All-ceramic Fixed Partial Dentures-1
-
Upload
junaid-iqbal -
Category
Documents
-
view
207 -
download
3
Transcript of All-ceramic Fixed Partial Dentures-1
ALL-CERAMIC FIXED PARTIAL DENTURES Studies on aluminum oxide- and zirconium dioxide-based ceramic systems Per Vult von SteyernISBN 91-628-6444-0
Swedish Dental Journal Supplement 173, 2005
ALL-CERAMIC FIXED PARTIAL DENTURES
Studies on aluminum oxide- and zirconium dioxide-based ceramic systems
Per Vult von Steyern, Odont lic, DDS
Department of Prosthetic Dentistry Faculty of Odontology
Malmö University Sweden, 2005
Per Vult von Steyern, Odont lic, DDS Department of Prosthetic DentistryMalmö University SE-205 06 Malmö SwedenTel. +46 40 6658583 Fax: +46 40 6658503 E-mail: [email protected]
Cover: Machu Picchu, Peru.Photo: Per Vult von Steyern
ISBN 91-628-6444-0
Swedish Dental Journal Supplement 173, 2005 ISSN 0348-6672
2
3
To the endless ocean path
4
5
CONTENTS
Preface 7
Abstract 9
Swedish summary (Populärvetenskaplig sammanfattning) 11
Introduction 13
Aims 25
Materials and Methods 27
Results 41
Discussion 51
Conclusions 61
Acknowledgements 63
References 65
Appendix:
Paper I
Paper II
Paper III
Paper IV
Paper V
6
7
PREFACE
This thesis is based on the following papers, which will be referred to by their Roman numerals:
I. Vult von Steyern P, Al-Ansari A, White K, Nilner K, Dérand T. Fracture Strength of In-Ceram All-Ceramic Bridges in Relation to Cervical Shape and Try-in Procedure. An In-Vitro Study. Eur J Prosthodont Rest Dent 2000; 4: 153–158.
II. Vult von Steyern P, Jönsson O, Nilner K. Five-year Evaluation of Posterior All-Ceramic Three-Unit (In-Ceram ) Fixed Partial Dentures. Int J Prosthodont 2001;14: 379–384.
III. Vult von Steyern P, Ebbesson S, Holmgren J, Haag P, Nilner K. Fracture Strength of Two Oxide Ceramic Crown Systems After Cyclic Preload and Thermocycling. An In-Vitro Study. Submitted.
IV. Vult von Steyern P, Carlson P, Nilner K. All-ceramic Fixed Partial Dentures Designed According to the DC-Zirkon Technique. A 2-Year Clinical Study. J Oral Rehabil 2005; 32: 180-187.
V. Vult von Steyern P, Kokubo Y, Nilner K. Use of abutment-teeth vs. dental implants to support all-ceramic fixed partial dentures: An in-vitro study on fracture strength. Submitted.
The papers have been reproduced with the kind permission of the publishers.
8
You blow, fresh wind of the ocean from the southwest and sweetly caress the sailor's cheek best of all the winds
Toward sea and storms you boldly course toward sea and storms be then on guard!
On an endless ocean path, life is free and cares are forgotten When the green-white sea sings its high freedom song
Swell, great lovely sail, swell on the push of the wind with resounding delight towards mountainous waves in the moment's utmost joy
Towards sea and storms...
9
ABSTRACT
Background: The development of refined, tougher, and stronger ceramic core
materials in recent years has led to the wider use of new, strong all-ceramic systems
based on oxide ceramics. Results from in-vitro studies investigating the use of oxide
ceramics in shorter all-ceramic fixed partial dentures (FPDs) have been positive, but
clinical studies and additional in-vitro studies are needed to confirm the advisability of
such procedures. Aims: One aim of this thesis was to investigate whether alumina-
based and zirconia-based material systems are adequate for use in shorter ( five-
unit) FPDs and to evaluate the clinical results. Additional aims were to investigate how
to achieve optimal fracture strength in an all-ceramic FPD by varying the try-in
procedure, the cervical shape of the abutments, and the support of the FPD (abutment
teeth or dental implants). The final aim was to compare the strength of a zirconia
material system with that of an alumina equivalent with known long-term clinical
performance. Materials and Methods: Two clinical studies investigating one alumina-
based and one zirconia-based material system were performed. Twenty posterior,
three-unit FPDs (glass-infiltrated alumina) were followed for 5 years and 20 three–five-
unit FPDs (HIP zirconia) for 2 years. Long-term follow-ups were made after 11±1
(glass-infiltrated alumina) and 3 years (HIP zirconia). In three in-vitro studies, the
following variables were investigated: 1a) the flexural strength of porcelain specimens
depending on whether they were exposed to saliva before the glaze firing (n=20) or
first after the glaze firing (n=20), 1b) the fracture strength of three-unit all-ceramic
FPDs (glass-infiltrated alumina) supported by abutments prepared with cervical
shoulder preparations (n=9) and abutments with cervical chamfer preparations (n=9),
2) the fracture strength of crowns (n=30) made of a zirconia material system (densely
sintered zirconia) and of crowns (n=30) of an alumina material system (densely
sintered alumina) that had undergone three different pre-treatment modalities (water
storage only; water storage and cyclic pre-loading; water storage, cyclic pre-loading,
and thermocycling), 3) the fracture strength of all-ceramic FPDs (densely sintered
alumina) supported by simulated teeth (n=12) or by dental implants (n=12). Results:
The success rate of the clinical alumina study was 90% after 5 years. Six (±1) years
later (after a total of 11 ± 1 years), the success/survival rate was 65%. In the second
10
clinical study, the success rates of the 2- and 3-year follow-ups were 100%. In the
three in-vitro studies, the following results were found: 1a) the mean flexural strength
of the specimens in the group that was exposed to saliva first after glazing was
significantly higher (P < 0.001) than that of the specimens in the group that was
exposed to saliva before glazing, 1b) the FPDs luted on shoulder preparations resisted
higher loads than the FPDs luted on chamfer preparations (P = 0.051), 2) total
fractures were more frequent in the alumina than in the zirconia group (P < 0.001), 3)
FPDs loaded on implants resisted higher loads (mean = 604 N, SD=184 N ) than
FPDs loaded on abutment teeth (mean= 378 N, SD=152 N, P = 0.003).
