon-duras (OFRANEH) 2015 url http



foodsovereigntyprizeorgportfolio

international-winner

[181] La Organizacion Fraternal Negra Hondurena(OFRANEH) url httpwwwofraneh

org

[182] US Food Sovereignty Alliance FoodSovereignty Prize International WinnerZimbabwe Smallholder Organic FarmersForum (ZIMSOFF) 2017 url http


international - winner - zimbabwe -

smallholder-organic-farmers-forum

[183] Zimbabwe Smallholder Organic Farmers Fo-rum (ZIMSOFF) url httpwwwesafforgZimbabwe

[184] Brazil-Holland Urban Agriculture AllianceTranscultural pollination ndash Collective intelli-gence ndash Community of Practice url httpagriculturaurbanaorgbrUAalliance

folheto_rede_cariocahtml

[185] L Penniman Four Ways Mexicorsquos Indige-nous Farmers Are Practicing the Agricultureof the Future Yes Magazine 2015 urlhttp www yesmagazine org planet

four-ways-mexico-indigenous-farmers-

agriculture-of-the-future-20150810

[186] J Conant It begins with respect the mean-ing of living well for the Tseltal and Tsot-sil Mayans of Chiapas 2013 url http

jeffconantwordpresscom20130724

their - opulence - is - our - destruction -

the - meaning - of - living - well - for -

the - tseltal - and - tsotsil - mayans - of -

chiapas

[187] J O Shea The Protest Movement in PeruStrengthening Sustainable Production andLocal Economies Protecting the Environ-ment Pronouncement of the Cumbre de losPueblos Global Research 2014 url httpswwwglobalresearchcathe-protest-

movement - in - peru - strengthening -

sustainable - production - and - local -

economies-protecting-the-environment

5416138

[188] Lok Sanjh an organisation that promotesstrategies for socially and environmentallysound agriculture through focused researchpolicy advice and advocacy url http

loksanjhorg

[189] D Moss Why a Public Sector IndianAgronomist Embraced Agroecology FoodtankThe Think Tank for Food 2017 url httpsfoodtankcomnews201704indian-

indigenous-agroecological-traditions

[190] P Thapa Making Agroecology Viable forSmall Farmers Experiences from the FieldFocus India 2014 url httpsfocusweborg content making - agroecology -

viable - small - farmers - experiences -

field

[191] Magsasaka at Siyentipiko para sa Pag-unladng Agrikultura (MASIPAG Farmer-ScientistPartnership for Development) url httpmasipagorg

[192] Sustainable Agriculture Tanzania (SAT) urlhttpkilimoorg

[193] R Burgess Fibershed local fibers local dyeslocal labor url httpwwwfibershed

com

[194] The Oakland Institute AgroecologyCase Studies url https www

oaklandinstitute org agroecology -

case-studies

[195] US Food Sovereignty Alliance TheFood Sovereignty Prize url http

foodsovereigntyprizeorg

[196] MA Altieri FR Funes-Monzote and P Pe-tersen Agroecologically efficient agriculturalsystems for smallholder farmers contributionsto food sovereignty Agronomy for SustainableDevelopment 321ndash13 2012 url httpdxdoiorg101007s13593-011-0065-6

[197] M Altieri and CI Nicholls The adap-tation and mitigation potential of tradi-tional agriculture in a changing climate Cli-matic Change 14035ndash45 2017 PublishedOnline 2013 https www socla co

wp - content uploads 2014 ALTIERI -

NICHOLLS - CLIMATIC - CHANGE pdf urlhttpsdoiorg101007s10584-013-

0909-y

[198] CI Nicholls MA Altieri and L VazquezAgroecology principles for the conversion andredesign of farming systems J Ecosys Eco-graph S51 2016 url httpdxdoiorg1041722157-7625S5-010



[199] F Chaboussou Healthy plants a new agri-cultural revolution Jon Carpenter Charl-bury UK 1985 url https www

bookdepository com Healthy - Crops -

Francis-Chaboussou9781897766897

[200] CI Nicholls and MA Altieri Designingspecies-rich pest-suppressive agroecosystemsthrough habitat management In D Rick-erl and C Francis editors AgroecosystemAnalysis pages 49ndash62 American Society ofAgronomy 2004 url http agronomy

unl edu FarmingSystems organic

resourcevolumes Nicholis - Altieri -

chapter04pdf

[201] A Idel Cows are not climate killers Ecol-ogy amp farming 416ndash19 2011 url httpwww pastoralpeoples org wp - content

uploads 2012 09 Presentation - Anita -

Idelpdf

[202] Science for Environment Policy EuropeanCommissionrsquos Directorate-General Environ-ment Nitrogen Pollution and the EuropeanEnvironment Implications for Air QualityPolicy 2013 url http ec europa

euenvironmentintegrationresearch

newsalertpdfIR6_enpdf

[203] N Wenner and M Forkin Indigo sourcesprocesses and possibilities for bioregionalblue Fibershed 2017 url http www

fibershed com wp - content uploads

2017 08 indigo - sources - processes -

possibilities-june2017pdf

[204] SL Dwivedi ET Lammerts van Bueren SCeccarelli S Grando HD Upadhyaya andR Ortiz Diversifying food systems in thepursuit of sustainable food production andhealthy diets Trends Plant Sci 22842ndash8562017 url httpsdoiorg101016jtplants201706011

[205] P Koohafkan and M Altieri Globally Impor-tant Agricultural Heritage Systems A Legacyfor the Future Food and Agriculture Organi-zation of the United Nations 2011 url http www fao org docrep 014 i2232e

i2232e00htm

[206] Food and Agriculture Organisation GloballyImportant Agricultural Heritage systems (GI-AHS) url httpwwwfaoorggiahsen

[207] J Paull The making of an agricultural clas-sic Farmers of Forty Centuries or PermanentAgriculture in China Korea and Japan 1911-2011 Agricultural sciences 2175ndash180 2011url httpdxdoiorg104236as

201123024

[208] J Paull The farm as organism the foun-dational idea of organic agriculture J Bio-Dynamics Tasmania 8014ndash18 2006 urlhttporgprintsorg10138

