AlphaGo: Mastering the Game of Go with Deep Neural Networks and Tree Search
Transcript of AlphaGo: Mastering the Game of Go with Deep Neural Networks and Tree Search
AlphaGo: Mastering the game of Go
with deep neural networks and tree search
Karel Ha
article by Google DeepMind
Optimization Seminar, 20th April 2016
Why AI?
Applications of AI
� spam filters
� recommender systems (Netflix, YouTube)
� predictive text (Swiftkey)
� audio recognition (Shazam, SoundHound)
� self-driving cars
1
Applications of AI
� spam filters
� recommender systems (Netflix, YouTube)
� predictive text (Swiftkey)
� audio recognition (Shazam, SoundHound)
� self-driving cars
1
Applications of AI
� spam filters
� recommender systems (Netflix, YouTube)
� predictive text (Swiftkey)
� audio recognition (Shazam, SoundHound)
� self-driving cars
1
Applications of AI
� spam filters
� recommender systems (Netflix, YouTube)
� predictive text (Swiftkey)
� audio recognition (Shazam, SoundHound)
� self-driving cars
1
Applications of AI
� spam filters
� recommender systems (Netflix, YouTube)
� predictive text (Swiftkey)
� audio recognition (Shazam, SoundHound)
� self-driving cars
1
Artistic-Style Painting (1/2)
[1] Gatys, Ecker, and Bethge 2015 [2] Li and Wand 2016 2
Artistic-Style Painting (1/2)
[1] Gatys, Ecker, and Bethge 2015 [2] Li and Wand 2016 2
Artistic-Style Painting (2/2)
Champandard 2016 3
C Code Generated Character by Character
Karpathy 2015 4
Algebraic Geometry Generated Character by Character
Karpathy 2015 5
Game of Thrones Generated Character by Character
JON
He leaned close and onions, barefoot from
his shoulder. “I am not a purple girl,” he
said as he stood over him. “The sight of
you sell your father with you a little choice.”
“I say to swear up his sea or a boy of stone
and heart, down,” Lord Tywin said. “I love
your word or her to me.”
Darknet (on Linux)
JON
Each in days and the woods followed his
king. “I understand.”
“I am not your sister Lord Robert?”
“The door was always some cellar to do his
being girls and the Magnar of Baratheon,
and there were thousands of every bite of
half the same as though he was not a great
knight should be seen, and not to look at
the Redwyne two thousand men.”
Darknet (on OS X)
http://pjreddie.com/darknet/rnns-in-darknet/ 5
Game of Thrones Generated Character by Character
JON
He leaned close and onions, barefoot from
his shoulder. “I am not a purple girl,” he
said as he stood over him. “The sight of
you sell your father with you a little choice.”
“I say to swear up his sea or a boy of stone
and heart, down,” Lord Tywin said. “I love
your word or her to me.”
Darknet (on Linux)
JON
Each in days and the woods followed his
king. “I understand.”
“I am not your sister Lord Robert?”
“The door was always some cellar to do his
being girls and the Magnar of Baratheon,
and there were thousands of every bite of
half the same as though he was not a great
knight should be seen, and not to look at
the Redwyne two thousand men.”
Darknet (on OS X)
http://pjreddie.com/darknet/rnns-in-darknet/ 5
Game of Thrones Generated Character by Character
JON
He leaned close and onions, barefoot from
his shoulder. “I am not a purple girl,” he
said as he stood over him. “The sight of
you sell your father with you a little choice.”
“I say to swear up his sea or a boy of stone
and heart, down,” Lord Tywin said. “I love
your word or her to me.”
Darknet (on Linux)
JON
Each in days and the woods followed his
king. “I understand.”
“I am not your sister Lord Robert?”
“The door was always some cellar to do his
being girls and the Magnar of Baratheon,
and there were thousands of every bite of
half the same as though he was not a great
knight should be seen, and not to look at
the Redwyne two thousand men.”
Darknet (on OS X)http://pjreddie.com/darknet/rnns-in-darknet/ 5
DeepDrumpf: a Twitter bot / neural network which learned
the language of Donald Trump from his speeches
� We’ve got nuclear weapons that are obsolete. I’m going to create jobs just by making the worst thing ever.
� The biggest risk to the world, is me, believe it or not.
� I am what ISIS doesn’t need.
� I’d like to beat that @HillaryClinton. She is a horror. I told my supporter Putin to say that all the time. He
has been amazing.
� I buy Hillary, it’s beautiful and I’m happy about it.
Hayes 2016 6
DeepDrumpf: a Twitter bot / neural network which learned
the language of Donald Trump from his speeches
� We’ve got nuclear weapons that are obsolete. I’m going to create jobs just by making the worst thing ever.
� The biggest risk to the world, is me, believe it or not.
� I am what ISIS doesn’t need.
� I’d like to beat that @HillaryClinton. She is a horror. I told my supporter Putin to say that all the time. He
has been amazing.
� I buy Hillary, it’s beautiful and I’m happy about it.
Hayes 2016 6
DeepDrumpf: a Twitter bot / neural network which learned
the language of Donald Trump from his speeches
� We’ve got nuclear weapons that are obsolete. I’m going to create jobs just by making the worst thing ever.
� The biggest risk to the world, is me, believe it or not.
� I am what ISIS doesn’t need.
� I’d like to beat that @HillaryClinton. She is a horror. I told my supporter Putin to say that all the time. He
has been amazing.
� I buy Hillary, it’s beautiful and I’m happy about it.
Hayes 2016 6
DeepDrumpf: a Twitter bot / neural network which learned
the language of Donald Trump from his speeches
� We’ve got nuclear weapons that are obsolete. I’m going to create jobs just by making the worst thing ever.
� The biggest risk to the world, is me, believe it or not.
� I am what ISIS doesn’t need.
� I’d like to beat that @HillaryClinton. She is a horror. I told my supporter Putin to say that all the time. He
has been amazing.
� I buy Hillary, it’s beautiful and I’m happy about it.
Hayes 2016 6
DeepDrumpf: a Twitter bot / neural network which learned
the language of Donald Trump from his speeches
� We’ve got nuclear weapons that are obsolete. I’m going to create jobs just by making the worst thing ever.
� The biggest risk to the world, is me, believe it or not.
� I am what ISIS doesn’t need.
� I’d like to beat that @HillaryClinton. She is a horror. I told my supporter Putin to say that all the time. He
has been amazing.
� I buy Hillary, it’s beautiful and I’m happy about it.
Hayes 2016 6
DeepDrumpf: a Twitter bot / neural network which learned
the language of Donald Trump from his speeches
� We’ve got nuclear weapons that are obsolete. I’m going to create jobs just by making the worst thing ever.
� The biggest risk to the world, is me, believe it or not.
� I am what ISIS doesn’t need.
� I’d like to beat that @HillaryClinton. She is a horror. I told my supporter Putin to say that all the time. He
has been amazing.
� I buy Hillary, it’s beautiful and I’m happy about it.
Hayes 2016 6
Atari Player by Google DeepMind
https://youtu.be/0X-NdPtFKq0?t=21m13s
Mnih et al. 2015 7
https://xkcd.com/1002/ 7
Heads-up Limit Holdem Poker Is Solved!
Cepheus http://poker.srv.ualberta.ca/
0.000986 big blinds per game on expectation
Bowling et al. 2015 8
Heads-up Limit Holdem Poker Is Solved!
Cepheus http://poker.srv.ualberta.ca/
0.000986 big blinds per game on expectation
Bowling et al. 2015 8
Basics of Machine Learning
https://dataaspirant.com/2014/09/19/supervised-and-unsupervised-learning/ 8
Supervised Learning (SL)
1. data collection: Google Search, Facebook “Likes”, Siri, Netflix, YouTube views, LHC collisions, KGS Go
Server...
2. training on training set
3. testing on testing set
4. deployment
http://www.nickgillian.com/ 9
Supervised Learning (SL)
1. data collection: Google Search, Facebook “Likes”, Siri, Netflix, YouTube views, LHC collisions, KGS Go
Server...
2. training on training set
3. testing on testing set
4. deployment
http://www.nickgillian.com/ 9
Supervised Learning (SL)
1. data collection: Google Search, Facebook “Likes”, Siri, Netflix, YouTube views, LHC collisions, KGS Go
Server...
2. training on training set
3. testing on testing set
4. deployment
http://www.nickgillian.com/ 9
Supervised Learning (SL)
1. data collection: Google Search, Facebook “Likes”, Siri, Netflix, YouTube views, LHC collisions, KGS Go
Server...
2. training on training set
3. testing on testing set
4. deployment
http://www.nickgillian.com/ 9
Supervised Learning (SL)
1. data collection: Google Search, Facebook “Likes”, Siri, Netflix, YouTube views, LHC collisions, KGS Go
Server...
2. training on training set
3. testing on testing set
4. deployment
http://www.nickgillian.com/ 9
Supervised Learning (SL)
1. data collection: Google Search, Facebook “Likes”, Siri, Netflix, YouTube views, LHC collisions, KGS Go
Server...
2. training on training set
3. testing on testing set
4. deployment
http://www.nickgillian.com/ 9
Supervised Learning (SL)
1. data collection: Google Search, Facebook “Likes”, Siri, Netflix, YouTube views, LHC collisions, KGS Go
Server...
2. training on training set
3. testing on testing set
4. deployment
http://www.nickgillian.com/ 9
Regression
9
Regression
9
Mathematical Regression
https://thermanuals.wordpress.com/descriptive-analysis/sampling-and-regression/10
Classification
https://kevinbinz.files.wordpress.com/2014/08/ml-svm-after-comparison.png 11
Underfitting and Overfitting
Beware of overfitting!
It is like learning for a mathematical exam by memorizing proofs.
https://www.researchgate.net/post/How_to_Avoid_Overfitting 12
Underfitting and Overfitting
Beware of overfitting!
It is like learning for a mathematical exam by memorizing proofs.
https://www.researchgate.net/post/How_to_Avoid_Overfitting 12
Underfitting and Overfitting
Beware of overfitting!