Conclusions: This thesis justifies the use of shorter alumina- ( three-unit) and
zirconia-based ( five-unit) FPDs as the clinical results are acceptable. The clinical
performance of alumina is, however, not as good as that of comparable high-gold alloy
based porcelain-fused-to-metal FPDs concerning fracture resistance. Within the
limitations of the in-vitro studies: Saliva exposure of porcelain before glaze firing
should be avoided to optimize the strength of the porcelain. Shoulder preparations can
be beneficial for the strength of all-ceramic FPDs compared to chamfer preparations,
as can support by dental implants compared to abutment teeth. The fracture mode of
alumina crowns (total fractures) differs from that of zirconia crowns (veneer fractures),
suggesting that the zirconia core is stronger than the alumina core.
11
HELKERAMISKA TANDBROAR
Keramiska material har länge använts inom tandvården för framställning av
tandersättningar. Keramer har många goda egenskaper som gör dem särskilt lämpliga
att använda i munnen. Viktigast är kanske att de är biokompatibla, det vill säga att de
inte skadar omgivande vävnader, att de inte ger upphov till allergier eller utgör någon
risk för förgiftning och att de inte bryts ner i den miljö i vilken de är tänkta att fungera.
Särskilt intressanta bland keramerna är porslin som förutom nämnda fördelar har
optiska egenskaper som liknar tandemaljens. Detta har bidragit till att dentalt porslin
sedan många år används för att ge olika typer av tandersättningar ett ytskikt med
tandliknade utseende.
Broar är fastsittande tandersättningar som används när man behöver ersätta förlorade
tänder. Det idag mest använda materialet för framställning av tandbroar är så kallad
"metallkeramik", en kombination av en metallegering, ofta högädel, och ett porslin.
Den viktigaste rollen som metallegeringen spelar är att förstärka porslinet så att det
motstår de belastningar som förekommer i munnen.
Metallegeringar har emellertid flera nackdelar. Dels finns det en risk att patienten är
allergisk mot någon av legeringsmetallerna om de läcker ut. Metallers optiska
egenskaper begränsar dessutom möjligheterna att få tandersättningarna så tandlika
som man många gånger önskar, vilket försvårar förutsättningarna att framställa
tandersättningar med gott estetiskt resultat.
Sedan mer än 40 år har forskning pågått för att utveckla helkeramiska material som
har egenskaper som tillåter framställning av broar utan metallunderstöd. Olika metoder
och material har testats, men resultaten har många gånger varit nedslående; broar har
spruckit efter en allt för kort tid i funktion. Inte förrän 1985 kom ett material som
verkade kunna fungera och som hade teoretiska hållfasthetsvärden långt över de
traditionella keramernas. Nittonhundranittiotvå presenterades flera laboratoriestudier
med samma slutsats - nu fanns ett material som verkade vara tillräckligt starkt för att
kunna användas till broframställning; glasinfiltrerad aluminiumoxid. Man betonade
dock att kliniska långtidsstudier behövdes innan materialet kunde rekommenderas för
allmänt bruk.
12
Föreliggande arbete består av 5 delarbeten, samtliga rörande helkeramiska broar eller
material som används i broarna. Delarbete 1, 3 och 5 är laboratoriestudier medan
delarbete 2 och 4 är kliniska studier. I delarbete 1 undersöktes dels vilken
inprovningsmetod som ger högst hållfasthet hos porslin (göra bron helt färdig på
laboratoriet alternativt att prova den i munnen som halvfabrikat innan bron färdigställs),
dels vilken typ av tillslipning man bör göra av tänderna som skall bära bron för att få
högst brohållfasthet ( s.k. skulderpreparation alternativt chamferpreparation
[hålkälsprofil] ). Delarbete 2 är en klinisk 5-årsuppföljning av broar framställda i
glasinfiltrerad aluminiumoxid och delarbete 3 jämför hållfastheten hos 2 olika
bromaterial (aluminiumoxid och zirkoniumdioxid). Delarbete 4 är en klinisk 2-
årsuppföljning av broar framställda i zirkoniumdioxid och slutligen delarbete 5 jämför
helkeramiska broars hållfasthet beroende på om de är förankrade med tänder eller
tandimplantat. Utöver dessa delarbeten finns en sammanställning av kliniska resultat
från delarbete 2 och 4 efter 11±1 år (glasinfiltrerad aluminiumoxid) respektive 3 år
(zirkoniumdioxid).
Slutsatserna från avhandlingen är att små broar baserade på aluminiumoxid kan
framställas med acceptabelt kliniskt resultat, men att hållfastheten över tid inte är lika
bra som för motsvarande broar i metallkeramik. Zirkoniumdioxidbaserade broar med
storlek upp till 5 tänder uppvisar lyckandefrekvenser motsvarande metallkeramik inom
ramen för den tid föreliggande studie pågått. Laboratorieavsnitten i avhandlingen ger
följande slutsatser: Inprovning av porslin i mun på patient bör inte göras innan
glansbränning av porslinet gjorts. Vidare bör skulderpreparation väljas framför
chamferpreparation för att motstå höga belastningar i bettet. Zirkoniumdioxid är
starkare än aluminiumoxid, särskilt efter förbelastning, men ytporslinet på en
zirkoniumoxidkrona spricker vid ungefär samma belastning som en aluminiuoxidkrona
spricker genom båda skikten (både kärna och ytporslin). Slutligen antyder resultaten i
delarbete 5 att helkeramiska broar bör kunna göras på implantat med minst lika bra
hållfasthet som på naturliga tänder. Resultaten från laboratoriestudierna behöver
emellertid bekräftas i kliniska studier innan metoden kan rekommenderas för allmänt
bruk.
13
INTRODUCTION
Ceramics in dentistry
The word “ceramics” is derived from keramikos, which is the ancient Greek word for
"earthen", and most commonly used for inorganic materials consisting of one or more
metals combined with a non-metallic element, usually oxygen20. The present high
interest in the use of dental ceramics is illustrated by the rising demand for ceramic
crowns: an increase of 50% every 4 years in recent years61. The optical properties of
dental ceramics in general are considered to be similar to those of the natural tooth;
this makes them suitable for reconstructions designed to fulfill high esthetic demands.