[209] WA Albrecht Soil Fertility amp Animal Health(The Albrecht Papers Vol II) Archive 1958url https archive org details

SoilFertilityAnimalHealthTheAlbrechtPapersVolII

[210] D Thomas The mineral depletion of foodsavailable to us as a nation (1940-2002) ndash areview of the 6th Edition of McCance andWiddowson Nutr Health 1921ndash55 2007 urlhttpciteseerxistpsueduviewdoc

download doi = 10 1 1 503 1940 amp rep =

rep1amptype=pdf

[211] Public Health England McCance and Wid-dowsonrsquos ldquocomposition of foods integrateddatasetrdquo on the nutrient content of the UKfood supply UK Government 2015 urlhttps www gov uk government

publications composition - of - foods -

integrated-dataset-cofid

[212] DR Davis MD Epp and HD RiordanChanges in USDA food composition data for43 garden crops 1950 to 1999 J Am CollNutr 232669ndash682 2004 url httpswwwncbinlmnihgovpubmed15637215

[213] DR Davis Declining Fruit and Vegetable Nu-trient Composition What Is the EvidenceHorScience 4415ndash19 2009 url http

hortsciashspublicationsorgcontent

44115full

[214] H-J Weigel Crops and Climage ChangePlant quality declines as CO2 levels rise Elife3e03233 2014 url httpsdoiorg107554eLife03233

[215] United Nations Environment Programe(UNEP) Frontiers Emerging issues of en-vironmental concern 2016 url http

wwwuneporgfrontiers

[216] MC Pagano EJ Azevedo Correa NFDuarte B Yelikbayev A OrsquoDonovan andVK Gupta Advances in Eco-Efficient Agri-culture The Plant-Soil Mycobiome Agricul-ture 714 2017 url httpdxdoiorg103390agriculture7020014



[217] MA Altieri CI Nicholls A Henao andMA Lana Agroecology and the design of cli-mate change-resilient farming systems AgronSustain Dev 35869ndash890 2015 url httpsdoiorg101007s13593-015-0285-2

[218] SL Ishaq Plant-microbial interactions inagriculture and the use of farming systems toimprove diversity and productivity AIMS Mi-crobiology 3335ndash353 2017 url httpdxdoiorg103934microbiol20172335

[219] KR Theis NM Dheilly JL Klassen RMBrucker JF Baines TC Bosch JF CryanSF Gilbert CJ Goodnight EA LloydJ Sapp P Vandenkoornhuyse I Zilber-Rosenberg E Rosenberg and SR Borden-stein Getting the Hologenome Concept Rightan Eco-Evolutionary Framework for Hostsand Their Microbiomes mSystems 29e000282016 url https doi org 10 1128

mSystems00028-16

[220] DH McNear The Rhizosphere ndash Roots Soiland Everything in Between Nature Educa-tion Knowledge 41 2013 url https

www nature com scitable knowledge

librarythe- rhizosphere- roots- soil-

and-67500617

[221] FT de Vries and MD Wallenstein Below-ground connections underlying above-groundfood production a framework for optimisingecological connections in the rhizosphere JEcology 105913ndash920 2017 url https

dxdoiorg1011111365-274512783

[222] K Field Mycorrhizal networks in ecosys-tem structure and functioning FunctionalEcology 2014 url http www

functionalecology org view 0

virtualIssuesVI_MycorrhizalNetworks

html

[223] S Thompson How trees communicate via aWood Wide Web The Conversation 2017url httptheconversationcomhow-

trees - communicate - via - a - wood - wide -

web-65368

[224] D Johnson and L Gilbert Interplant sig-nalling through hyphal networks New Phytol2051448ndash1453 2015 url httpsdoiorg101111nph13115

[225] Lok Sanjh Foundation (LSF) Sisal A GoldenRevolution for Pakistan 2016 url https

loksanjhorgwpwp-contentuploads

pdfSisal_Report_LSFpdf

[226] Fibershed Program Fiber Systems Researchndash we develop land-based models that revivethe role of historically respected fiber amp dyeplants and animals url http www

fibershedcomprogramsfiber-systems-

research

[227] Fibershed Program Textile Economy urlhttp www fibershed com programs

textile-economy

[228] Cultural Heritage Preservation and NaturalDyes Laboratory The Worldrsquos Most ExtensiveCollection of Natural Dye Plants and Dye In-sects url httpwwwtcfdatuorg

[229] Land Workersrsquo Alliance Fibre fuel and flow-ers url httpslandworkersalliance

orgukorganisationfibre- fuel- and-

flowers

[230] Lok Sanjh Foundation (LSF) Oxfam-Noviband Rural Business Development Centre(RBDC) International Cotton ConferenceFrom Farm to Fashion 2015 url httprbdccompkconference

[231] Fibershed Our Mission amp Vision Fibersheddevelops regional and regenerative fiber sys-tems on behalf of independent working pro-ducers url httpwwwfibershedcomabout

[232] Vreseis Breeding and growing organic natu-rally colored cottons and wool since 1982 urlhttpwwwvreseiscom

[233] Fibershed Indigo url http www


researchindigo

[234] Fibershed Community Supported Cloth urlhttp www fibershed com programs

textile- economycommunity- supported-

cloth

[235] Fibershed Grown Your Jeans url http

wwwfibershedcomprogramsfiber-

systems-researchgrow-your-jeans

[236] R Wallace Strange cotton 2013 url https farmingpathogens wordpress com

20130816strange-cotton

[237] MJ Coren Luddites have been getting a badrap for 200 years But turns out they wereright 2017 url httpsqzcom968692luddites-have-been-getting-a-bad-rap-

for - 200 - years - but - turns - out - they -

were-right



[238] Luddites200 Organising Forum The Lud-dites at 200 For action against technologyrsquohurtful to Commonalityrsquo url http

luddites200orguk

[239] Breaking the Frame Exposing and challeng-ing the politics of technology url httpbreakingtheframeorguk