It is like learning for a mathematical exam by memorizing proofs.
https://www.researchgate.net/post/How_to_Avoid_Overfitting 12
Reinforcement Learning (RL)
Specially: games of self-play
https://youtu.be/0X-NdPtFKq0?t=16m57s 13
Reinforcement Learning (RL)
Specially: games of self-play
https://youtu.be/0X-NdPtFKq0?t=16m57s 13
Monte Carlo Tree Search
Tree Search
Optimal value v∗(s) determines the outcome of the game:
� from every board position or state s
� under perfect play by all players.
It is computed by recursively traversing a search tree containing
approximately bd possible sequences of moves, where
� b is the games breadth (number of legal moves per position)
� d is its depth (game length)
Silver et al. 2016 14
Tree Search
Optimal value v∗(s) determines the outcome of the game:
� from every board position or state s
� under perfect play by all players.
It is computed by recursively traversing a search tree containing
approximately bd possible sequences of moves, where
� b is the games breadth (number of legal moves per position)
� d is its depth (game length)
Silver et al. 2016 14
Tree Search
Optimal value v∗(s) determines the outcome of the game:
� from every board position or state s
� under perfect play by all players.
It is computed by recursively traversing a search tree containing
approximately bd possible sequences of moves, where
� b is the games breadth (number of legal moves per position)
� d is its depth (game length)
Silver et al. 2016 14
Tree Search
Optimal value v∗(s) determines the outcome of the game:
� from every board position or state s
� under perfect play by all players.
It is computed by recursively traversing a search tree containing
approximately bd possible sequences of moves, where
� b is the games breadth (number of legal moves per position)
� d is its depth (game length)
Silver et al. 2016 14
Tree Search
Optimal value v∗(s) determines the outcome of the game:
� from every board position or state s
� under perfect play by all players.
It is computed by recursively traversing a search tree containing
approximately bd possible sequences of moves, where
� b is the games breadth (number of legal moves per position)
� d is its depth (game length)
Silver et al. 2016 14
Tree Search
Optimal value v∗(s) determines the outcome of the game:
� from every board position or state s
� under perfect play by all players.
It is computed by recursively traversing a search tree containing
approximately bd possible sequences of moves, where
� b is the games breadth (number of legal moves per position)
� d is its depth (game length)
Silver et al. 2016 14
Tree Search
Optimal value v∗(s) determines the outcome of the game:
� from every board position or state s
� under perfect play by all players.
It is computed by recursively traversing a search tree containing
approximately bd possible sequences of moves, where
� b is the games breadth (number of legal moves per position)
� d is its depth (game length)
Silver et al. 2016 14
Game tree of Go
Sizes of trees for various games:
� chess: b ≈ 35, d ≈ 80
� Go: b ≈ 250, d ≈ 150
⇒ more positions than atoms in the
universe!
That makes Go a googol
[10100] times more complex
than chess.
https://deepmind.com/alpha-go.htmlHow to handle the size of the game tree?
� for the breadth: a neural network to select moves
� for the depth: a neural network to evaluate the current
position
� for the tree traverse: Monte Carlo tree search (MCTS)
Allis et al. 1994 15
Game tree of Go
Sizes of trees for various games:
� chess: b ≈ 35, d ≈ 80
� Go: b ≈ 250, d ≈ 150 ⇒ more positions than atoms in the
universe!
That makes Go a googol
[10100] times more complex
than chess.
https://deepmind.com/alpha-go.htmlHow to handle the size of the game tree?
� for the breadth: a neural network to select moves
� for the depth: a neural network to evaluate the current
position
� for the tree traverse: Monte Carlo tree search (MCTS)
Allis et al. 1994 15
Game tree of Go
Sizes of trees for various games:
� chess: b ≈ 35, d ≈ 80
� Go: b ≈ 250, d ≈ 150 ⇒ more positions than atoms in the
universe!
That makes Go a googol
[10100] times more complex
than chess.
https://deepmind.com/alpha-go.html
How to handle the size of the game tree?
� for the breadth: a neural network to select moves
� for the depth: a neural network to evaluate the current
position
� for the tree traverse: Monte Carlo tree search (MCTS)
Allis et al. 1994 15
Game tree of Go
Sizes of trees for various games:
� chess: b ≈ 35, d ≈ 80
� Go: b ≈ 250, d ≈ 150 ⇒ more positions than atoms in the
universe!
That makes Go a googol
[10100] times more complex
than chess.
https://deepmind.com/alpha-go.htmlHow to handle the size of the game tree?
� for the breadth: a neural network to select moves
� for the depth: a neural network to evaluate the current
position
� for the tree traverse: Monte Carlo tree search (MCTS)
Allis et al. 1994 15
Game tree of Go
Sizes of trees for various games:
� chess: b ≈ 35, d ≈ 80
� Go: b ≈ 250, d ≈ 150 ⇒ more positions than atoms in the
universe!
That makes Go a googol
[10100] times more complex
than chess.
https://deepmind.com/alpha-go.htmlHow to handle the size of the game tree?
� for the breadth: a neural network to select moves
� for the depth: a neural network to evaluate the current
position
� for the tree traverse: Monte Carlo tree search (MCTS)
Allis et al. 1994 15
Game tree of Go
Sizes of trees for various games:
� chess: b ≈ 35, d ≈ 80
� Go: b ≈ 250, d ≈ 150 ⇒ more positions than atoms in the
universe!
That makes Go a googol
[10100] times more complex
than chess.
https://deepmind.com/alpha-go.htmlHow to handle the size of the game tree?
� for the breadth: a neural network to select moves
� for the depth: a neural network to evaluate the current
position
� for the tree traverse: Monte Carlo tree search (MCTS)
Allis et al. 1994 15
Game tree of Go
Sizes of trees for various games:
� chess: b ≈ 35, d ≈ 80
� Go: b ≈ 250, d ≈ 150 ⇒ more positions than atoms in the
universe!
That makes Go a googol
[10100] times more complex
than chess.
https://deepmind.com/alpha-go.htmlHow to handle the size of the game tree?
� for the breadth: a neural network to select moves
� for the depth: a neural network to evaluate the current
position
� for the tree traverse: Monte Carlo tree search (MCTS)Allis et al. 1994 15
Monte Carlo tree search
16
Neural networks
Neural Networks (NN): Inspiration
� inspired by the neuronal structure of the mammalian cerebral
cortex
� but on much smaller scales� suitable to model systems with a high tolerance to error
� e.g. audio or image recognition
http://pages.cs.wisc.edu/~bolo/shipyard/neural/local.html 17
Neural Networks (NN): Inspiration
� inspired by the neuronal structure of the mammalian cerebral
cortex
� but on much smaller scales� suitable to model systems with a high tolerance to error
� e.g. audio or image recognition
http://pages.cs.wisc.edu/~bolo/shipyard/neural/local.html 17
Neural Networks (NN): Inspiration
� inspired by the neuronal structure of the mammalian cerebral
cortex
� but on much smaller scales
� suitable to model systems with a high tolerance to error
� e.g. audio or image recognition
http://pages.cs.wisc.edu/~bolo/shipyard/neural/local.html 17
Neural Networks (NN): Inspiration
� inspired by the neuronal structure of the mammalian cerebral
cortex
� but on much smaller scales� suitable to model systems with a high tolerance to error
� e.g. audio or image recognition
http://pages.cs.wisc.edu/~bolo/shipyard/neural/local.html 17
Neural Networks (NN): Inspiration
� inspired by the neuronal structure of the mammalian cerebral
cortex
� but on much smaller scales� suitable to model systems with a high tolerance to error
� e.g. audio or image recognitionhttp://pages.cs.wisc.edu/~bolo/shipyard/neural/local.html 17
Neural Networks: Modes
Two modes
� feedforward for making predictions
� backpropagation for learning
Dieterle 2003 18
Neural Networks: Modes
Two modes
� feedforward for making predictions
� backpropagation for learning
Dieterle 2003 18
Neural Networks: Modes
Two modes
� feedforward for making predictions
� backpropagation for learning
Dieterle 2003 18
Neural Networks: Modes
Two modes
� feedforward for making predictions
� backpropagation for learningDieterle 2003 18
Neural Networks: an Example of Feedforward
http://stevenmiller888.github.io/mind-how-to-build-a-neural-network/ 19
Gradient Descent in Neural Networks
Motto: ”Learn by mistakes!”
However, error functions are not necessarily convex or so “smooth”.
http://pages.cs.wisc.edu/~bolo/shipyard/neural/local.html 20
Gradient Descent in Neural Networks
Motto: ”Learn by mistakes!”
However, error functions are not necessarily convex or so “smooth”.
http://pages.cs.wisc.edu/~bolo/shipyard/neural/local.html 20
Gradient Descent in Neural Networks
Motto: ”Learn by mistakes!”
However, error functions are not necessarily convex or so “smooth”.
http://pages.cs.wisc.edu/~bolo/shipyard/neural/local.html 20
http://xkcd.com/1425/ 20
Convolutional Neural Networks (CNN or ConvNet)
http://code.flickr.net/2014/10/20/introducing-flickr-park-or-bird/ 21
(Deep) Convolutional Neural Networks
The hierarchy of concepts is captured in the number of layers: the deep in “Deep Learning”.
http://pages.cs.wisc.edu/~bolo/shipyard/neural/local.html 22
(Deep) Convolutional Neural Networks
The hierarchy of concepts is captured in the number of layers: the deep in “Deep Learning”.
http://pages.cs.wisc.edu/~bolo/shipyard/neural/local.html 22
Rules of Go
Backgammon: Man vs. Fate
Chess: Man vs. Man
22
Backgammon: Man vs. Fate
Chess: Man vs. Man
22
Go: Man vs. Self
Robert Samal (White) versus Karel Kral (Black), Spring School of Combinatorics 2016 22
Rules of Go
Black versus White. Black starts the game.
the rule of liberty
the “ko” rule
Handicap for difference in ranks: Black can place 1 or more stones
in advance (compensation for White’s greater strength).
23
Rules of Go
Black versus White. Black starts the game.
the rule of liberty
the “ko” rule
Handicap for difference in ranks: Black can place 1 or more stones
in advance (compensation for White’s greater strength).