There are, however, dental ceramics that do not possess such optical properties but
are used for other reasons—strength being the main one. Hence, in discussions on
which material produces the most pleasing result esthetically and gives the best
impression of vitality, the qualities of dental porcelains are not matched by those of
any other material. The expression dental ceramics is more a general description of a
large group of materials within which the dental porcelains are but one subgroup.
Dental porcelain
The word porcelain is derived from porcellana, which is the Italian name for a small
seashell. Traditionally, it is used for strong, vitreous ceramic materials consisting of a
continuous glass matrix in which different fractions of crystals and particles are
interspersed. The glass phase is predominantly a noncrystalline, amorphous, fairly
transparent material produced by fusion, which forms silica networks as structural
units and a matrix consisting of potassium and/or soda feldspar (potassium feldspar;
K2O-Al2O3-6SiO2)65.
14
Porcelain has been used in dentistry for more than 200 years and was first introduced
in the eighteenth century in an all-porcelain denture. In 1903 a procedure for making
porcelain crowns (“porcelain-jacket crowns”) was described, an achievement that
unfortunately encountered problems because the crowns easily fractured30,46. The
development of stronger porcelains and improved firing techniques, particularly during
the 1960s, made it possible to use porcelain restorations in the anterior regions with
acceptable success. Today, however, the inherently low tensile strength of dental
porcelains still does not allow their use in high stress-bearing applications without the
use of a high strength support – or by using bonding technique as a strengthening
mechanism for the porcelain25.
The primary reason for using porcelains in dentistry is their superior esthetic
appearance, which is a result of the light absorbing and light scattering behavior of the
material and its potential to reproduce the depth of translucence, the color, and the
texture of natural teeth. Porcelain is chemically stable, has good wear resistance and
color stability in the oral environment, and is relatively affordable compared to precious
alloys. Thermal expansion and conductivity are similar to those of enamel and dentine,
resulting in a low risk of temperature sensitivity and marginal percolation27,37,59.
Furthermore, there is no known risk of developing adverse reactions to the porcelains,
as has been described for metal alloys6. Glazed porcelain is, moreover, the only
restorative material from which bacterial plaque can be easily removed37.
There are, however, drawbacks to the use of dental porcelains. Despite high bonding
forces between the atoms, the material cannot withstand deformations of more than
0.1% without fracturing. This brittleness is due to the nature of the strong covalent
bonds that do not allow plastic deformation when subjected to tensile or shear forces.
15
The atoms in ceramics cannot, in contrast to metal, which has relatively low atomic
bond forces, slide along the atomic planes when the applied load exceeds the elastic
capacity of the material. Such loads result in a brittle fracture originating from the point
of the highest concentration of stress, which often is at the location of a microstructural
flaw37.
Porcelain components and specimens have a large variation in types and sizes of pre-
existing flaws that act as starting points in the formation of cracks. Such flaws could be
areas of porosity, agglomerates, inclusions, and large-grained zones, which can all be
processing related. Machining and grinding determine the size and number of surface
flaws. Finally, during firing, formation of weak, secondary grain boundary phases can
occur as well as microcracking associated with phase transformations or differences in
granular contraction during cooling14,35.
Under continuous loading, cracks propagate and insidiously weaken the porcelain
restoration, a phenomenon described as slow crack growth. If a loading cycle exceeds
the mechanical capacity of the remaining sound portion of the material, catastrophic
failure will occur56. Thus, the major problem in designing porcelain restorations resides
in the unpredictable strength of the material itself. Differences in the shape, size, and
distribution of flaws and cracks in dental porcelain make it difficult to predict the
longevity of one porcelain restoration based on experience with other, equivalent
restorations used under similar conditions and often lead to unexpected
failure33,47,48,49.
16
Glaze and polishing
Different kinds of surface treatments have been investigated to find the optimal
procedure for reducing surface flaws. A glaze layer can be used to fill in the flaws; or
polishing can be used to reduce their depth. Studies have reported that highly polished
porcelain can be even stronger than glazed equivalents. The improved strength might
be attributable to the elimination of surface flaws and to the development of residual
compressive stresses in the porcelain surface21.
To prolong the longevity of a porcelain restoration, it is important to address the
question of how to achieve microstructural refined dental porcelain to reduce—or
preferably avoid—the size and number of cracks and flaws33. Hence, it is essential to
optimize the production techniques and thereby improve control of the quality of the
ceramic restorations.
Strengthening dental porcelain
The problem of improving the strength of porcelain restorations so that they will be
able to withstand the loads they will be subjected to during service can be solved in
two ways. One is to make the porcelain itself stronger and tougher; the other is to
provide the porcelain with a stronger substructure that supports the porcelain. At the
present time, the mechanical strength of porcelain ( 120 MPa) and glass ceramics
(~180 MPa) is too low for use in high stress applications without some kind of
supportive substructure25. Such supporting structures can entail:
1 – Etching and bonding with methacrylate-based cement.
2 – Use of high strength (oxide) ceramic substructures.
17
In the first case above, etching the cementation surface and coating it with a polymer
can substantially improve the strength of porcelain and glass ceramics. The
strengthening effect may be caused by the elimination—or blunting—of cracks or by
reduced stress corrosion through a reduction in the transport of water to the crack tips
by the polymer coatings37. Another possible explanation is that the bond between
porcelain and enamel/dentine improves strength by reducing tensile forces on the
cementation surface of the restoration61.
In the second case above, the strengthening mechanism of high strength ceramic
substructures supporting dental porcelain is similar to that of porcelain-fused-to-metal
(PFM) where strength is added by a metal substructure with a thermal coefficient
compatible with that of porcelain. In all-ceramic, high strength (oxide) core materials,
the shape of the substructures serves to support the weaker veneering porcelain.
During loading of a laminate crown where the porcelain is supported by a strong core,
the resulting forces in the veneer will be compressive rather than shearing or tension
stresses. As ceramics in general can withstand higher compressive loads than
shearing and tension ones, this will be beneficial for the load-bearing capacity of the
crowns.