[240] S Beckert Empire of Cotton A Global His-tory Alfred A Knopf 2015 url https

www penguinrandomhouse com books

10461 empire - of - cotton - by - sven -

beckert9780375713965

[241] C Rosenthal Rosenthal on Johnson ldquoRiverof Dark Dreams Slavery and Empire in theCotton Kingdomrdquo H-Net Humanities andSocial Studies Online 2015 url https

networks h - net org node 11465

discussions 60730 review - rosenthal -

johnson - river - dark - dreams - slavery -

and-empire

[242] W Johnson River of Dark Dreams Slaveryand Empire in the Cotton Kingdom HarvardUniversity Press 2013 url http www

hup harvard edu catalog php isbn =

9780674045552

[243] M Harris Review A Future History of theUnited States 2016 url https www

blackagendareport com ruling _ class _

and_us_slavery

[244] W Benns American Slavery ReinventedThe Atlantic 2015 url https www

theatlantic com business archive

2015 09 prison - labor - in - america

406177

[245] A Cohen At Louisianarsquos most notoriousprison a clash of testament The Atlantic2013 url https www theatlantic

com national archive 2013 10 at -

louisianas- most- notoriousprison- a-

clash-of-testament280414

[246] T Lang and G Rayner Ecological publichealth the 21st centuryrsquos big idea An es-say by Tim Lang and Geof Rayner BMJ345e5466 2012 url httpsdoiorg101136bmje5466

[247] M Altieri and V Toledo The agroecologi-cal revolution in Latin America rescuing na-ture ensuring food sovereignty and empow-ering peasants Rio+20 Proposals 2012 urlhttprio20netenpropuestasthe-

agroecological - revolution - in - latin -

america - rescuing - nature - ensuring -

food - sovereignty - and - empowering -

peasants

[248] La Via Campesina Field School url httpsviacampesinaorgens=field+school

[249] LrsquoAtelier Paysan small scale farmer-driventechnologies and practices for organic farm-ing url https latelierpaysan org

English

[250] Soil Association Innovative Farmers Fuellingfarmers bright ideas url https www

soilassociationorgfarmers- growers

innovative-farming

[251] International Peoplersquos Health University(IPHU) The Right to Water url http

wwwiphuorgenwater

[252] Right2Water European Citizensrsquo InitiativeRight to Water and Sanitation url http

wwwright2watereu

[253] Food and Agriculture Organization of theUnited Nations The State of the WorldrsquosBiodiversity for Food and Agriculture 2017url http www fao org nr cgrfa

biodiversitysowbfaen

[254] J Weiner Applying plant ecological knowl-edge to increase agricultural sustainability JEcology 105865ndash870 2017 url https

dxdoiorg1011111365-274512792

[255] Scripps Institution of Oceanography ScrippsO2 Program url httpscrippso2ucsdedu

[256] National Oceanic and Atmospheric Adminis-tration (NOAA) What are El Nino and LaNina url httpsoceanservicenoaa

govfactsninoninahtml

[257] D Nakashima Local and indigenous knowl-edge at the science ndash policy interfaceIn UNESCO Science Report towards2030 pages 15ndash17 2015 url http

enunescoorgunesco_science_reporthttpunesdocunescoorgimages0023002354235406epdf

[258] F Mazzocchi Western science and traditionalknowledge Despite their variations differentforms of knowledge can learn from each otherEMBO Rep 7463ndash466 2006 url httpsdoiorg101038sjembor7400693

[259] MG Rivera-Ferre and M Ortega-CerdaRecognising ignorance in decision-makingStrategies for a more sustainable agricultureEMBO Rep 12393ndash397 2011 url https

doiorg101038embor201155



[260] European Coordination Via Campesina Morefarmers better food url wwweuroviaorglang=en

[261] International Center for Agricultural Re-search in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) In-ternational Plant Genetic Resources Insti-tute (IPGRI) Food and Agriculture Or-ganization of the United Nations (FAO)and Genetic Resources Conservation Pro-gram Division of Agriculture and Natural Re-sources University of California (UCGRCP)The Origins of Agriculture and Crop Do-mestication AB Damania J ValkounG Willcox and CO Qualset editorsICARDA Aleppo Syria 1998 url http

www bioversityinternational org

fileadmin bioversity publications

Web_version47beginhtm ISBN 92-9127-084-9

[262] Just Space An informal alliance of communitygroups campaigns and concerned independentorganisation formed in 2006 to act as a voicefor Londoners at grass-roots level during theformulation of Londonrsquos major planning strat-egy url httpsjustspaceorguk

[263] Just Space Towards a community-led LondonPlan Policy directions and proposals 2016url https justspacelondon files

wordpresscom201309just-space-a4-

community-led-london-planpdf

[264] Just Space Community visions for the nextLondon Plan(s) 2017 url https

justspacelondonfileswordpresscom

201309just-space-a4-community-led-

london-planpdf

[265] International Panel of Experts on SustainableFood Systems (IPES-Food) What makes ur-ban food policy happen Insights from fivecase studies 2017 url httpwwwipes-foodorgimagesReportsCities_full

pdf

[266] Northern Alliance for Sustainability(ANPED) The Seven Principles for aFair and Green Economy 2012 urlhttpwwwfibershedcomwp-content

uploads201205principlespdf

[267] National Institutes of Health (NIH) Na-tional Science Foundation (NSF) US De-partment of Agriculture (USDA) Envi-ronmental Protection Agency (EPA) andOffice of Science and Technology Policy(OSTP) Federal RePORTER a searchable

database of scientific awards from agen-cies httpswwwstarmetricsnihgov urlhttpsfederalreporternihgov

[268] EM Talley D Newman D Mimno BWHerr II HM Wallach GA Burns AGLeenders and A McCallum Database of NIHgrants using machine-learned categories andgraphical clustering Nat methods 8443ndash4442011 url httpdxdoiorg101038nmeth1619

[269] M DeLonge A Miles and L Carlisle Invest-ing in the transition to sustainable agricultureEnvironmental Science amp Policy 55266ndash2732016 url httpsdoiorg101016jenvsci201509013

[270] A Miles MS DeLonge and L Carlisle Trig-gering a positive research and policy feed-back cycle to support a transition to agroe-cology and sustainable food systems Agroe-cology and Sustainable Food Systems 41855ndash879 2017 url httpdxdoiorg10