23
Rules of Go
Black versus White. Black starts the game.
the rule of liberty
the “ko” rule
Handicap for difference in ranks: Black can place 1 or more stones
in advance (compensation for White’s greater strength).
23
Rules of Go
Black versus White. Black starts the game.
the rule of liberty
the “ko” rule
Handicap for difference in ranks: Black can place 1 or more stones
in advance (compensation for White’s greater strength).
23
Rules of Go
Black versus White. Black starts the game.
the rule of liberty
the “ko” rule
Handicap for difference in ranks: Black can place 1 or more stones
in advance (compensation for White’s greater strength).
23
Rules of Go
Black versus White. Black starts the game.
the rule of liberty
the “ko” rule
Handicap for difference in ranks: Black can place 1 or more stones
in advance (compensation for White’s greater strength). 23
Scoring Rules: Area Scoring
A player’s score is:
� the number of stones that the player has on the board
� plus the number of empty intersections surrounded by that
player’s stones
� plus komi(dashi) points for the White player
which is a compensation for the first move advantage of the Black player
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Go_(game) 24
Scoring Rules: Area Scoring
A player’s score is:
� the number of stones that the player has on the board
� plus the number of empty intersections surrounded by that
player’s stones
� plus komi(dashi) points for the White player
which is a compensation for the first move advantage of the Black player
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Go_(game) 24
Scoring Rules: Area Scoring
A player’s score is:
� the number of stones that the player has on the board
� plus the number of empty intersections surrounded by that
player’s stones
� plus komi(dashi) points for the White player
which is a compensation for the first move advantage of the Black player
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Go_(game) 24
Scoring Rules: Area Scoring
A player’s score is:
� the number of stones that the player has on the board
� plus the number of empty intersections surrounded by that
player’s stones
� plus komi(dashi) points for the White player
which is a compensation for the first move advantage of the Black player
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Go_(game) 24
Ranks of Players
Kyu and Dan ranks
or alternatively, Elo ratings
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Go_(game) 25
Ranks of Players
Kyu and Dan ranks
or alternatively, Elo ratings
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Go_(game) 25
Chocolate micro-break
25
AlphaGo: Inside Out
Policy and Value Networks
Silver et al. 2016 26
Training the (Deep Convolutional) Neural Networks
Silver et al. 2016 27
SL Policy Network (1/2)
� 13-layer deep convolutional neural network
� goal: to predict expert human moves
� task of classification
� trained from 30 millions positions from the KGS Go Server
� stochastic gradient ascent:
∆σ ∝ ∂ log pσ(a|s)
∂σ
(to maximize the likelihood of the human move a selected in state s)
Results:
� 44.4% accuracy (the state-of-the-art from other groups)
� 55.7% accuracy (raw board position + move history as input)
� 57.0% accuracy (all input features)
Silver et al. 2016 28
SL Policy Network (1/2)
� 13-layer deep convolutional neural network
� goal: to predict expert human moves
� task of classification
� trained from 30 millions positions from the KGS Go Server
� stochastic gradient ascent:
∆σ ∝ ∂ log pσ(a|s)
∂σ
(to maximize the likelihood of the human move a selected in state s)
Results:
� 44.4% accuracy (the state-of-the-art from other groups)
� 55.7% accuracy (raw board position + move history as input)
� 57.0% accuracy (all input features)
Silver et al. 2016 28
SL Policy Network (1/2)
� 13-layer deep convolutional neural network
� goal: to predict expert human moves
� task of classification
� trained from 30 millions positions from the KGS Go Server
� stochastic gradient ascent:
∆σ ∝ ∂ log pσ(a|s)
∂σ
(to maximize the likelihood of the human move a selected in state s)
Results:
� 44.4% accuracy (the state-of-the-art from other groups)
� 55.7% accuracy (raw board position + move history as input)
� 57.0% accuracy (all input features)
Silver et al. 2016 28
SL Policy Network (1/2)
� 13-layer deep convolutional neural network
� goal: to predict expert human moves
� task of classification
� trained from 30 millions positions from the KGS Go Server
� stochastic gradient ascent:
∆σ ∝ ∂ log pσ(a|s)
∂σ
(to maximize the likelihood of the human move a selected in state s)
Results:
� 44.4% accuracy (the state-of-the-art from other groups)
� 55.7% accuracy (raw board position + move history as input)
� 57.0% accuracy (all input features)
Silver et al. 2016 28
SL Policy Network (1/2)
� 13-layer deep convolutional neural network
� goal: to predict expert human moves
� task of classification
� trained from 30 millions positions from the KGS Go Server
� stochastic gradient ascent:
∆σ ∝ ∂ log pσ(a|s)
∂σ
(to maximize the likelihood of the human move a selected in state s)
Results:
� 44.4% accuracy (the state-of-the-art from other groups)
� 55.7% accuracy (raw board position + move history as input)
� 57.0% accuracy (all input features)
Silver et al. 2016 28
SL Policy Network (1/2)
� 13-layer deep convolutional neural network
� goal: to predict expert human moves
� task of classification
� trained from 30 millions positions from the KGS Go Server
� stochastic gradient ascent:
∆σ ∝ ∂ log pσ(a|s)
∂σ
(to maximize the likelihood of the human move a selected in state s)
Results:
� 44.4% accuracy (the state-of-the-art from other groups)
� 55.7% accuracy (raw board position + move history as input)
� 57.0% accuracy (all input features)
Silver et al. 2016 28
SL Policy Network (1/2)
� 13-layer deep convolutional neural network
� goal: to predict expert human moves
� task of classification
� trained from 30 millions positions from the KGS Go Server
� stochastic gradient ascent:
∆σ ∝ ∂ log pσ(a|s)
∂σ
(to maximize the likelihood of the human move a selected in state s)
Results:
� 44.4% accuracy (the state-of-the-art from other groups)
� 55.7% accuracy (raw board position + move history as input)
� 57.0% accuracy (all input features)
Silver et al. 2016 28
SL Policy Network (1/2)
� 13-layer deep convolutional neural network
� goal: to predict expert human moves
� task of classification
� trained from 30 millions positions from the KGS Go Server
� stochastic gradient ascent:
∆σ ∝ ∂ log pσ(a|s)
∂σ
(to maximize the likelihood of the human move a selected in state s)
Results:
� 44.4% accuracy (the state-of-the-art from other groups)
� 55.7% accuracy (raw board position + move history as input)
� 57.0% accuracy (all input features)
Silver et al. 2016 28
SL Policy Network (1/2)
� 13-layer deep convolutional neural network
� goal: to predict expert human moves
� task of classification
� trained from 30 millions positions from the KGS Go Server
� stochastic gradient ascent:
∆σ ∝ ∂ log pσ(a|s)
∂σ
(to maximize the likelihood of the human move a selected in state s)
Results:
� 44.4% accuracy (the state-of-the-art from other groups)
� 55.7% accuracy (raw board position + move history as input)
� 57.0% accuracy (all input features)
Silver et al. 2016 28
SL Policy Network (1/2)
� 13-layer deep convolutional neural network
� goal: to predict expert human moves
� task of classification
� trained from 30 millions positions from the KGS Go Server
� stochastic gradient ascent:
∆σ ∝ ∂ log pσ(a|s)
∂σ
(to maximize the likelihood of the human move a selected in state s)
Results:
� 44.4% accuracy (the state-of-the-art from other groups)
� 55.7% accuracy (raw board position + move history as input)
� 57.0% accuracy (all input features)
Silver et al. 2016 28
SL Policy Network (2/2)
Small improvements in accuracy led to large improvements
in playing strength
Silver et al. 2016 29
Training the (Deep Convolutional) Neural Networks
Silver et al. 2016 30
Rollout Policy
� Rollout policy pπ(a|s) is faster but less accurate than SL
policy network.
� accuracy of 24.2%
� It takes 2µs to select an action, compared to 3 ms in case
of SL policy network.
Silver et al. 2016 31
Rollout Policy
� Rollout policy pπ(a|s) is faster but less accurate than SL
policy network.
� accuracy of 24.2%
� It takes 2µs to select an action, compared to 3 ms in case
of SL policy network.
Silver et al. 2016 31
Rollout Policy
� Rollout policy pπ(a|s) is faster but less accurate than SL
policy network.
� accuracy of 24.2%
� It takes 2µs to select an action, compared to 3 ms in case
of SL policy network.
Silver et al. 2016 31
Training the (Deep Convolutional) Neural Networks
Silver et al. 2016 32
RL Policy Network (1/2)
� identical in structure to the SL policy network
� goal: to win in the games of self-play
� task of classification
� weights ρ initialized to the same values, ρ := σ
� games of self-play
� between the current RL policy network and a randomly
selected previous iteration
� to prevent overfitting to the current policy
� stochastic gradient ascent:
∆ρ ∝ ∂ log pρ(at |st)
∂ρzt
at time step t, where reward function zt is +1 for winning and −1 for losing.
Silver et al. 2016 33
RL Policy Network (1/2)
� identical in structure to the SL policy network
� goal: to win in the games of self-play
� task of classification
� weights ρ initialized to the same values, ρ := σ
� games of self-play
� between the current RL policy network and a randomly
selected previous iteration
� to prevent overfitting to the current policy
� stochastic gradient ascent:
∆ρ ∝ ∂ log pρ(at |st)
∂ρzt
at time step t, where reward function zt is +1 for winning and −1 for losing.
Silver et al. 2016 33
RL Policy Network (1/2)
� identical in structure to the SL policy network
� goal: to win in the games of self-play
� task of classification
� weights ρ initialized to the same values, ρ := σ
� games of self-play
� between the current RL policy network and a randomly
selected previous iteration
� to prevent overfitting to the current policy
� stochastic gradient ascent:
∆ρ ∝ ∂ log pρ(at |st)
∂ρzt
at time step t, where reward function zt is +1 for winning and −1 for losing.