The dense core blunts flaws and cracks in the critical inner surface of the crown,
hence preventing time-dependent slow crack growth emanating from this area.
Another mechanism could be that ceramic substructures prevent water from getting
access to the crack tip and thus indirectly decrease the risk of stress corrosion in this
surface area. The stiff, strong inner construction resists radial expansion of the dentine
core and wedging of the crown during loading and prevents tension on the inner
surface of the crown.
18
Oxide ceramics
The quest for all-ceramic materials with properties that would enable their use in fixed
partial dentures (FPDs) led to the development of many new materials and processing
techniques in the last decade. Whereas traditional dental ceramics primarily comprised
a glass matrix with a crystalline phase as filler, newly developed ceramic materials are
primarily crystalline in nature36. These new materials—often referred to as oxide
ceramics—are based on crystalline alumina, magnesia, or zirconia. The use of new
processing techniques in combination with oxide ceramics has made it possible to
fabricate FPD frameworks with a flexural strength and fracture toughness that are
considerably higher than those of the ceramics that have been previously used, thus
increasing the material’s resistance to crack propagation22,43,52,60. The strongest and
toughest oxide ceramics used today are based on aluminum oxide (alumina), and on
the latest material contribution—zirconium dioxide (zirconia)1.
Alumina
Alumina has been used to increase the strength of dental porcelains for more than 4
decades37. Alumina-based core ceramics consisting of a partially sintered porous
alumina structure infiltrated by molten glass are available in two forms:
1 - As slip powder, used dispersed in water to build up crown copings and FPD
cores.
2 - As dry pressed material processed for milling FPD frameworks and crown
copings. This form can be used with several milling systems.
In both instances, lanthanum glass is used after the final shaping of the frameworks
and copings to infiltrate the porous alumina structure. Finally, the substructures are
19
veneered with dental porcelain to create the appearance of a natural tooth. Studies
have shown that glass-infiltrated alumina has a flexural strength up to four times
greater than that of conventional ceramics. The authors concluded that it seemed
possible to make restorations with all-ceramic FPDs in cases not only of anterior but
also posterior tooth loss. They emphasized, however, that long-term follow-up studies
were necessary to establish the advisability of such a procedure22,40,43,52,60,64.
Another all-ceramic system based on alumina employs a technique where high purity
alumina crown copings or FPD cores are fabricated using computer-aided
design/computer-aided manufacturing (CAD/CAM) techniques2. Subsequent to CAM,
the alumina substructures are densely sintered and veneered with dental porcelain.
Clinical studies have indicated that such alumina-based crowns may be used for
crowns in all locations of the oral cavity41,42. The system includes a technique for
producing all-ceramic FPDs. This technique combines alumina copings with an
alumina pontic that is joined to the copings using a specially formulated connecting
and fusing material32.
Zirconia
The dental ceramic with the best mechanical properties is yttrium-stabilized zirconium
dioxide17,59. Zirconia is well known as an orthopedic implant material and has been
used in hip surgery for many years9. By adding a small amount of Y2O3 to ZrO2, it is
possible to stabilize the ceramic in a tetragonal phase that normally is unstable at
room temperature. The energy that arises around crack tips and sharp corners when
loading a ceramic specimen above a certain level transforms metastable tetragonal
grains into monoclinic ones that are larger, thus sealing the cracks and stopping
further propagation11. This mechanism is based on martensitic phase conversion, as
20
found in steel, giving the material a beneficial toughening property that could not be
found in any other dental ceramic19. Several studies have indicated that flexural
strength values of 1200 MPa and fracture toughness values of 9 MPa m½, which are
possible with zirconia and substantially higher than for other ceramics makes this
material useful for highly loaded, all-ceramic restorations. Hence, suggestions have
been made that zirconia could also be a viable alternative to metal in reconstructive
dentistry, especially for crowns in the molar region and FPDs 17,19.
Degradation of dental ceramics
Stress corrosion
Even though dental ceramics are chemically stable, they are still susceptible to
chemical corrosion. It has been described that porcelain undergoes an abrupt
transition of damage mode and strength degradation after multi-cyclic loads compared
to static loading tests26. When water is present, stress corrosion enhances further
crack propagation62. When tension periodically occurs at the crack tip as a result of
load cycles, the damage is increased in the presence of water. Oxygen atoms that are
debonded when the interatomic distance increases during tension in the crack tip area
are blocked as a result of hydration and are then unable to re-establish the previous
bond when expansion ceases during the unloaded phase. A 27% decrease in fracture
strength has been reported for aluminous and feldspathic porcelains tested in water
compared to specimens tested in air53. In the clinical situation, fatigue is important
because dental restorations are subjected to small alternating forces during
mastication. Water in the saliva plays an important role as a catalyst for this fatiguing
mechanism31,49,56.
21
Moisture plays a vital part in the time-dependent reduction of the strength of dental
porcelain38. The presence of water and organic molecules in the oral cavity are, of
course inevitable, as they are always present in the saliva. A frequently used
technique for occlusal adjustments of tooth replacements is to make the adjustments
in raw porcelain, before the glaze firing. This try-in is made in the mouth. Whether
saliva molecules, if present in the subsequent firing process, could react with the
porcelain has, however, not been investigated. If so, and if these reactions affect the
porcelain, it would be advisable to postpone the try-in stage in the mouth until after the
final glaze firing.
Support gained from the FPD abutments
Cervical shaping
The brittle nature of ceramics makes the fracture resistance of all-ceramic fixed partial
dentures highly dependent on a solid support and on reduced strain in the beam of the
prosthesis. Several authors have discussed the influence of cervical shaping on the
fracture resistance of all-ceramic crowns. Today’s knowledge thus indicates that all-
ceramic crowns luted with non-adhesive luting techniques should be designed with a
cervical shoulder preparation to resist high loads18,55. Whether this is applicable to all-
ceramic FPDs, however, has not yet been investigated.
Abutments
As teeth are lost due to caries or periodontal disease, implants can be used to replace
the natural abutments. The biomechanical support gained from implants differs,
however, from the support provided by natural teeth because the implants are directly
connected to the bone without any other intermediate tissue, a biomechanical situation
22
similar to the one of tooth ankylosis where no periodontal ligaments exists. The
periodontal membrane of a tooth acts as a shock absorber, has sensory functions, and
allows minor tooth movement13.