10802168356520171331179

[271] Research Councils UK RCUK gateway topublicly funded research url httpgtrrcukacuk

[272] European Research Council Commu-nity Research and Development Infor-mation Service (CORDIS) Data and reusehttpsdataeuropaeueuodpendatadatasetcordisH2020projectsurl httpcordiseuropaeuguidancedata_enhtml

[273] M Altieri Linking ecologists and traditionalfarmers in the search for sustainable agricul-ture Front Ecol Environ 235ndash42 2004 http agroeco org wp - content uploads

201009Link- ecolandTradFarmerspdfurl httpdxdoiorg1018901540-9295(2004)002[0035LEATFI]20CO2

[274] C Morris and D Sands From grains to rainthe link between landscape airborne microor-ganisms and climate processes 2012 urlhttpsbioicefileswordpresscom

201205grainsrain_v26apr2012dpdf

[275] Biological Ice Nucleators A scientific forumabout organisms that can catalyze the freezingof water and their roles in nature url httpsbioicewordpresscom



[276] P Amato M Joly L Besaury A Oudart NTaib AI Mone L Deguillaume AM De-lort and D Debroas Active microorganismsthrive among extremely diverse communitiesin cloud water PLoS One 12e0182869 2017url httpsdoiorg101371journalpone0182869

[277] EK Bigg S Soubeyrand and CE MorrisPersistent after-effects of heavy rain on con-centrations of ice nuclei and rainfall suggest abiological cause Atmospheric Chemistry andPhysics 152313ndash2326 2015 url http

doiorg105194acp-15-2313-2015

[278] D Heinzeller W Junkermann and H Kun-stmann Anthropogenic aerosol emissions andrainfall decline in Southwestern Australia co-incidence or causality Journal of Climate298471ndash8493 2016 url httpsdoiorg101175JCLI-D-16-00821

[279] CE Morris S Soubeyrand EK Bigg JKCreamean and DC Sands Mapping rainfallfeedback to reveal the potential sensitivity ofprecipitation to biological aerosols Bulletin ofthe American Meteorological Society 981109ndash1118 2017 url httpsdoiorg101175BAMS-D-15-002931

[280] CE Morris S Soubeyrand EK Bigg JMCreamean and DC Sands A framework toassess the contribution of bioaerosols to theoutcome of meteorological contexts favorablefor rainfall bioRXiv 2016 url https

doiorg101101070532

[281] LH Dietterich A Zanobetti I KloogP Huybers AD Leakey AJ Bloom ECarlisle N Fernando G Fitzgerald THasegawa NM Holbrook RL Nelson RNorton MJ Ottman V Raboy H SakaiKA Sartor J Schwartz S Seneweera YUsui S Yoshinaga and SS Myers Impacts ofelevated atmospheric CO2 on nutrient contentof important food crops Sci Data 21500362015 url https doi org 10 1038

sdata201536


Introduction

The trans-Atlantic slave trade and European Empires

Background notes

Visualisations what data can tell us about hellip

21st century large-scale land acquisitions and their consequences

Background notes


Traditional farming systems agricultural biodiversity and climate change

Background notes


Data science and agricultural policy

Whole food systems policy Community-led London Plan through the lens of food

Research and development policy public funds allocated to basic and applied studies in agroecology

Small scale farmer-scientist collaborations

Supplementary Material

Files details and availability

Software details and availability

Acknowledgements


mental technological institutional societal and envi-ronmental changerdquo posed the question ldquoWhat is therole of central banks in addressing risks from climatechangerdquo [1] Seven months later Bank of EnglandGovernor Mark Carney delivered a speech at Lloydrsquosof London an institution that was founded in 1688at a time when ldquoLondonrsquos importance as a trade cen-tre led to an increasing demand for ship and cargoinsurancerdquo and that ldquodevelops the essential complexand critical insurance needed to underwrite humanprogressrdquo [9] He warned that ldquoclimate change is thetragedy of the horizonrdquo noting that insurers are ldquoan-ticipating broader global impacts on property migra-tion and political stability as well as food and watersecurityrdquo [10]

A June 2017 publication by the Bank of Englandstates ldquoClimate change and societyrsquos responses to itpresent financial risks which impact upon the Banksobjectives These risks arise through two primarychannels the physical effects of climate change andthe impact of changes associated with the transitionto a lower-carbon economyrdquo [11] Given the Bankrsquosmission is to ldquodeliver monetary and financial stabilityfor the British peoplerdquo [12] the economic health ofwhole food systems [13] as well as the (re)building ofrural and urban agricultural economies at home [14]and abroad [15] ndash including across the Atlantic [16] ndashare of more than passing interest

Here our specific aim is to illuminate the evolv-ing relationship between fiscal policy monetary pol-icy and agricultural policy by painting a general pic-ture of the impacts of Britain on the lands agricul-tures and economies of peoples and regions acrossthe globe over five centuries Our overall objective isto highlight ldquoagroecologyrdquo as defined and describedin the 2015 Report of the International Forum forAgroecology not just agriculture but the full diver-sity of food production gathering and consumptionndash knowledge that is the outcome of diverse historicalexperiences and practices [17 18] That is a trans-disciplinary participatory applied science embeddedin a social context [19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 2728] Agroecologyrsquos multiple benefits include ensuringfood sovereignty [29] sustaining and improving hu-man health [30 31] providing meaningful livelihoods[32] sustaining resilient communities [33] mitigatingthe effects of climate change [34 35 36 37] and pro-moting local and stable economies [38 39]

We propose that agroecology [18 19 21 40] ndash un-dergirded by food sovereignty [29] land sovereignty[41] the right to water [42] agricultural biodiver-sity [43] and environmental health [44] ndash providesa shared direct and cost-effective response to issuesof concern to society writ large as well as the Bank

of England fundamental technological institutionalsocietal and environmental change in general and cli-mate change in particular [1]