Silver et al. 2016 33
RL Policy Network (1/2)
� identical in structure to the SL policy network
� goal: to win in the games of self-play
� task of classification
� weights ρ initialized to the same values, ρ := σ
� games of self-play
� between the current RL policy network and a randomly
selected previous iteration
� to prevent overfitting to the current policy
� stochastic gradient ascent:
∆ρ ∝ ∂ log pρ(at |st)
∂ρzt
at time step t, where reward function zt is +1 for winning and −1 for losing.
Silver et al. 2016 33
RL Policy Network (1/2)
� identical in structure to the SL policy network
� goal: to win in the games of self-play
� task of classification
� weights ρ initialized to the same values, ρ := σ
� games of self-play
� between the current RL policy network and a randomly
selected previous iteration
� to prevent overfitting to the current policy
� stochastic gradient ascent:
∆ρ ∝ ∂ log pρ(at |st)
∂ρzt
at time step t, where reward function zt is +1 for winning and −1 for losing.
Silver et al. 2016 33
RL Policy Network (1/2)
� identical in structure to the SL policy network
� goal: to win in the games of self-play
� task of classification
� weights ρ initialized to the same values, ρ := σ
� games of self-play
� between the current RL policy network and a randomly
selected previous iteration
� to prevent overfitting to the current policy
� stochastic gradient ascent:
∆ρ ∝ ∂ log pρ(at |st)
∂ρzt
at time step t, where reward function zt is +1 for winning and −1 for losing.
Silver et al. 2016 33
RL Policy Network (1/2)
� identical in structure to the SL policy network
� goal: to win in the games of self-play
� task of classification
� weights ρ initialized to the same values, ρ := σ
� games of self-play
� between the current RL policy network and a randomly
selected previous iteration
� to prevent overfitting to the current policy
� stochastic gradient ascent:
∆ρ ∝ ∂ log pρ(at |st)
∂ρzt
at time step t, where reward function zt is +1 for winning and −1 for losing.
Silver et al. 2016 33
RL Policy Network (1/2)
� identical in structure to the SL policy network
� goal: to win in the games of self-play
� task of classification
� weights ρ initialized to the same values, ρ := σ
� games of self-play
� between the current RL policy network and a randomly
selected previous iteration
� to prevent overfitting to the current policy
� stochastic gradient ascent:
∆ρ ∝ ∂ log pρ(at |st)
∂ρzt
at time step t, where reward function zt is +1 for winning and −1 for losing.
Silver et al. 2016 33
RL Policy Network (1/2)
� identical in structure to the SL policy network
� goal: to win in the games of self-play
� task of classification
� weights ρ initialized to the same values, ρ := σ
� games of self-play
� between the current RL policy network and a randomly
selected previous iteration
� to prevent overfitting to the current policy
� stochastic gradient ascent:
∆ρ ∝ ∂ log pρ(at |st)
∂ρzt
at time step t, where reward function zt is +1 for winning and −1 for losing.
Silver et al. 2016 33
RL Policy Network (1/2)
� identical in structure to the SL policy network
� goal: to win in the games of self-play
� task of classification
� weights ρ initialized to the same values, ρ := σ
� games of self-play
� between the current RL policy network and a randomly
selected previous iteration
� to prevent overfitting to the current policy
� stochastic gradient ascent:
∆ρ ∝ ∂ log pρ(at |st)
∂ρzt
at time step t, where reward function zt is +1 for winning and −1 for losing.
Silver et al. 2016 33
RL Policy Network (2/2)
Results (by sampling each move at ∼ pρ(·|st)):
� 80% of win rate against the SL policy network
� 85% of win rate against the strongest open-source Goprogram, Pachi (Baudis and Gailly 2011)
� The previous state-of-the-art, based only on SL of CNN:
11% of “win” rate against Pachi
Silver et al. 2016 34
RL Policy Network (2/2)
Results (by sampling each move at ∼ pρ(·|st)):
� 80% of win rate against the SL policy network
� 85% of win rate against the strongest open-source Goprogram, Pachi (Baudis and Gailly 2011)
� The previous state-of-the-art, based only on SL of CNN:
11% of “win” rate against Pachi
Silver et al. 2016 34
RL Policy Network (2/2)
Results (by sampling each move at ∼ pρ(·|st)):
� 80% of win rate against the SL policy network
� 85% of win rate against the strongest open-source Goprogram, Pachi (Baudis and Gailly 2011)
� The previous state-of-the-art, based only on SL of CNN:
11% of “win” rate against Pachi
Silver et al. 2016 34
RL Policy Network (2/2)
Results (by sampling each move at ∼ pρ(·|st)):
� 80% of win rate against the SL policy network
� 85% of win rate against the strongest open-source Goprogram, Pachi (Baudis and Gailly 2011)
� The previous state-of-the-art, based only on SL of CNN:
11% of “win” rate against Pachi
Silver et al. 2016 34
Training the (Deep Convolutional) Neural Networks
Silver et al. 2016 35
Value Network (1/2)
� similar architecture to the policy network, but outputs a single
prediction instead of a probability distribution
� goal: to estimate a value function
vp(s) = E[zt |st = s, at...T ∼ p]
that predicts the outcome from position s (of games played
by using policy p)
� Double approximation: vθ(s) ≈ vpρ(s) ≈ v∗(s).
� task of regression
� stochastic gradient descent:
∆θ ∝ ∂vθ(s)
∂θ(z − vθ(s))
(to minimize the mean squared error (MSE) between the predicted vθ(s) and the true z)
Silver et al. 2016 36
Value Network (1/2)
� similar architecture to the policy network, but outputs a single
prediction instead of a probability distribution
� goal: to estimate a value function
vp(s) = E[zt |st = s, at...T ∼ p]
that predicts the outcome from position s (of games played
by using policy p)
� Double approximation: vθ(s) ≈ vpρ(s) ≈ v∗(s).
� task of regression
� stochastic gradient descent:
∆θ ∝ ∂vθ(s)
∂θ(z − vθ(s))
(to minimize the mean squared error (MSE) between the predicted vθ(s) and the true z)
Silver et al. 2016 36
Value Network (1/2)
� similar architecture to the policy network, but outputs a single
prediction instead of a probability distribution
� goal: to estimate a value function
vp(s) = E[zt |st = s, at...T ∼ p]
that predicts the outcome from position s (of games played
by using policy p)
� Double approximation: vθ(s) ≈ vpρ(s) ≈ v∗(s).
� task of regression
� stochastic gradient descent:
∆θ ∝ ∂vθ(s)
∂θ(z − vθ(s))
(to minimize the mean squared error (MSE) between the predicted vθ(s) and the true z)
Silver et al. 2016 36
Value Network (1/2)
� similar architecture to the policy network, but outputs a single
prediction instead of a probability distribution
� goal: to estimate a value function
vp(s) = E[zt |st = s, at...T ∼ p]
that predicts the outcome from position s (of games played
by using policy p)
� Double approximation: vθ(s) ≈ vpρ(s) ≈ v∗(s).
� task of regression
� stochastic gradient descent:
∆θ ∝ ∂vθ(s)
∂θ(z − vθ(s))
(to minimize the mean squared error (MSE) between the predicted vθ(s) and the true z)
Silver et al. 2016 36
Value Network (1/2)
� similar architecture to the policy network, but outputs a single
prediction instead of a probability distribution
� goal: to estimate a value function
vp(s) = E[zt |st = s, at...T ∼ p]
that predicts the outcome from position s (of games played
by using policy p)
� Double approximation: vθ(s) ≈ vpρ(s) ≈ v∗(s).
� task of regression
� stochastic gradient descent:
∆θ ∝ ∂vθ(s)
∂θ(z − vθ(s))
(to minimize the mean squared error (MSE) between the predicted vθ(s) and the true z)
Silver et al. 2016 36
Value Network (2/2)
Beware of overfitting!
� Consecutive positions are strongly correlated.
� Value network memorized the game outcomes, rather than
generalizing to new positions.
� Solution: generate 30 million (new) positions, each sampled
from a seperate game
� almost the accuracy of Monte Carlo rollouts (using pρ), but
15000 times less computation!
Silver et al. 2016 37
Value Network (2/2)
Beware of overfitting!
� Consecutive positions are strongly correlated.
� Value network memorized the game outcomes, rather than
generalizing to new positions.
� Solution: generate 30 million (new) positions, each sampled
from a seperate game
� almost the accuracy of Monte Carlo rollouts (using pρ), but
15000 times less computation!
Silver et al. 2016 37
Value Network (2/2)
Beware of overfitting!
� Consecutive positions are strongly correlated.
� Value network memorized the game outcomes, rather than
generalizing to new positions.
� Solution: generate 30 million (new) positions, each sampled
from a seperate game
� almost the accuracy of Monte Carlo rollouts (using pρ), but
15000 times less computation!
Silver et al. 2016 37
Value Network (2/2)
Beware of overfitting!
� Consecutive positions are strongly correlated.
� Value network memorized the game outcomes, rather than
generalizing to new positions.
� Solution: generate 30 million (new) positions, each sampled
from a seperate game
� almost the accuracy of Monte Carlo rollouts (using pρ), but
15000 times less computation!
Silver et al. 2016 37
Value Network (2/2)
Beware of overfitting!
� Consecutive positions are strongly correlated.
� Value network memorized the game outcomes, rather than
generalizing to new positions.
� Solution: generate 30 million (new) positions, each sampled
from a seperate game
� almost the accuracy of Monte Carlo rollouts (using pρ), but
15000 times less computation!
Silver et al. 2016 37
Evaluation Accuracy in Various Stages of a Game
Move number is the number of moves that had been played in the given position.
Each position evaluated by:
� forward pass of the value network vθ
� 100 rollouts, played out using the corresponding policy
Silver et al. 2016 38
Evaluation Accuracy in Various Stages of a Game
Move number is the number of moves that had been played in the given position.
Each position evaluated by:
� forward pass of the value network vθ
� 100 rollouts, played out using the corresponding policy
Silver et al. 2016 38
Evaluation Accuracy in Various Stages of a Game
Move number is the number of moves that had been played in the given position.