If supporting bone has been lost due to periodontal disease, the capacity of the
involved teeth to serve as abutments is lower since their amplitude of movement
increases when loaded54. The direction and magnitude of these movements varies
considerably depending on among other things the anatomy of the root, remaining
bone height, bone density and other periodontal conditions, and it has been concluded
that the tensile stress in an FPD can reach critical values when abutment teeth with
excessive loss of bone support are loaded4,34. Because ceramics are brittle as
mentioned above, they cannot withstand deformations. Hence, when planning an all-
ceramic FPD, it is essential to evaluate abutment support since the resistance of all-
ceramic constructions to fracture depends on the stability of the support to reduce
strain in the beam of the prosthesis. One question that remains to be answered is
whether all-ceramic FPDs benefit from implant support when the prosthesis is loaded
on implants compared to natural teeth.
Hypotheses
The following hypotheses are based on the above:
Dental porcelain that is glazed prior to saliva exposure will resist higher loads
than equivalents that have been subjected to saliva prior to the final firing.
All-ceramic FPDs supported by abutments cut with circumferential shoulders
will resist higher loads than equivalents that are supported by abutments cut
with circumferential chamfers.
23
Oxide ceramics veneered with dental porcelain can be used for FPDs with
extensions up to five units if based on zirconia and three units if based on
alumina.
Zirconia-based reconstructions veneered with dental porcelain and subjected to
fatiguing and stress-corrosion can resist higher loads than alumina-based
equivalents.
All-ceramic FPDs supported by dental implants will resist higher loads than
equivalents that are supported by natural teeth.
24
25
AIMS
The aims of the study were:
To compare the flexural strength of a feldspathic porcelain exposed to saliva
before the final firing with an equivalent exposed first after the final firing.
To determine how the cervical shape of the preparations influences the fracture
strength of shorter all-ceramic FPDs made of a glass-infiltrated slip-cast
alumina-based material system.
To investigate in a long-term perspective whether the strength of a glass-
infiltrated slip-cast alumina-based material system is sufficient for use in
posterior three-unit FPDs when a standardized protocol regarding preparation
technique, FPD design, and choice of cement is adopted.
To evaluate and compare the strength of a zirconia material system for crowns
and FPDs with an alumina material system with known long-term clinical
performance.
To investigate whether the properties of a zirconia-based material system is
adequate for use in three–five-unit FPDs and to evaluate the clinical results.
To compare in an in-vitro study the fracture strength of all-ceramic fixed partial
dentures supported by simulated teeth with the same supported by dental
implants.
26
27
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Table 1. Materials and methods; summary of studies I–V
Paper
Study design
I a I b II III IV V
Type of study In-vitro In-vitro In-vivo In-vitro In-vivo In-vitro
Core material - Alumina Alumina Alumina/zirconia Zirconia AluminaVeneer material
Porcelain Porcelain Porcelain Porcelain Porcelain Porcelain
Glaze firing / saliva
exposure
Before / after
- After - After -
FPD units - 3 3 1 3-5 3Abutments - Duralay® Teeth Duralay® Teeth Duralay®/implantsAbutmentposition
- End End End End End
Connector Ø - 3 mm 3 mm - 3 / 4 mm 2 x 3 mm** FPD position - Posterior Posterior - All mouth Posterior
Follow-up - - 5 years - 2 years -Extendedfollow-up
- - 11 years ±1
- 3 years -
Type of specimen
Porcelainrectangular
bars
Three-unit FPDs - Norm crowns - Three-unit FPDs
Cervical shape
- Shoulder/chamfer Shoulder Chamfer Shoulder Chamfer
Preloading 300 N
10.000 cycles
- Yes - Yes / no - Yes*
Water exposure
Human saliva
Yes Human saliva
Yes Human saliva
Yes
Thermocycling No No - Yes / no - No
*100 N ** According to the manufacturer’s instruction
The different materials and methods used in this thesis are summarized in this section. For details (including manufacturers´ details), please see the Materials and Methods sections in the individual papers.
Fracture strength of a veneering porcelain in relation to try-inprocedure. (I a)
In the first part of the first in-vitro study (I a) in this thesis, 40 rectangular bar porcelain
specimens with standardized dimensions and a small projection on one side were
fabricated (Fig. 1). After firing, the luster of the specimens was removed using a white
stone. The specimens were subsequently randomly divided into two groups of 20 and
subjected to two different treatment regimens, simulating different protocols of occlusal
adjustment in the mouth, as described in Table 2.
A three-point flexural test was executed subsequent to pre-treatment to evaluate the
fracture resistance of the specimen. For this purpose, a test rig was used with the
porcelain specimen resting on two metal stainless steel rods with a diameter of 1.5
mm and a span length of 7 mm. The unground surface of the specimen was loaded
with another 1.5-mm stainless steel rod, centered between the other two rods, until
fracture occurred. The crosshead speed of the load was 0.255 mm min-1 (Fig. 2).
Finally, flexural strength in the two groups was compared. Statistical differences were
calculated using Student's t-test.
The load was registered and the flexural strength was defined as:
28
22
3
hb
lFfs
where fs is the flexural strength; F the load in Newtons; and l the length, b the breadth, and h the height in mm.
29
Figure 1. The porcelain specimens.
A = 1.7 mmB = 15.3 mmC = 3.2 mmD = The projectionE = After removal of the projection
Try-in stage
Group 1 n=20
The specimenswere stored in human salivafor 15 minutes
The projectionwas removed to
simulateocclusal
adjustments*
The specimenswere stored in human salivafor 30 minutes
The specimenswere cleaned
withElma®clean**
The specimenswere
autoglazed in the final firing
Group 2 n=20
The specimenswere
autoglazed in the final firing
The projectionwas removed to
simulateocclusal
adjustments*
The specimenswere stored in human salivafor 45 minutes
The specimenswere
polished***
Try-in stage
Figure 2.
Three-point flexural test.