Although not our focus trade labour accumu-lated wealth and land were of concern domesticallyduring the period we consider ndash notably the Scot-tish clearances and Parliamentary Enclosures [45]As elsewhere in the world land and its ownershipremains a pressing issue farms in England under50 hectares are in danger of vanishing by 2050 eventhough they ldquocreate greater diversity in food produc-tion and conservation both of which shape rural her-itage and rural economiesrdquo [46] In Britain a pol-icy of increasing access to land would support newentrants to farming [47] Indeed a significant in-crease in the number of small agroecological marketgardens (including those less than 5 hectares) coulddeliver environmental and social benefits such as re-ducing the trade gap for fruit and vegetables provid-ing year-round employment and rejuvenating com-munities [48] Clearly agroecology- and whole foodsystems-related policies and issues are critical todayas well as tomorrow in the post-Brexit era [49 50]

This paper is organised as follows Section 2 is anoverview of the trans-Atlantic slave trade and Eu-ropean Empires Section 3 considers 21st centurylarge-scale land acquisitions Section 4 explores tra-ditional farming systems agricultural biodiversityand climate change Each section contains back-ground notes and visualisations of publicly available(macro)economic and alternative datasets With re-spect to the timelines and events chart and car-tograms our aim is not that each one be interpretedinspected and analysed in minute detail Ratherthese visual surveys of diverse information (re)sourcesare designed to highlight broad trends and to illus-trate points andor themes discussed in one or moreof the aforementioned sections Whether locallynationally regionally and internationally evidence-informed policy for agrocology and whole food sys-tems requires not just data but also ideas and argu-ments (the human element) [51] In large part thisis because predictions arising from the application ofmachine learning methods to data are necessary butnot sufficient when making decisions for policy prob-lems data have limits [52] and the ldquoera of blind faithin big data must endrdquo [53] Bearing this caveat inmind Section 5 identifies three under-investigatedbut critical aspects of agricultural policy and dis-cusses how and when data science could contribute toaddressing specific problems (a) whole food systemspolicy the Community-led London Plan through thelens of food (a grassroot efforts to transform the pol-icy of a large and complex city) (b) research and