Each position evaluated by:
� forward pass of the value network vθ
� 100 rollouts, played out using the corresponding policySilver et al. 2016 38
Elo Ratings for Various Combinations of Networks
Silver et al. 2016 39
The Main Algorithm
Silver et al. 2016 39
MCTS Algorithm
The next action is selected by lookahead search, using simulation:
1. selection phase
2. expansion phase
3. evaluation phase
4. backup phase (at end of all simulations)
Each edge (s, a) keeps:
� action value Q(s, a)
� visit count N(s, a)
� prior probability P(s, a) (from SL policy network pσ)
The tree is traversed by simulation (descending the tree) from the
root state.
Silver et al. 2016 40
MCTS Algorithm
The next action is selected by lookahead search, using simulation:
1. selection phase
2. expansion phase
3. evaluation phase
4. backup phase (at end of all simulations)
Each edge (s, a) keeps:
� action value Q(s, a)
� visit count N(s, a)
� prior probability P(s, a) (from SL policy network pσ)
The tree is traversed by simulation (descending the tree) from the
root state.
Silver et al. 2016 40
MCTS Algorithm
The next action is selected by lookahead search, using simulation:
1. selection phase
2. expansion phase
3. evaluation phase
4. backup phase (at end of all simulations)
Each edge (s, a) keeps:
� action value Q(s, a)
� visit count N(s, a)
� prior probability P(s, a) (from SL policy network pσ)
The tree is traversed by simulation (descending the tree) from the
root state.
Silver et al. 2016 40
MCTS Algorithm
The next action is selected by lookahead search, using simulation:
1. selection phase
2. expansion phase
3. evaluation phase
4. backup phase (at end of all simulations)
Each edge (s, a) keeps:
� action value Q(s, a)
� visit count N(s, a)
� prior probability P(s, a) (from SL policy network pσ)
The tree is traversed by simulation (descending the tree) from the
root state.
Silver et al. 2016 40
MCTS Algorithm
The next action is selected by lookahead search, using simulation:
1. selection phase
2. expansion phase
3. evaluation phase
4. backup phase (at end of all simulations)
Each edge (s, a) keeps:
� action value Q(s, a)
� visit count N(s, a)
� prior probability P(s, a) (from SL policy network pσ)
The tree is traversed by simulation (descending the tree) from the
root state.
Silver et al. 2016 40
MCTS Algorithm
The next action is selected by lookahead search, using simulation:
1. selection phase
2. expansion phase
3. evaluation phase
4. backup phase (at end of all simulations)
Each edge (s, a) keeps:
� action value Q(s, a)
� visit count N(s, a)
� prior probability P(s, a) (from SL policy network pσ)
The tree is traversed by simulation (descending the tree) from the
root state.
Silver et al. 2016 40
MCTS Algorithm
The next action is selected by lookahead search, using simulation:
1. selection phase
2. expansion phase
3. evaluation phase
4. backup phase (at end of all simulations)
Each edge (s, a) keeps:
� action value Q(s, a)
� visit count N(s, a)
� prior probability P(s, a) (from SL policy network pσ)
The tree is traversed by simulation (descending the tree) from the
root state.
Silver et al. 2016 40
MCTS Algorithm
The next action is selected by lookahead search, using simulation:
1. selection phase
2. expansion phase
3. evaluation phase
4. backup phase (at end of all simulations)
Each edge (s, a) keeps:
� action value Q(s, a)
� visit count N(s, a)
� prior probability P(s, a) (from SL policy network pσ)
The tree is traversed by simulation (descending the tree) from the
root state.
Silver et al. 2016 40
MCTS Algorithm
The next action is selected by lookahead search, using simulation:
1. selection phase
2. expansion phase
3. evaluation phase
4. backup phase (at end of all simulations)
Each edge (s, a) keeps:
� action value Q(s, a)
� visit count N(s, a)
� prior probability P(s, a) (from SL policy network pσ)
The tree is traversed by simulation (descending the tree) from the
root state.
Silver et al. 2016 40
MCTS Algorithm
The next action is selected by lookahead search, using simulation:
1. selection phase
2. expansion phase
3. evaluation phase
4. backup phase (at end of all simulations)
Each edge (s, a) keeps:
� action value Q(s, a)
� visit count N(s, a)
� prior probability P(s, a) (from SL policy network pσ)
The tree is traversed by simulation (descending the tree) from the
root state.
Silver et al. 2016 40
MCTS Algorithm
The next action is selected by lookahead search, using simulation:
1. selection phase
2. expansion phase
3. evaluation phase
4. backup phase (at end of all simulations)
Each edge (s, a) keeps:
� action value Q(s, a)
� visit count N(s, a)
� prior probability P(s, a) (from SL policy network pσ)
The tree is traversed by simulation (descending the tree) from the
root state.
Silver et al. 2016 40
MCTS Algorithm: Selection
At each time step t, an action at is selected from state st
at = arg maxa
(Q(st , a) + u(st , a))
where bonus
u(st , a) ∝P(s, a)
1 + N(s, a)
Silver et al. 2016 41
MCTS Algorithm: Selection
At each time step t, an action at is selected from state st
at = arg maxa
(Q(st , a) + u(st , a))
where bonus
u(st , a) ∝P(s, a)
1 + N(s, a)
Silver et al. 2016 41
MCTS Algorithm: Selection
At each time step t, an action at is selected from state st
at = arg maxa
(Q(st , a) + u(st , a))
where bonus
u(st , a) ∝P(s, a)
1 + N(s, a)
Silver et al. 2016 41
MCTS Algorithm: Expansion
A leaf position may be expanded (just once) by the SL policy network pσ .
The output probabilities are stored as priors P(s, a) := pσ(a|s).
Silver et al. 2016 42
MCTS Algorithm: Expansion
A leaf position may be expanded (just once) by the SL policy network pσ .
The output probabilities are stored as priors P(s, a) := pσ(a|s).
Silver et al. 2016 42
MCTS Algorithm: Expansion
A leaf position may be expanded (just once) by the SL policy network pσ .
The output probabilities are stored as priors P(s, a) := pσ(a|s).
Silver et al. 2016 42
MCTS: Evaluation
� evaluation from the value network vθ(s)
� evaluation by the outcome z using the fast rollout policy pπ until the end of game
Using a mixing parameter λ, the final leaf evaluation V (s) is
V (s) = (1− λ)vθ(s) + λz
Silver et al. 2016 43
MCTS: Evaluation
� evaluation from the value network vθ(s)
� evaluation by the outcome z using the fast rollout policy pπ until the end of game
Using a mixing parameter λ, the final leaf evaluation V (s) is
V (s) = (1− λ)vθ(s) + λz
Silver et al. 2016 43
MCTS: Evaluation
� evaluation from the value network vθ(s)
� evaluation by the outcome z using the fast rollout policy pπ until the end of game
Using a mixing parameter λ, the final leaf evaluation V (s) is
V (s) = (1− λ)vθ(s) + λz
Silver et al. 2016 43
MCTS: Evaluation
� evaluation from the value network vθ(s)
� evaluation by the outcome z using the fast rollout policy pπ until the end of game
Using a mixing parameter λ, the final leaf evaluation V (s) is
V (s) = (1− λ)vθ(s) + λz
Silver et al. 2016 43
MCTS: Evaluation
� evaluation from the value network vθ(s)
� evaluation by the outcome z using the fast rollout policy pπ until the end of game
Using a mixing parameter λ, the final leaf evaluation V (s) is
V (s) = (1− λ)vθ(s) + λz
Silver et al. 2016 43
MCTS: Backup
At the end of simulation, each traversed edge is updated by accumulating:
� the action values Q
� visit counts N
Silver et al. 2016 44
MCTS: Backup
At the end of simulation, each traversed edge is updated by accumulating:
� the action values Q
� visit counts N
Silver et al. 2016 44
Once the search is complete, the algorithm
chooses the most visited move from the root
position.
Silver et al. 2016 44
Percentage of Simulations
percentage frequency with which actions were selected from the root during simulations
Silver et al. 2016 45
Principal Variation (Path with Maximum Visit Count)
The moves are presented in a numbered sequence.
� AlphaGo selected the move indicated by the red circle;
� Fan Hui responded with the move indicated by the white square;
� in his post-game commentary, he preferred the move (labelled 1) predicted by AlphaGo.
Silver et al. 2016 46
Principal Variation (Path with Maximum Visit Count)
The moves are presented in a numbered sequence.
� AlphaGo selected the move indicated by the red circle;
� Fan Hui responded with the move indicated by the white square;
� in his post-game commentary, he preferred the move (labelled 1) predicted by AlphaGo.
Silver et al. 2016 46
Principal Variation (Path with Maximum Visit Count)
The moves are presented in a numbered sequence.
� AlphaGo selected the move indicated by the red circle;
� Fan Hui responded with the move indicated by the white square;
� in his post-game commentary, he preferred the move (labelled 1) predicted by AlphaGo.
Silver et al. 2016 46
Principal Variation (Path with Maximum Visit Count)
The moves are presented in a numbered sequence.
� AlphaGo selected the move indicated by the red circle;
� Fan Hui responded with the move indicated by the white square;
� in his post-game commentary, he preferred the move (labelled 1) predicted by AlphaGo.