Cross section of bulk material beneath the ground surface
The solid support of the test machine
Table 2. *The projection was removed with a fine diamond burr. **The specimens were
utrasonically cleaned in the Elma Transonic T310 ultrasonic bath using Elma clean 10'
cleaning detergent. ***The specimens were polished using a diamond-impregnated wheel.
30
Fracture strength of all-ceramic (alumina) FPDs in relation to cervical shape. (I b)
Eighteen posterior, three-unit In-Ceram Alumina (slip-cast) FPDs with end abutments
were fabricated. Nine of the FPDs were made on the preparations with 1.0-mm wide
90° shoulders with a rounded inner angle and the other nine on the preparations with
120 chamfers. The angles of convergence of the preparations were 15 (Figs. 3–4).
The FPDs were luted on dies made of inlay pattern resin with zinc phosphate luting
cement. The surface of the root section of the dies was covered with anti-slip varnish
to simulate a periodontal ligament. The dies were fixed in holes in acrylic blocks using
die stone plaster (Fig. 5).
All FPDs were subjected to preloading in a cyclic preloading procedure. This cyclic
preload was applied to the FPDs for 10,000 cycles at loads between 30 and 300 N
with a load profile in the form of a sine wave at 1 Hz. All FPDs were stored in distilled
water during preloading and mounted with a 10-degree inclination relative to the
vertical plane (Fig. 6).
After preloading, the FPDs were mounted in a testing jig, still inclined 10 degrees as
described above, and subjected to a load applied by a universal testing machine. The
crosshead speed was 0.255 mm min-1 and the load was applied with a 2.5-mm
stainless steel ball placed in the mesial fossa of the FPD pontic. The FPDs were
loaded until fracture occurred, and the required loads were registered. Differences
between the two groups were tested with Student’s t-test.
Figure 5. The test models. A = Inlay pattern resin, B = Anti-slip varnish, C = Die stone plaster, D = Acrylic block
Figure 4. Design and dimensions of the FPDs: A) The core rests on the entire extension of the shoulders/chamfers. B) 1.0-mm core material in the area adjacent to the connectors. C) U-shaped interproximal grooves. D) 8.0-mm
length of the pontic. E – Depth of the cervical preparation = 1.0 mm. F) 0.7-mm core and 1.0-mm veneer
porcelain. G) Diameter in the connector in the marked plane 3.0 mm. H) Total length 26 mm.
Figure 6. Jig and application of the load in the preloading and loading tests.
A = Brass foundationB = Acrylic blockC = The FPD pontic
Figure 3. The two different preparation modes.A = Shoulder preparationB = Chamfer preparation
A B
31
32
Five-year evaluation of posterior all-ceramic (alumina) three-unit FPDs. (II)
The first clinical study in this thesis involved 18 patients who were treated with a total
of 20 posterior, three-unit FPDs according to the In-Ceram Alumina slip cast
technique. The FPDs were constructed with bilateral support and one pontic and all
replaced one premolar (n=11) or molar (n=9). Four dentists performed the treatment.
The supporting teeth were cut for cervical shaping according to study I (I b) with a 90°
shoulder and a slightly rounded inner angle. The aim was to cut the cervical shoulder
to a depth of 1.2 mm (Fig. 7).
The try-in procedure was performed after the firing as described in study I (I a, group
2), without any saliva exposure prior to the final firing. Subsequent to try-in, the FPDs
were permanently cemented with zinc phosphate cement in one sitting. No temporary
cementation of the finished FPD was allowed, to avoid creating microcracks or flaws in
the material during removal (Figs. 8–12).
The FPDs were evaluated in clinical and radiographic examinations after 6 months
and then once yearly for 5 years. Fisher’s exact probability test was used to assess
statistical differences between the FPDs replacing the premolars and molars.
7.
8.
9.
Figure 7-12
7). Shoulderpreparation with rounded inner-angle
8). Try-in of the glassinfiltrated Al2O3 core on the master die.
9). Porcelain added to complete the restoration.
10). The finished restoration.
11). Permanently cemented with zinc phosphate cement
12). 12-year follow-up.
10.
11. 12.
33
34
Fracture strength comparison between two oxide ceramic systems (alumina and zirconia). (III)
Sixty specimens designed as "norm crowns" were made: 30 identical crowns of
alumina and 30 of zirconia. Compatible porcelain was used as veneer material
(Fig.13). Each group of 30 was randomly divided into three groups of ten crowns that
were to undergo different treatments according to a test protocol. Subsequent to
fabrication, the crowns were cemented to dies made from inlay pattern resin using zinc
phosphate cement. Excess cement was removed, and the crowns were stored in
distilled water with a temperature of 37˚C until they were subjected to different
treatments according to a test protocol.
The control group underwent no pre-treatment. Both of the experimental groups
underwent preloading with 10,000 cyclic loads between 30 and 300 N at 1 Hz. In
addition, one of the experimental groups underwent thermocycling in two water
baths—5˚C and 55˚C—20 seconds in each bath before loading (Table 3). Subsequent
to pre-treatment, all 60 crowns were subjected to load until fracture. Load was applied
with a 2.5-mm stainless steel ball placed on the occlusal surface of the crowns and a
crosshead speed of 0.255 mm min-1. The loads at fracture were registered, and
differences between the groups were calculated using Student’s t-test. Any differences
in fracture mode were calculated using Fisher’s exact probability test.
Figure 13. Shape and dimensions of the norm crowns.
Table 3. Test protocol with a description of the test groups and number of crowns in each group.
Pre-treatment
Core material Group 1 (control) Group 2 Group 3
Water storage only Preloading* Thermocycling**+
Preloading*Alumina 10 10 10Zirconia 10 10 10
Porcelain Core
* Force was applied with a 2.5-mm stainless steel ball placed on the occlusalsurface of the crowns. All crowns were stored in distilled water during preload andmounted at a 10-degree inclination relative to the long axis of the crowns. The crowns underwent 10,000 cycles at 30–300 N and 1 Hz.
**The crowns in group 3 (10 Alumina and 10 Zirconia) underwent 5,000thermocycles prior to the preloading procedure. Two water baths—5˚C and 55˚C—were used. Each cycle lasted 60 seconds: 20 seconds in each bath and 10 secondsto complete the transfer between baths.