21 Background notes









































31 Background notes
























41 Background notes
























































bull R code

bull Datasets













7 Acknowledgements


References









financial-crises



and-inequality



timelinehtm














aspx



aspx











html





58b4af62e4b0658fc20f992f



0014-4




FINAL-WEBpdf



knowledge







9781482241761



numero-2












phparticle334


dxdoiorg101007s40572-017-0146-

z


10802168356520171326073












climate-change



crisis



html




the-case



global-land-grab





Mulvanypdf











a-cliff-edge



newentrants







benefits




state







3556324468






of_Tordesillas


of_Zaragoza




id=307ampItemid=152



united-kingdom



















sweet-toothhtml





pdf




shtml









1111j1468-0289200700400x






Houblon





Baronet


India_Company





ebookhtml



gallery_14shtml



britain-slave-trade








28insuranceusnews



it-pay-reparations




scale-revealed



baronets


view2146638551


view25073




Beeston_Long





42cb-a13d-85106e90e947pdf



us



joseph-1757-1824





1876







8508358html





trade


viewaspxindex=730





placeshtml




england-50212







British_Empire



never_sets













doiorg1010022014EF000281


2012674940




1213163110





html


pnas1524741113



trading




01html


grabbing




landmatrixorg







issue






201407005





payments-global




poor-47428











struggle-in-india


accesstolandeu


030661502013873977










Federal_funds_rate









back--8628html



the-farmland-market


72418185788- 0012015public- sale-


sales-grow



0020731415611644











trade_agreements



Bandung_1955pdf



investments









contract_size







wwwcnop-maliorg





worldfisherforumorg



wamip-en



agrarian+reform












america


federationcoop







change









org
















chiapas





5416138


loksanjhorg





field




com



case-studies







0909-y










chapter04pdf



Idelpdf










i2232e00htm



201123024






rep1amptype=pdf







44115full



wwwuneporgfrontiers







mSystems00028-16




and-67500617


dxdoiorg1011111365-274512783




html



web-65368







research


textile-economy




flowers






researchindigo



cloth








were-right




luddites200orguk





beckert9780375713965





and-empire



9780674045552



and_us_slavery




406177










peasants



English



innovative-farming


wwwiphuorgenwater


wwwright2watereu




dxdoiorg1011111365-274512792























london-planpdf


pdf








10802168356520171331179












doiorg105194acp-15-2313-2015




doiorg101101070532


sdata201536


Introduction


Background notes



Background notes



Background notes









Acknowledgements




21 Background notes









































31 Background notes
























41 Background notes
























































bull R code

bull Datasets













7 Acknowledgements


References









financial-crises



and-inequality



timelinehtm














aspx



aspx











html





58b4af62e4b0658fc20f992f



0014-4




FINAL-WEBpdf



knowledge







9781482241761



numero-2












phparticle334


dxdoiorg101007s40572-017-0146-

z


10802168356520171326073












climate-change



crisis



html




the-case



global-land-grab





Mulvanypdf











a-cliff-edge



newentrants







benefits




state







3556324468






of_Tordesillas


of_Zaragoza




id=307ampItemid=152



united-kingdom



















sweet-toothhtml





pdf




shtml









1111j1468-0289200700400x






Houblon





Baronet


India_Company





ebookhtml



gallery_14shtml



britain-slave-trade








28insuranceusnews



it-pay-reparations




scale-revealed



baronets


view2146638551


view25073




Beeston_Long





42cb-a13d-85106e90e947pdf



us



joseph-1757-1824





1876







8508358html





trade


viewaspxindex=730





placeshtml




england-50212







British_Empire



never_sets













doiorg1010022014EF000281


2012674940




1213163110





html


pnas1524741113



trading




01html


grabbing




landmatrixorg







issue






201407005





payments-global




poor-47428











struggle-in-india


accesstolandeu


030661502013873977










Federal_funds_rate









back--8628html



the-farmland-market


72418185788- 0012015public- sale-


sales-grow



0020731415611644











trade_agreements



Bandung_1955pdf



investments









contract_size







wwwcnop-maliorg





worldfisherforumorg



wamip-en



agrarian+reform












america


federationcoop







change









org
















chiapas





5416138


loksanjhorg





field




com



case-studies







0909-y










chapter04pdf



Idelpdf










i2232e00htm



201123024






rep1amptype=pdf







44115full



wwwuneporgfrontiers







mSystems00028-16




and-67500617


dxdoiorg1011111365-274512783




html



web-65368







research


textile-economy




flowers






researchindigo



cloth








were-right




luddites200orguk





beckert9780375713965





and-empire



9780674045552



and_us_slavery




406177










peasants



English



innovative-farming


wwwiphuorgenwater


wwwright2watereu




dxdoiorg1011111365-274512792























london-planpdf


pdf








10802168356520171331179












doiorg105194acp-15-2313-2015




doiorg101101070532


sdata201536


Introduction


Background notes



Background notes



Background notes









Acknowledgements

































31 Background notes
























41 Background notes
























































bull R code

bull Datasets













7 Acknowledgements


References









financial-crises



and-inequality



timelinehtm














aspx



aspx











html





58b4af62e4b0658fc20f992f



0014-4




FINAL-WEBpdf



knowledge







9781482241761



numero-2












phparticle334


dxdoiorg101007s40572-017-0146-

z


10802168356520171326073












climate-change



crisis



html




the-case



global-land-grab





Mulvanypdf











a-cliff-edge



newentrants







benefits




state







3556324468






of_Tordesillas


of_Zaragoza




id=307ampItemid=152



united-kingdom



















sweet-toothhtml





pdf




shtml









1111j1468-0289200700400x






Houblon





Baronet


India_Company





ebookhtml



gallery_14shtml



britain-slave-trade








28insuranceusnews



it-pay-reparations




scale-revealed



baronets


view2146638551


view25073




Beeston_Long





42cb-a13d-85106e90e947pdf



us



joseph-1757-1824





1876







8508358html





trade


viewaspxindex=730





placeshtml




england-50212







British_Empire



never_sets













doiorg1010022014EF000281


2012674940




1213163110





html


pnas1524741113



trading




01html


grabbing




landmatrixorg







issue






201407005





payments-global




poor-47428











struggle-in-india


accesstolandeu


030661502013873977










Federal_funds_rate









back--8628html



the-farmland-market


72418185788- 0012015public- sale-


sales-grow



0020731415611644











trade_agreements



Bandung_1955pdf



investments









contract_size







wwwcnop-maliorg





worldfisherforumorg



wamip-en



agrarian+reform












america


federationcoop







change









org
















chiapas





5416138


loksanjhorg





field




com



case-studies







0909-y










chapter04pdf



Idelpdf










i2232e00htm



201123024






rep1amptype=pdf







44115full



wwwuneporgfrontiers







mSystems00028-16




and-67500617


dxdoiorg1011111365-274512783




html



web-65368







research


textile-economy




flowers






researchindigo



cloth








were-right




luddites200orguk





beckert9780375713965





and-empire



9780674045552



and_us_slavery




406177










peasants



English



innovative-farming


wwwiphuorgenwater


wwwright2watereu




dxdoiorg1011111365-274512792























london-planpdf


pdf








10802168356520171331179












doiorg105194acp-15-2313-2015




doiorg101101070532


sdata201536


Introduction


Background notes



Background notes



Background notes









Acknowledgements




















41 Background notes
























































bull R code

bull Datasets













7 Acknowledgements


References