Silver et al. 2016 46
Scalability
� asynchronous multi-threaded search
� simulations on CPUs
� computation of neural networks on GPUs
AlphaGo:
� 40 search threads
� 40 CPUs
� 8 GPUs
Distributed version of AlphaGo (on multiple machines):
� 40 search threads
� 1202 CPUs
� 176 GPUs
Silver et al. 2016 47
Scalability
� asynchronous multi-threaded search
� simulations on CPUs
� computation of neural networks on GPUs
AlphaGo:
� 40 search threads
� 40 CPUs
� 8 GPUs
Distributed version of AlphaGo (on multiple machines):
� 40 search threads
� 1202 CPUs
� 176 GPUs
Silver et al. 2016 47
Scalability
� asynchronous multi-threaded search
� simulations on CPUs
� computation of neural networks on GPUs
AlphaGo:
� 40 search threads
� 40 CPUs
� 8 GPUs
Distributed version of AlphaGo (on multiple machines):
� 40 search threads
� 1202 CPUs
� 176 GPUs
Silver et al. 2016 47
Scalability
� asynchronous multi-threaded search
� simulations on CPUs
� computation of neural networks on GPUs
AlphaGo:
� 40 search threads
� 40 CPUs
� 8 GPUs
Distributed version of AlphaGo (on multiple machines):
� 40 search threads
� 1202 CPUs
� 176 GPUs
Silver et al. 2016 47
Scalability
� asynchronous multi-threaded search
� simulations on CPUs
� computation of neural networks on GPUs
AlphaGo:
� 40 search threads
� 40 CPUs
� 8 GPUs
Distributed version of AlphaGo (on multiple machines):
� 40 search threads
� 1202 CPUs
� 176 GPUs
Silver et al. 2016 47
Scalability
� asynchronous multi-threaded search
� simulations on CPUs
� computation of neural networks on GPUs
AlphaGo:
� 40 search threads
� 40 CPUs
� 8 GPUs
Distributed version of AlphaGo (on multiple machines):
� 40 search threads
� 1202 CPUs
� 176 GPUs
Silver et al. 2016 47
Scalability
� asynchronous multi-threaded search
� simulations on CPUs
� computation of neural networks on GPUs
AlphaGo:
� 40 search threads
� 40 CPUs
� 8 GPUs
Distributed version of AlphaGo (on multiple machines):
� 40 search threads
� 1202 CPUs
� 176 GPUs
Silver et al. 2016 47
Scalability
� asynchronous multi-threaded search
� simulations on CPUs
� computation of neural networks on GPUs
AlphaGo:
� 40 search threads
� 40 CPUs
� 8 GPUs
Distributed version of AlphaGo (on multiple machines):
� 40 search threads
� 1202 CPUs
� 176 GPUs
Silver et al. 2016 47
Scalability
� asynchronous multi-threaded search
� simulations on CPUs
� computation of neural networks on GPUs
AlphaGo:
� 40 search threads
� 40 CPUs
� 8 GPUs
Distributed version of AlphaGo (on multiple machines):
� 40 search threads
� 1202 CPUs
� 176 GPUs
Silver et al. 2016 47
Scalability
� asynchronous multi-threaded search
� simulations on CPUs
� computation of neural networks on GPUs
AlphaGo:
� 40 search threads
� 40 CPUs
� 8 GPUs
Distributed version of AlphaGo (on multiple machines):
� 40 search threads
� 1202 CPUs
� 176 GPUs
Silver et al. 2016 47
Scalability
� asynchronous multi-threaded search
� simulations on CPUs
� computation of neural networks on GPUs
AlphaGo:
� 40 search threads
� 40 CPUs
� 8 GPUs
Distributed version of AlphaGo (on multiple machines):
� 40 search threads
� 1202 CPUs
� 176 GPUs
Silver et al. 2016 47
Scalability
� asynchronous multi-threaded search
� simulations on CPUs
� computation of neural networks on GPUs
AlphaGo:
� 40 search threads
� 40 CPUs
� 8 GPUs
Distributed version of AlphaGo (on multiple machines):
� 40 search threads
� 1202 CPUs
� 176 GPUs
Silver et al. 2016 47
Elo Ratings for Various Combinations of Threads
Silver et al. 2016 48
Results: the strength of AlphaGo
Tournament with Other Go Programs
Silver et al. 2016 49
Fan Hui
� professional 2 dan
� European Go Champion in 2013, 2014 and 2015
� European Professional Go Champion in 2016� biological neural network:
� 100 billion neurons
� 100 up to 1,000 trillion neuronal connections
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fan_Hui 50
Fan Hui
� professional 2 dan
� European Go Champion in 2013, 2014 and 2015
� European Professional Go Champion in 2016� biological neural network:
� 100 billion neurons
� 100 up to 1,000 trillion neuronal connections
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fan_Hui 50
Fan Hui
� professional 2 dan
� European Go Champion in 2013, 2014 and 2015
� European Professional Go Champion in 2016� biological neural network:
� 100 billion neurons
� 100 up to 1,000 trillion neuronal connections
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fan_Hui 50
Fan Hui
� professional 2 dan
� European Go Champion in 2013, 2014 and 2015
� European Professional Go Champion in 2016
� biological neural network:
� 100 billion neurons
� 100 up to 1,000 trillion neuronal connections
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fan_Hui 50
Fan Hui
� professional 2 dan
� European Go Champion in 2013, 2014 and 2015
� European Professional Go Champion in 2016� biological neural network:
� 100 billion neurons
� 100 up to 1,000 trillion neuronal connections
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fan_Hui 50
Fan Hui
� professional 2 dan
� European Go Champion in 2013, 2014 and 2015
� European Professional Go Champion in 2016� biological neural network:
� 100 billion neurons
� 100 up to 1,000 trillion neuronal connections
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fan_Hui 50
Fan Hui
� professional 2 dan
� European Go Champion in 2013, 2014 and 2015
� European Professional Go Champion in 2016� biological neural network:
� 100 billion neurons
� 100 up to 1,000 trillion neuronal connectionshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fan_Hui 50
AlphaGo versus Fan Hui
AlphaGo won 5:0 in a formal match on October 2015.
[AlphaGo] is very strong and stable, it seems
like a wall. ... I know AlphaGo is a computer,
but if no one told me, maybe I would think
the player was a little strange, but a very
strong player, a real person.
Fan Hui
51
AlphaGo versus Fan Hui
AlphaGo won 5:0 in a formal match on October 2015.
[AlphaGo] is very strong and stable, it seems
like a wall. ... I know AlphaGo is a computer,
but if no one told me, maybe I would think
the player was a little strange, but a very
strong player, a real person.
Fan Hui
51
AlphaGo versus Fan Hui
AlphaGo won 5:0 in a formal match on October 2015.
[AlphaGo] is very strong and stable, it seems
like a wall. ... I know AlphaGo is a computer,
but if no one told me, maybe I would think
the player was a little strange, but a very
strong player, a real person.
Fan Hui 51
Lee Sedol “The Strong Stone”
� professional 9 dan
� the 2nd in international titles
� the 5th youngest (12 years 4 months) to become
a professional Go player in South Korean history
� Lee Sedol would win 97 out of 100 games against Fan Hui.
� biological neural network comparable to Fan Hui’s (in number
of neurons and connections)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_Sedol 52
Lee Sedol “The Strong Stone”
� professional 9 dan
� the 2nd in international titles
� the 5th youngest (12 years 4 months) to become
a professional Go player in South Korean history
� Lee Sedol would win 97 out of 100 games against Fan Hui.
� biological neural network comparable to Fan Hui’s (in number
of neurons and connections)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_Sedol 52
Lee Sedol “The Strong Stone”
� professional 9 dan
� the 2nd in international titles
� the 5th youngest (12 years 4 months) to become
a professional Go player in South Korean history
� Lee Sedol would win 97 out of 100 games against Fan Hui.
� biological neural network comparable to Fan Hui’s (in number
of neurons and connections)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_Sedol 52
Lee Sedol “The Strong Stone”
� professional 9 dan
� the 2nd in international titles
� the 5th youngest (12 years 4 months) to become
a professional Go player in South Korean history
� Lee Sedol would win 97 out of 100 games against Fan Hui.
� biological neural network comparable to Fan Hui’s (in number
of neurons and connections)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_Sedol 52
Lee Sedol “The Strong Stone”
� professional 9 dan
� the 2nd in international titles
� the 5th youngest (12 years 4 months) to become
a professional Go player in South Korean history
� Lee Sedol would win 97 out of 100 games against Fan Hui.
� biological neural network comparable to Fan Hui’s (in number
of neurons and connections)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_Sedol 52
Lee Sedol “The Strong Stone”
� professional 9 dan
� the 2nd in international titles
� the 5th youngest (12 years 4 months) to become
a professional Go player in South Korean history
� Lee Sedol would win 97 out of 100 games against Fan Hui.
� biological neural network comparable to Fan Hui’s (in number
of neurons and connections)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_Sedol 52
I heard Google DeepMind’s AI is surprisingly
strong and getting stronger, but I am
confident that I can win, at least this time.
Lee Sedol
...even beating AlphaGo by 4:1 may allow
the Google DeepMind team to claim its de
facto victory and the defeat of him
[Lee Sedol], or even humankind.
interview in JTBC
Newsroom
52
I heard Google DeepMind’s AI is surprisingly
strong and getting stronger, but I am
confident that I can win, at least this time.
Lee Sedol
...even beating AlphaGo by 4:1 may allow
the Google DeepMind team to claim its de
facto victory and the defeat of him
[Lee Sedol], or even humankind.
interview in JTBC
Newsroom
52
I heard Google DeepMind’s AI is surprisingly
strong and getting stronger, but I am
confident that I can win, at least this time.
Lee Sedol
...even beating AlphaGo by 4:1 may allow
the Google DeepMind team to claim its de
facto victory and the defeat of him
[Lee Sedol], or even humankind.
interview in JTBC
Newsroom
52
AlphaGo versus Lee Sedol
In March 2016 AlphaGo won 4:1 against the legendary Lee Sedol.
AlphaGo won all but the 4th game; all games were won
by resignation.
The winner of the match was slated to win $1 million.
Since AlphaGo won, Google DeepMind stated that the prize will be
donated to charities, including UNICEF, and Go organisations.
Lee received $170,000 ($150,000 for participating in all the five
games, and an additional $20,000 for each game won).
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AlphaGo_versus_Lee_Sedol 53
AlphaGo versus Lee Sedol
In March 2016 AlphaGo won 4:1 against the legendary Lee Sedol.
AlphaGo won all but the 4th game; all games were won
by resignation.
The winner of the match was slated to win $1 million.
Since AlphaGo won, Google DeepMind stated that the prize will be
donated to charities, including UNICEF, and Go organisations.
Lee received $170,000 ($150,000 for participating in all the five
games, and an additional $20,000 for each game won).
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AlphaGo_versus_Lee_Sedol 53
AlphaGo versus Lee Sedol
In March 2016 AlphaGo won 4:1 against the legendary Lee Sedol.
AlphaGo won all but the 4th game; all games were won
by resignation.
The winner of the match was slated to win $1 million.