35
All-ceramic (zirconia) CAD/CAM-produced FPDs. A 2-year clinical study. (IV)
Eighteen patients—nine women and nine men—were selected and accepted for
participation in the study. The FPDs were to replace one missing tooth or two missing
teeth with a total gap not exceeding a length equal to the width of one premolar and
one molar and constructed with end abutments. In total, 20 DC-Zirkon® FPDs were
made to replace 26 missing teeth.
The overall design is described in Figure 4. Differences between this study and study
l b, however, were that the aim for the interdental connectors in cases of molar
replacements was a minimum cross-sectional diameter of 4 mm and that the depth of
the cervical shoulder was 1.2 mm. The cores were subsequently veneered with
compatible veneering porcelain (Fig. 14). The patients were examined 1 and 2 years
after cementation and the FPDs were evaluated regarding secondary caries,
endodontic complications, clinical wear, marginal integrity, and presence of cracks or
fractures. Any structural flaws were described. The margins were rated as excellent,
acceptable, or not acceptable according to the modified Californian Dental Association
(CDA) quality assessment system (Table 4).
Table 4 Marginal integrity according to modified CDA criteria
Score Criteria
Alpha (excellent) No visible evidence of crevice along margin into which the explorer can penetrate.No discoloration on the margin between restoration and tooth structure.
Bravo (acceptable) Visible evidence of slight marginal discrepancy with no evidence of decay; repair can be made or is unnecessary.Discoloration between restoration and tooth structure.Faulty margins that cannot be repaired.Penetrating discoloration along the margin of restoration in the pulpal direction.Retained excess cement.Mobile reconstruction.
Charlie(unacceptable)
Fractured reconstruction.Caries continuous with margin of restoration.Fractured tooth structure.
36
A
B
C
D
E
Figure 14. Different steps during production and treatmentA: Finished core on the master dieB: Radiographic examination of the finished core C: Occlusal view before cementationD: Occlusal view after cementationE: 1-week follow-up
37
38
Fracture resistance of all-ceramic (alumina) FPDs supported by simulated teeth vs dental implants. (V)
Two titanium implant abutments—one for position 24 and one for position 26—were
cut to preparations representing one premolar and one molar. By scanning those
abutments and by using the CAD/CAM technique, 24 alumina all-ceramic FPDs were
made. Subsequent to fabrication they were randomly divided into two groups—12 to
be supported by dental implants (Fig. 15) and 12 by simulated teeth (Fig. 16).
Two abutments mounted on implants—one representing a premolar and one
representing a molar—were modified by making a root-shaped wax-up of the implant
parts. Finally, they were copied and 24 simulated abutment teeth were made from the
copies, 12 cut premolars and 12 cut molars (Fig. 17a).
The FPDs were subsequently luted on the implants and the simulated teeth using zinc-
phosphate cement. Finally all the FPDs, both those supported by implants and those
by simulated teeth, were fixated in holes in acrylic blocks using die stone as described
in study I (l b) (Figs. 17b-d).
All FPDs were subjected to preloading as described in study I (l b). The cyclic preload
was between 30 and 100 N with a load profile in the form of a sine wave at 1 Hz.
Finally, the FPDs were loaded until fracture occurred, and the required loads were
registered (Fig. 17e).
Differences between the two groups were tested with Student’s t-test.
39
Figure 16 A simulated abutment tooth, cut with a 120° chamfer and a 15° angle of convergence. The root section is covered with an anti-slip varnish to simulate the periodontal ligament.
Figure 15 Implant abutment (10 mm, wide platform with a connected PROCERA®titanium abutment, cut with a 120° chamfer and 15° angle of convergence)
A
B
C
D
E
Figure 17 A= The two type of abutmentsB=View of a completed FPDC=FPD supported by implants and simulated teethD=Test model (implant supported)E=Settings for preload and load until fracture
40
Long-term follow-ups. (II and IV)
The patients in studies ll and lV were re-examined after 11±1 years (II) and 3 years
(IV) respectively. During the re-examinations, the patients were interviewed regarding
their experience with the FPDs. One dentist made all clinical examinations, and the
FPDs were evaluated regarding secondary caries, clinical wear, and presence of
cracks or fractures. The FPD was considered “successful” if it was in service and
showed no signs of secondary caries, excessive clinical wear, cracks, or structural
flaws. If, on the other hand, the FPD was still in use but showed signs of secondary
caries, excessive clinical wear or fractures, cracks, or flaws, it was considered a
"survivor". An FPD that had been removed was considered a “failure”. If an FPD had
been removed, we checked whether the abutment teeth were still in place and we
interviewed the patients regarding their opinion of the underlying reasons for removal
of the FPD.
41
RESULTS
Table 5. Summary of results, studies I–V
Paper
I a I b II III IV VType of study In vitro In vitro In vivo In vitro In vivo In vitro
Core material - Alumina Alumina Alumina/zirconia Zirconia Alumina
Veneer material
Porcelain Porcelain Porcelain Porcelain Porcelain Porcelain
The group that resisted the
highest loads
Firedprior to saliva
exposure
Shoulder preparation
- Zirconia,preloaded only
- Implant supported
p p<0.0001 p=0.051 Se table
Mean (MPa) 81 / 116 510** / 606 Se table 378 / 604
1-yr follow-up; Investigated patients (%)
- - 100% - 100% -
1-yr follow-up; Success
100% 100%
3-yr follow-up up Investigated
patients (%)
- - 100% - 100% -
3-yr follow-up; Success
95% 100%
Remaining abutment teeth
(%)
100% 100%
5-yr follow-up Investigated patients (%)
- - 100% - - -
5-yr follow-up; Success
90%
11-yr follow-up Investigated patients (%)
- - 85% - - -
11-yr follow-up; Success
65%* -
Remaining abutment teeth (% after 11 yrs)
- - 100% - - -
* 59% success and 6% survival, 35% of the FPDs removed. **Total fracture
The results from the different studies in the thesis are briefly described in this section.
In the first part of study I (I a), the mean flexural strength of the specimens in the
group that was exposed to saliva after glazing (group 1) was significantly higher
(P < 0.001) than that of the specimens in the group that was exposed to saliva before
glazing (group 2). The mean flexural strength of the specimens in group 1 was 81 MPa
13 (SD) and the strength of the specimens in group 2 was 116MPa 15 (SD). The
results indicate that saliva exposure before glaze firing can decrease the flexural
strength of porcelain (Table 6).