financial-crises



and-inequality



timelinehtm














aspx



aspx











html





58b4af62e4b0658fc20f992f



0014-4




FINAL-WEBpdf



knowledge







9781482241761



numero-2












phparticle334


dxdoiorg101007s40572-017-0146-

z


10802168356520171326073












climate-change



crisis



html




the-case



global-land-grab





Mulvanypdf











a-cliff-edge



newentrants







benefits




state







3556324468






of_Tordesillas


of_Zaragoza




id=307ampItemid=152



united-kingdom



















sweet-toothhtml





pdf




shtml









1111j1468-0289200700400x






Houblon





Baronet


India_Company





ebookhtml



gallery_14shtml



britain-slave-trade








28insuranceusnews



it-pay-reparations




scale-revealed



baronets


view2146638551


view25073




Beeston_Long





42cb-a13d-85106e90e947pdf



us



joseph-1757-1824





1876







8508358html





trade


viewaspxindex=730





placeshtml




england-50212







British_Empire



never_sets













doiorg1010022014EF000281


2012674940




1213163110





html


pnas1524741113



trading




01html


grabbing




landmatrixorg







issue






201407005





payments-global




poor-47428











struggle-in-india


accesstolandeu


030661502013873977










Federal_funds_rate









back--8628html



the-farmland-market


72418185788- 0012015public- sale-


sales-grow



0020731415611644











trade_agreements



Bandung_1955pdf



investments









contract_size







wwwcnop-maliorg





worldfisherforumorg



wamip-en



agrarian+reform












america


federationcoop







change









org
















chiapas





5416138


loksanjhorg





field




com



case-studies







0909-y










chapter04pdf



Idelpdf










i2232e00htm



201123024






rep1amptype=pdf







44115full



wwwuneporgfrontiers







mSystems00028-16




and-67500617


dxdoiorg1011111365-274512783




html



web-65368







research


textile-economy




flowers






researchindigo



cloth








were-right




luddites200orguk





beckert9780375713965





and-empire



9780674045552



and_us_slavery




406177










peasants



English



innovative-farming


wwwiphuorgenwater


wwwright2watereu




dxdoiorg1011111365-274512792























london-planpdf


pdf








10802168356520171331179












doiorg105194acp-15-2313-2015




doiorg101101070532


sdata201536


Introduction


Background notes



Background notes



Background notes









Acknowledgements




















































bull R code

bull Datasets













7 Acknowledgements


References









financial-crises



and-inequality



timelinehtm














aspx



aspx











html





58b4af62e4b0658fc20f992f



0014-4




FINAL-WEBpdf



knowledge







9781482241761



numero-2












phparticle334


dxdoiorg101007s40572-017-0146-

z


10802168356520171326073












climate-change



crisis



html




the-case



global-land-grab





Mulvanypdf











a-cliff-edge



newentrants







benefits




state







3556324468






of_Tordesillas


of_Zaragoza




id=307ampItemid=152



united-kingdom



















sweet-toothhtml





pdf




shtml









1111j1468-0289200700400x






Houblon





Baronet


India_Company





ebookhtml



gallery_14shtml



britain-slave-trade








28insuranceusnews



it-pay-reparations




scale-revealed



baronets


view2146638551


view25073




Beeston_Long





42cb-a13d-85106e90e947pdf



us



joseph-1757-1824





1876







8508358html





trade


viewaspxindex=730





placeshtml




england-50212







British_Empire



never_sets













doiorg1010022014EF000281


2012674940




1213163110





html


pnas1524741113



trading




01html


grabbing




landmatrixorg







issue






201407005





payments-global




poor-47428











struggle-in-india


accesstolandeu


030661502013873977










Federal_funds_rate









back--8628html



the-farmland-market


72418185788- 0012015public- sale-


sales-grow



0020731415611644











trade_agreements



Bandung_1955pdf



investments









contract_size







wwwcnop-maliorg





worldfisherforumorg



wamip-en



agrarian+reform












america


federationcoop







change









org
















chiapas





5416138


loksanjhorg





field




com



case-studies







0909-y










chapter04pdf



Idelpdf










i2232e00htm



201123024






rep1amptype=pdf







44115full



wwwuneporgfrontiers







mSystems00028-16




and-67500617


dxdoiorg1011111365-274512783




html



web-65368







research


textile-economy




flowers






researchindigo



cloth








were-right




luddites200orguk





beckert9780375713965





and-empire



9780674045552



and_us_slavery




406177










peasants



English



innovative-farming


wwwiphuorgenwater


wwwright2watereu




dxdoiorg1011111365-274512792























london-planpdf


pdf








10802168356520171331179












doiorg105194acp-15-2313-2015




doiorg101101070532


sdata201536


Introduction


Background notes



Background notes



Background notes









Acknowledgements










7 Acknowledgements


References









financial-crises



and-inequality



timelinehtm














aspx



aspx











html





58b4af62e4b0658fc20f992f



0014-4




FINAL-WEBpdf



knowledge







9781482241761



numero-2












phparticle334


dxdoiorg101007s40572-017-0146-

z


10802168356520171326073












climate-change



crisis



html




the-case



global-land-grab





Mulvanypdf











a-cliff-edge



newentrants







benefits




state







3556324468






of_Tordesillas


of_Zaragoza




id=307ampItemid=152



united-kingdom



















sweet-toothhtml





pdf




shtml









1111j1468-0289200700400x






Houblon





Baronet


India_Company





ebookhtml



gallery_14shtml



britain-slave-trade








28insuranceusnews



it-pay-reparations




scale-revealed



baronets


view2146638551


view25073




Beeston_Long





42cb-a13d-85106e90e947pdf



us



joseph-1757-1824





1876







8508358html





trade


viewaspxindex=730





placeshtml




england-50212







British_Empire



never_sets













doiorg1010022014EF000281


2012674940




1213163110





html


pnas1524741113



trading




01html


grabbing




landmatrixorg







issue






201407005





payments-global




poor-47428











struggle-in-india


accesstolandeu


030661502013873977










Federal_funds_rate









back--8628html



the-farmland-market


72418185788- 0012015public- sale-


sales-grow



0020731415611644











trade_agreements



Bandung_1955pdf



investments









contract_size







wwwcnop-maliorg





worldfisherforumorg



wamip-en



agrarian+reform












america


federationcoop







change









org
















chiapas





5416138


loksanjhorg





field




com



case-studies







0909-y










chapter04pdf



Idelpdf










i2232e00htm



201123024






rep1amptype=pdf







44115full



wwwuneporgfrontiers







mSystems00028-16




and-67500617


dxdoiorg1011111365-274512783




html



web-65368







research


textile-economy




flowers






researchindigo



cloth








were-right




luddites200orguk





beckert9780375713965





and-empire



9780674045552



and_us_slavery




406177










peasants



English



innovative-farming


wwwiphuorgenwater


wwwright2watereu




dxdoiorg1011111365-274512792























london-planpdf


pdf








10802168356520171331179












doiorg105194acp-15-2313-2015




doiorg101101070532


sdata201536


Introduction


Background notes



Background notes



Background notes









Acknowledgements










html





58b4af62e4b0658fc20f992f



0014-4




FINAL-WEBpdf



knowledge







9781482241761



numero-2












phparticle334


dxdoiorg101007s40572-017-0146-

z


10802168356520171326073












climate-change



crisis



html




the-case



global-land-grab





Mulvanypdf











a-cliff-edge



newentrants







benefits




state







3556324468






of_Tordesillas


of_Zaragoza




id=307ampItemid=152



united-kingdom



















sweet-toothhtml





pdf




shtml









1111j1468-0289200700400x






Houblon





Baronet


India_Company





ebookhtml



gallery_14shtml



britain-slave-trade








28insuranceusnews



it-pay-reparations




scale-revealed



baronets


view2146638551


view25073