Since AlphaGo won, Google DeepMind stated that the prize will be
donated to charities, including UNICEF, and Go organisations.
Lee received $170,000 ($150,000 for participating in all the five
games, and an additional $20,000 for each game won).
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AlphaGo_versus_Lee_Sedol 53
AlphaGo versus Lee Sedol
In March 2016 AlphaGo won 4:1 against the legendary Lee Sedol.
AlphaGo won all but the 4th game; all games were won
by resignation.
The winner of the match was slated to win $1 million.
Since AlphaGo won, Google DeepMind stated that the prize will be
donated to charities, including UNICEF, and Go organisations.
Lee received $170,000 ($150,000 for participating in all the five
games, and an additional $20,000 for each game won).
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AlphaGo_versus_Lee_Sedol 53
AlphaGo versus Lee Sedol
In March 2016 AlphaGo won 4:1 against the legendary Lee Sedol.
AlphaGo won all but the 4th game; all games were won
by resignation.
The winner of the match was slated to win $1 million.
Since AlphaGo won, Google DeepMind stated that the prize will be
donated to charities, including UNICEF, and Go organisations.
Lee received $170,000 ($150,000 for participating in all the five
games, and an additional $20,000 for each game won).
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AlphaGo_versus_Lee_Sedol 53
AlphaGo versus Lee Sedol
In March 2016 AlphaGo won 4:1 against the legendary Lee Sedol.
AlphaGo won all but the 4th game; all games were won
by resignation.
The winner of the match was slated to win $1 million.
Since AlphaGo won, Google DeepMind stated that the prize will be
donated to charities, including UNICEF, and Go organisations.
Lee received $170,000 ($150,000 for participating in all the five
games, and an additional $20,000 for each game won).
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AlphaGo_versus_Lee_Sedol 53
Who’s next?
53
http://www.goratings.org/ (18th April 2016) 53
AlphaGo versus Ke Jie?
� professional 9 dan
� the 1st in (unofficial) world ranking list
� the youngest player to win 3 major international tournaments
� head-to-head record against Lee Sedol 8:2
� biological neural network comparable to Fan Hui’s, and thus
by transitivity, also comparable to Lee Sedol’s
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ke_Jie 54
AlphaGo versus Ke Jie?
� professional 9 dan
� the 1st in (unofficial) world ranking list
� the youngest player to win 3 major international tournaments
� head-to-head record against Lee Sedol 8:2
� biological neural network comparable to Fan Hui’s, and thus
by transitivity, also comparable to Lee Sedol’s
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ke_Jie 54
AlphaGo versus Ke Jie?
� professional 9 dan
� the 1st in (unofficial) world ranking list
� the youngest player to win 3 major international tournaments
� head-to-head record against Lee Sedol 8:2
� biological neural network comparable to Fan Hui’s, and thus
by transitivity, also comparable to Lee Sedol’s
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ke_Jie 54
AlphaGo versus Ke Jie?
� professional 9 dan
� the 1st in (unofficial) world ranking list
� the youngest player to win 3 major international tournaments
� head-to-head record against Lee Sedol 8:2
� biological neural network comparable to Fan Hui’s, and thus
by transitivity, also comparable to Lee Sedol’s
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ke_Jie 54
AlphaGo versus Ke Jie?
� professional 9 dan
� the 1st in (unofficial) world ranking list
� the youngest player to win 3 major international tournaments
� head-to-head record against Lee Sedol 8:2
� biological neural network comparable to Fan Hui’s, and thus
by transitivity, also comparable to Lee Sedol’s
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ke_Jie 54
AlphaGo versus Ke Jie?
� professional 9 dan
� the 1st in (unofficial) world ranking list
� the youngest player to win 3 major international tournaments
� head-to-head record against Lee Sedol 8:2
� biological neural network comparable to Fan Hui’s, and thus
by transitivity, also comparable to Lee Sedol’s
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ke_Jie 54
I believe I can beat it. Machines can be very
strong in many aspects but still have
loopholes in certain calculations.
Ke Jie
Now facing AlphaGo, I do not feel the same
strong instinct of victory when I play a
human player, but I still believe I have the
advantage against it. It’s 60 percent in
favor of me.
Ke Jie
Even though AlphaGo may have defeated
Lee Sedol, it won’t beat me.
Ke Jie
54
I believe I can beat it. Machines can be very
strong in many aspects but still have
loopholes in certain calculations.
Ke Jie
Now facing AlphaGo, I do not feel the same
strong instinct of victory when I play a
human player, but I still believe I have the
advantage against it. It’s 60 percent in
favor of me.
Ke Jie
Even though AlphaGo may have defeated
Lee Sedol, it won’t beat me.
Ke Jie
54
I believe I can beat it. Machines can be very
strong in many aspects but still have
loopholes in certain calculations.
Ke Jie
Now facing AlphaGo, I do not feel the same
strong instinct of victory when I play a
human player, but I still believe I have the
advantage against it. It’s 60 percent in
favor of me.
Ke Jie
Even though AlphaGo may have defeated
Lee Sedol, it won’t beat me.
Ke Jie
54
Conclusion
Difficulties of Go
� challenging decision-making
� intractable search space
� complex optimal solution
It appears infeasible to directly approximate using a policy or value function!
Silver et al. 2016 55
Difficulties of Go
� challenging decision-making
� intractable search space
� complex optimal solution
It appears infeasible to directly approximate using a policy or value function!
Silver et al. 2016 55
Difficulties of Go
� challenging decision-making
� intractable search space
� complex optimal solution
It appears infeasible to directly approximate using a policy or value function!
Silver et al. 2016 55
AlphaGo: summary
� Monte Carlo tree search
� effective move selection and position evaluation
� through deep convolutional neural networks
� trained by novel combination of supervised and reinforcement
learning
� new search algorithm combining
� neural network evaluation
� Monte Carlo rollouts
� scalable implementation
� multi-threaded simulations on CPUs
� parallel GPU computations
� distributed version over multiple machines
Silver et al. 2016 56
AlphaGo: summary
� Monte Carlo tree search
� effective move selection and position evaluation
� through deep convolutional neural networks
� trained by novel combination of supervised and reinforcement
learning
� new search algorithm combining
� neural network evaluation
� Monte Carlo rollouts
� scalable implementation
� multi-threaded simulations on CPUs
� parallel GPU computations
� distributed version over multiple machines
Silver et al. 2016 56
AlphaGo: summary
� Monte Carlo tree search
� effective move selection and position evaluation
� through deep convolutional neural networks
� trained by novel combination of supervised and reinforcement
learning
� new search algorithm combining
� neural network evaluation
� Monte Carlo rollouts
� scalable implementation
� multi-threaded simulations on CPUs
� parallel GPU computations
� distributed version over multiple machines
Silver et al. 2016 56
AlphaGo: summary
� Monte Carlo tree search
� effective move selection and position evaluation
� through deep convolutional neural networks
� trained by novel combination of supervised and reinforcement
learning
� new search algorithm combining
� neural network evaluation
� Monte Carlo rollouts
� scalable implementation
� multi-threaded simulations on CPUs
� parallel GPU computations
� distributed version over multiple machines
Silver et al. 2016 56
AlphaGo: summary
� Monte Carlo tree search
� effective move selection and position evaluation
� through deep convolutional neural networks
� trained by novel combination of supervised and reinforcement
learning
� new search algorithm combining
� neural network evaluation
� Monte Carlo rollouts
� scalable implementation
� multi-threaded simulations on CPUs
� parallel GPU computations
� distributed version over multiple machines
Silver et al. 2016 56
AlphaGo: summary
� Monte Carlo tree search
� effective move selection and position evaluation
� through deep convolutional neural networks
� trained by novel combination of supervised and reinforcement
learning
� new search algorithm combining
� neural network evaluation
� Monte Carlo rollouts
� scalable implementation
� multi-threaded simulations on CPUs
� parallel GPU computations
� distributed version over multiple machines
Silver et al. 2016 56
AlphaGo: summary
� Monte Carlo tree search
� effective move selection and position evaluation
� through deep convolutional neural networks
� trained by novel combination of supervised and reinforcement
learning
� new search algorithm combining
� neural network evaluation
� Monte Carlo rollouts
� scalable implementation
� multi-threaded simulations on CPUs
� parallel GPU computations
� distributed version over multiple machines
Silver et al. 2016 56
AlphaGo: summary
� Monte Carlo tree search
� effective move selection and position evaluation
� through deep convolutional neural networks
� trained by novel combination of supervised and reinforcement
learning
� new search algorithm combining
� neural network evaluation
� Monte Carlo rollouts
� scalable implementation
� multi-threaded simulations on CPUs
� parallel GPU computations
� distributed version over multiple machines
Silver et al. 2016 56
AlphaGo: summary
� Monte Carlo tree search
� effective move selection and position evaluation
� through deep convolutional neural networks
� trained by novel combination of supervised and reinforcement
learning
� new search algorithm combining
� neural network evaluation
� Monte Carlo rollouts
� scalable implementation
� multi-threaded simulations on CPUs
� parallel GPU computations
� distributed version over multiple machines
Silver et al. 2016 56
AlphaGo: summary
� Monte Carlo tree search
� effective move selection and position evaluation
� through deep convolutional neural networks
� trained by novel combination of supervised and reinforcement
learning
� new search algorithm combining
� neural network evaluation
� Monte Carlo rollouts
� scalable implementation
� multi-threaded simulations on CPUs
� parallel GPU computations
� distributed version over multiple machines
Silver et al. 2016 56
AlphaGo: summary
� Monte Carlo tree search
� effective move selection and position evaluation
� through deep convolutional neural networks
� trained by novel combination of supervised and reinforcement
learning
� new search algorithm combining
� neural network evaluation
� Monte Carlo rollouts
� scalable implementation
� multi-threaded simulations on CPUs
� parallel GPU computations
� distributed version over multiple machines
Silver et al. 2016 56
Novel approach
During the match against Fan Hui, AlphaGo evaluated thousands
of times fewer positions than Deep Blue against Kasparov.
It compensated this by:
� selecting those positions more intelligently (policy network)
� evaluating them more precisely (value network)
Deep Blue relied on a handcrafted evaluation function.
AlphaGo was trained directly and automatically from gameplay.
It used general-purpose learning.
This approach is not specific to the game of Go. The algorithm
can be used for much wider class of (so far seemingly)
intractable problems in AI!
Silver et al. 2016 57
Novel approach
During the match against Fan Hui, AlphaGo evaluated thousands
of times fewer positions than Deep Blue against Kasparov.
It compensated this by:
� selecting those positions more intelligently (policy network)
� evaluating them more precisely (value network)
Deep Blue relied on a handcrafted evaluation function.
AlphaGo was trained directly and automatically from gameplay.
It used general-purpose learning.
This approach is not specific to the game of Go. The algorithm
can be used for much wider class of (so far seemingly)
intractable problems in AI!
Silver et al. 2016 57
Novel approach
During the match against Fan Hui, AlphaGo evaluated thousands
of times fewer positions than Deep Blue against Kasparov.
It compensated this by:
� selecting those positions more intelligently (policy network)
� evaluating them more precisely (value network)
Deep Blue relied on a handcrafted evaluation function.
AlphaGo was trained directly and automatically from gameplay.
It used general-purpose learning.
This approach is not specific to the game of Go. The algorithm
can be used for much wider class of (so far seemingly)
intractable problems in AI!
Silver et al. 2016 57
Novel approach
During the match against Fan Hui, AlphaGo evaluated thousands
of times fewer positions than Deep Blue against Kasparov.
It compensated this by:
� selecting those positions more intelligently (policy network)
� evaluating them more precisely (value network)
Deep Blue relied on a handcrafted evaluation function.
AlphaGo was trained directly and automatically from gameplay.
It used general-purpose learning.
This approach is not specific to the game of Go. The algorithm
can be used for much wider class of (so far seemingly)
intractable problems in AI!
Silver et al. 2016 57
Novel approach
During the match against Fan Hui, AlphaGo evaluated thousands
of times fewer positions than Deep Blue against Kasparov.
It compensated this by:
� selecting those positions more intelligently (policy network)
� evaluating them more precisely (value network)
Deep Blue relied on a handcrafted evaluation function.
AlphaGo was trained directly and automatically from gameplay.
It used general-purpose learning.
This approach is not specific to the game of Go. The algorithm
can be used for much wider class of (so far seemingly)
intractable problems in AI!
Silver et al. 2016 57
Novel approach
During the match against Fan Hui, AlphaGo evaluated thousands
of times fewer positions than Deep Blue against Kasparov.
It compensated this by:
� selecting those positions more intelligently (policy network)
� evaluating them more precisely (value network)
Deep Blue relied on a handcrafted evaluation function.
AlphaGo was trained directly and automatically from gameplay.
It used general-purpose learning.
This approach is not specific to the game of Go. The algorithm
can be used for much wider class of (so far seemingly)
intractable problems in AI!
Silver et al. 2016 57
Novel approach
During the match against Fan Hui, AlphaGo evaluated thousands
of times fewer positions than Deep Blue against Kasparov.
It compensated this by:
� selecting those positions more intelligently (policy network)
� evaluating them more precisely (value network)
Deep Blue relied on a handcrafted evaluation function.
AlphaGo was trained directly and automatically from gameplay.
It used general-purpose learning.
This approach is not specific to the game of Go. The algorithm
can be used for much wider class of (so far seemingly)
intractable problems in AI!
Silver et al. 2016 57
Novel approach
During the match against Fan Hui, AlphaGo evaluated thousands
of times fewer positions than Deep Blue against Kasparov.
It compensated this by:
� selecting those positions more intelligently (policy network)
� evaluating them more precisely (value network)
Deep Blue relied on a handcrafted evaluation function.
AlphaGo was trained directly and automatically from gameplay.
It used general-purpose learning.
This approach is not specific to the game of Go. The algorithm
can be used for much wider class of (so far seemingly)
intractable problems in AI!
Silver et al. 2016 57
Thank you!
Questions?
57
Backup Slides
Input features for rollout and tree policy
Silver et al. 2016
Selection of Moves by the SL Policy Network
move probabilities taken directly from the SL policy network pσ (reported as a percentage if above 0.1%).
Silver et al. 2016
Selection of Moves by the Value Network
evaluation of all successors s′ of the root position s, using vθ(s)
Silver et al. 2016
Tree Evaluation from Value Network
action values Q(s, a) for each tree-edge (s, a) from root position s (averaged over value network evaluations only)
Silver et al. 2016
Tree Evaluation from Rollouts
action values Q(s, a), averaged over rollout evaluations only
Silver et al. 2016
Results of a tournament between different Go programs
Silver et al. 2016
Results of a tournament between AlphaGo and distributed Al-
phaGo, testing scalability with hardware
Silver et al. 2016
AlphaGo versus Fan Hui: Game 1
Silver et al. 2016
AlphaGo versus Fan Hui: Game 2
Silver et al. 2016
AlphaGo versus Fan Hui: Game 3
Silver et al. 2016
AlphaGo versus Fan Hui: Game 4
Silver et al. 2016
AlphaGo versus Fan Hui: Game 5
Silver et al. 2016
AlphaGo versus Lee Sedol: Game 1
https://youtu.be/vFr3K2DORc8
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AlphaGo_versus_Lee_Sedol
AlphaGo versus Lee Sedol: Game 2 (1/2)
https://youtu.be/l-GsfyVCBu0
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AlphaGo_versus_Lee_Sedol
AlphaGo versus Lee Sedol: Game 2 (2/2)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AlphaGo_versus_Lee_Sedol
AlphaGo versus Lee Sedol: Game 3
https://youtu.be/qUAmTYHEyM8
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AlphaGo_versus_Lee_Sedol
AlphaGo versus Lee Sedol: Game 4
https://youtu.be/yCALyQRN3hw
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AlphaGo_versus_Lee_Sedol
AlphaGo versus Lee Sedol: Game 5 (1/2)
https://youtu.be/mzpW10DPHeQ
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AlphaGo_versus_Lee_Sedol
AlphaGo versus Lee Sedol: Game 5 (2/2)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AlphaGo_versus_Lee_Sedol
Further Reading I
AlphaGo:
� Google Research Blog
http://googleresearch.blogspot.cz/2016/01/alphago-mastering-ancient-game-of-go.html
� an article in Nature
http://www.nature.com/news/google-ai-algorithm-masters-ancient-game-of-go-1.19234
� a reddit article claiming that AlphaGo is even stronger than it appears to be:
“AlphaGo would rather win by less points, but with higher probability.”
https://www.reddit.com/r/baduk/comments/49y17z/the_true_strength_of_alphago/
� a video of how AlphaGo works (put in layman’s terms) https://youtu.be/qWcfiPi9gUU
Articles by Google DeepMind:
� Atari player: a DeepRL system which combines Deep Neural Networks with Reinforcement Learning (Mnih
et al. 2015)
� Neural Turing Machines (Graves, Wayne, and Danihelka 2014)
Artificial Intelligence:
� Artificial Intelligence course at MIT
http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/electrical-engineering-and-computer-science/
6-034-artificial-intelligence-fall-2010/index.htm
Further Reading II
� Introduction to Artificial Intelligence at Udacity
https://www.udacity.com/course/intro-to-artificial-intelligence--cs271
� General Game Playing course https://www.coursera.org/course/ggp
� Singularity http://waitbutwhy.com/2015/01/artificial-intelligence-revolution-1.html + Part 2
� The Singularity Is Near (Kurzweil 2005)
Combinatorial Game Theory (founded by John H. Conway to study endgames in Go):
� Combinatorial Game Theory course https://www.coursera.org/learn/combinatorial-game-theory
� On Numbers and Games (Conway 1976)
� Computer Go as a sum of local games: an application of combinatorial game theory (Muller 1995)
Chess:
� Deep Blue beats G. Kasparov in 1997 https://youtu.be/NJarxpYyoFI
Machine Learning:
� Machine Learning course
https://youtu.be/hPKJBXkyTK://www.coursera.org/learn/machine-learning/
� Reinforcement Learning http://reinforcementlearning.ai-depot.com/
� Deep Learning (LeCun, Bengio, and Hinton 2015)
Further Reading III
� Deep Learning course https://www.udacity.com/course/deep-learning--ud730
� Two Minute Papers https://www.youtube.com/user/keeroyz
� Applications of Deep Learning https://youtu.be/hPKJBXkyTKM
Neuroscience:
� http://www.brainfacts.org/
References I
Allis, Louis Victor et al. (1994). Searching for solutions in games and artificial intelligence. Ponsen & Looijen.
Baudis, Petr and Jean-loup Gailly (2011). “Pachi: State of the art open source Go program”. In: Advances in
Computer Games. Springer, pp. 24–38.
Bowling, Michael et al. (2015). “Heads-up limit holdem poker is solved”. In: Science 347.6218, pp. 145–149. url:
http://poker.cs.ualberta.ca/15science.html.
Champandard, Alex J (2016). “Semantic Style Transfer and Turning Two-Bit Doodles into Fine Artworks”. In:
arXiv preprint arXiv:1603.01768.
Conway, John Horton (1976). “On Numbers and Games”. In: London Mathematical Society Monographs 6.
Dieterle, Frank Jochen (2003). “Multianalyte quantifications by means of integration of artificial neural networks,
genetic algorithms and chemometrics for time-resolved analytical data”. PhD thesis. Universitat Tubingen.
Gatys, Leon A., Alexander S. Ecker, and Matthias Bethge (2015). “A Neural Algorithm of Artistic Style”. In:
CoRR abs/1508.06576. url: http://arxiv.org/abs/1508.06576.
Graves, Alex, Greg Wayne, and Ivo Danihelka (2014). “Neural turing machines”. In: arXiv preprint
arXiv:1410.5401.
Hayes, Bradley (2016). url: https://twitter.com/deepdrumpf.
Karpathy, Andrej (2015). The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Recurrent Neural Networks. url:
http://karpathy.github.io/2015/05/21/rnn-effectiveness/ (visited on 04/01/2016).
References II
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