Beeston_Long





42cb-a13d-85106e90e947pdf



us



joseph-1757-1824





1876







8508358html





trade


viewaspxindex=730





placeshtml




england-50212







British_Empire



never_sets













doiorg1010022014EF000281


2012674940




1213163110





html


pnas1524741113



trading




01html


grabbing




landmatrixorg







issue






201407005





payments-global




poor-47428











struggle-in-india


accesstolandeu


030661502013873977










Federal_funds_rate









back--8628html



the-farmland-market


72418185788- 0012015public- sale-


sales-grow



0020731415611644











trade_agreements



Bandung_1955pdf



investments









contract_size







wwwcnop-maliorg





worldfisherforumorg



wamip-en



agrarian+reform












america


federationcoop







change









org
















chiapas





5416138


loksanjhorg





field




com



case-studies







0909-y










chapter04pdf



Idelpdf










i2232e00htm



201123024






rep1amptype=pdf







44115full



wwwuneporgfrontiers







mSystems00028-16




and-67500617


dxdoiorg1011111365-274512783




html



web-65368







research


textile-economy




flowers






researchindigo



cloth








were-right




luddites200orguk





beckert9780375713965





and-empire



9780674045552



and_us_slavery




406177










peasants



English



innovative-farming


wwwiphuorgenwater


wwwright2watereu




dxdoiorg1011111365-274512792























london-planpdf


pdf








10802168356520171331179












doiorg105194acp-15-2313-2015




doiorg101101070532


sdata201536


Introduction


Background notes



Background notes



Background notes









Acknowledgements








phparticle334


dxdoiorg101007s40572-017-0146-

z


10802168356520171326073












climate-change



crisis



html




the-case



global-land-grab





Mulvanypdf











a-cliff-edge



newentrants







benefits




state







3556324468






of_Tordesillas


of_Zaragoza




id=307ampItemid=152



united-kingdom



















sweet-toothhtml





pdf




shtml









1111j1468-0289200700400x






Houblon





Baronet


India_Company





ebookhtml



gallery_14shtml



britain-slave-trade








28insuranceusnews



it-pay-reparations




scale-revealed



baronets


view2146638551


view25073




Beeston_Long





42cb-a13d-85106e90e947pdf



us



joseph-1757-1824





1876







8508358html





trade


viewaspxindex=730





placeshtml




england-50212







British_Empire



never_sets













doiorg1010022014EF000281


2012674940




1213163110





html


pnas1524741113



trading




01html


grabbing




landmatrixorg







issue






201407005





payments-global




poor-47428











struggle-in-india


accesstolandeu


030661502013873977










Federal_funds_rate









back--8628html



the-farmland-market


72418185788- 0012015public- sale-


sales-grow



0020731415611644











trade_agreements



Bandung_1955pdf



investments









contract_size







wwwcnop-maliorg





worldfisherforumorg



wamip-en



agrarian+reform












america


federationcoop







change









org
















chiapas





5416138


loksanjhorg





field




com



case-studies







0909-y










chapter04pdf



Idelpdf










i2232e00htm



201123024






rep1amptype=pdf







44115full



wwwuneporgfrontiers







mSystems00028-16




and-67500617


dxdoiorg1011111365-274512783




html



web-65368







research


textile-economy




flowers






researchindigo



cloth








were-right




luddites200orguk





beckert9780375713965





and-empire



9780674045552



and_us_slavery




406177










peasants



English



innovative-farming


wwwiphuorgenwater


wwwright2watereu




dxdoiorg1011111365-274512792























london-planpdf


pdf








10802168356520171331179












doiorg105194acp-15-2313-2015




doiorg101101070532


sdata201536


Introduction


Background notes



Background notes



Background notes









Acknowledgements










a-cliff-edge



newentrants







benefits




state







3556324468






of_Tordesillas


of_Zaragoza




id=307ampItemid=152



united-kingdom



















sweet-toothhtml





pdf




shtml









1111j1468-0289200700400x






Houblon





Baronet


India_Company





ebookhtml



gallery_14shtml



britain-slave-trade








28insuranceusnews



it-pay-reparations




scale-revealed



baronets


view2146638551


view25073




Beeston_Long





42cb-a13d-85106e90e947pdf



us



joseph-1757-1824





1876







8508358html





trade


viewaspxindex=730





placeshtml




england-50212







British_Empire



never_sets













doiorg1010022014EF000281


2012674940




1213163110





html


pnas1524741113



trading




01html


grabbing




landmatrixorg







issue






201407005





payments-global




poor-47428











struggle-in-india


accesstolandeu


030661502013873977










Federal_funds_rate









back--8628html



the-farmland-market


72418185788- 0012015public- sale-


sales-grow



0020731415611644











trade_agreements



Bandung_1955pdf



investments









contract_size







wwwcnop-maliorg





worldfisherforumorg



wamip-en



agrarian+reform












america


federationcoop







change









org
















chiapas





5416138


loksanjhorg





field




com



case-studies







0909-y










chapter04pdf



Idelpdf










i2232e00htm



201123024






rep1amptype=pdf







44115full



wwwuneporgfrontiers







mSystems00028-16




and-67500617


dxdoiorg1011111365-274512783




html



web-65368







research


textile-economy




flowers






researchindigo



cloth








were-right




luddites200orguk





beckert9780375713965





and-empire



9780674045552



and_us_slavery




406177










peasants



English



innovative-farming


wwwiphuorgenwater


wwwright2watereu




dxdoiorg1011111365-274512792























london-planpdf


pdf








10802168356520171331179












doiorg105194acp-15-2313-2015




doiorg101101070532


sdata201536


Introduction


Background notes



Background notes



Background notes









Acknowledgements






sweet-toothhtml





pdf




shtml









1111j1468-0289200700400x






Houblon





Baronet


India_Company





ebookhtml



gallery_14shtml



britain-slave-trade








28insuranceusnews



it-pay-reparations




scale-revealed



baronets


view2146638551


view25073




Beeston_Long





42cb-a13d-85106e90e947pdf



us



joseph-1757-1824





1876







8508358html





trade


viewaspxindex=730





placeshtml




england-50212







British_Empire



never_sets













doiorg1010022014EF000281


2012674940




1213163110





html


pnas1524741113



trading




01html


grabbing




landmatrixorg







issue






201407005





payments-global




poor-47428











struggle-in-india


accesstolandeu


030661502013873977










Federal_funds_rate









back--8628html



the-farmland-market


72418185788- 0012015public- sale-


sales-grow



0020731415611644











trade_agreements



Bandung_1955pdf



investments









contract_size







wwwcnop-maliorg





worldfisherforumorg



wamip-en



agrarian+reform












america


federationcoop







change









org
















chiapas





5416138


loksanjhorg





field




com



case-studies







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Introduction


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Introduction


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Introduction


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Acknowledgements





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Introduction


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Acknowledgements



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Introduction


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Acknowledgements














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10802168356520171331179












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Introduction


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Acknowledgements




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doiorg101101070532


sdata201536


Introduction


Background notes



Background notes



Background notes









Acknowledgements

alternative data and global agriculture: from the trans-Atlantic … · 2017. 10. 30. ·...

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