I
Force (MPa)
Group 1 Group 2
Mean 81 P < 0.0001 116SD 13 15
Table 6. The force (MPa) required to fracture the specimens in group 1 (exposed to saliva before glazing) and group 2 (glazedbefore exposure to saliva).
In part I b, the FPDs luted on shoulder preparations resisted higher loads than the
FPDs luted on chamfer preparations. This result was significant at the P = 0.051 level.
In four of the FPDs luted on chamfer preparations, the porcelain veneer fractured
before the core. In contrast, all the FPDs on shoulder preparations fractured instantly
through all the layers (Table 7). The orientation of the fracture was from the inferior
surface of one of the connectors towards the loading-point in all cases.
42
43
Loads at fracture (N)
Chamfer Shoulder
FPD no. Veneer fracture Total fracture Total fracture
1 325 375 5372 300 412 5373 - 426 5374 - 438 5375 - 450 5556 387 537 5757 - 575 6008 - 588 7629 413 787 812
Mean 434 510 606SD 98 128 106
Table 7. The loads (N) at fracture and the type of fracture in the two groups
of fixed partial dentures (FPDs): chamfer preparations and shoulder
preparations.
A second FPD was found to be fractured after 35 months (Table 8). Of the
remaining 18 FPDs, none had any defects. No caries and no signs of gingivitis or
closer examination of the fractured FPDs, the following observations were made:
II
The FPD that was lost after 24 months was the last one in the series
of 20. It replaced the upper right first molar in a man who was 50
years old. The fracture was located at the connection between the
pontic and the distal abutment tooth. The operator responsible for the
treatment of this patient had 8 years of experience in dentistry and
had made seven of the FPDs.
On
periodontitis exceeding those found in the rest of the dentition were registered.
In the second study (II) all FPDs were found to be functioning at the
6- and 12-month follow-ups, but at 24 months, one FPD had fractured.
The second fractured FPD replaced the lower left first molar and, like
the first one, fractured at the connection between the pontic and the
distal abutment tooth. This FPD had the longest pontic of the 20
FPDs. The patient was a man who was 50 years old, and he was
treated by an operator with 3 years of experience in dentistry and
who was responsible for 11 of the FPDs.
It could thus be established that all the FPDs that replaced premolars were in function
at the end of the observation period. Two of the nine FPDs that replaced molars were
fractured. There was, however, no significant difference in the success rate between
FPDs replacing molars and the FPDs replacing premolars (Fisher’s exact probability
test P = 0.190). 95 09 25
96 10 15*
95 04 03
93 05 07
94 02 24
94 05 06
95 01 27
93 12 21
94 02 07
93 02 17
94 01 14
93 09 29
93 06 04
93 06 15
93 06 11
93 12 18
93 04 02
93 04 28
93 02 19
92 12 11
96 01 30*
7 6 5 4 3 3 4 5 6 7R i g h t L e f t
Date of cementation (year, month,day) and position in the mouth
*Date when failure was dicovered
denotes upper jaw
denotes lower jaw
Table 8.
44
In the third study (III) two types of fractures occurred: total fracture, through
both core and veneer, and partial fracture, through the veneer only. Total
fractures were more frequent in the alumina group compared to the zirconia group,
and this difference was statistically significant (P < 0.001). In all instances of partial
fracture, the fracture was cohesive within the veneer material.
III
During thermocycling, 7 of 20 crowns (4 alumina and 3 zirconia) underwent loss of
retention. The other 13 crowns in the group experienced no such loss (Table 9).
Group 1 Group 2 Group 3
Corematerial
Fracturestrength (N)
Fracturemode ratio
Fracturestrength (N)
Fracturemode ratio
Fracturestrength (N)
Fracturemode ratio
Alumina 905 8:2 904 9:1 917 9:1
Zirconia 975 2:8 1108 6:4 910 3:7
P = 0.38 P = 0.01 P < 0.007 P > 0.05 P > 0.05 P < 0.01
Table 9. Fracture strength and mode [ratio of number of total fractures to number of partial fractures(total fracture =, partial fracture =)]. Group 1 = water storage only, Group 2 = preloaded, Group 3 = thermocycled and preloaded.
For the 18 patients in the second clinical part of the thesis (IV), 20 three–
five-unit FPDs with a zirconia framework were fabricated according to the
DCS® Precident System. For details of FPD placements and dimensions of the inter-
dental connectors, see Table 10.
IV
45
Tab
le 1
0.
46
47
All FPDs were in use and none had fractured at the 12-month follow-up. No chip-off
fractures or clinical wear could be observed. Marginal integrity was rated Alpha at 46
abutments and Bravo at 10 abutments. No margins were rated Charlie. All patients
were fully satisfied with their FPDs. Initial inter-examiner agreement was 91%.
At the 24-month follow-up, all FPDs were still in use and none had fractured or showed
any clinical wear. In three cases, however, minor chip-off fractures were observed on
FPD #2, #9, and #12. These units were opposed by a natural tooth with an occlusal
amalgam filling in one case, a PFM crown in the second case, and a gold crown in the
third case. Marginal integrity was rated Alpha at 45 abutments and Bravo at 11
abutments. No margins were rated Charlie. All patients were fully satisfied with their
FPDs, and none of the three patients where chip-off fractures had occurred had
noticed the fracture. Initial inter-examiner agreement was 89%.
Complications
During the fabrication period, one patient (FPD #5) developed symptoms of pulpitis on
the second molar. The tooth was subsequently treated endodontically with sufficient
remaining tooth substance to allow reconstruction without a post and core. The same
patient developed symptomatic acute apical periodontitis during the first 6 months after
FPD cementation on the mesial abutment tooth (first premolar). Endodontic treatment
was performed subsequent to trepanation through the occlusal surface of the FPD. No
further symptoms were registered at the 12- or 24-month follow-up. Also during the
fabrication period, one FPD had to be remade due to unacceptable esthetics.
(mean = 604 N, SD=184 N) than the FPDs loaded on simulated teeth (mean
= 378 N, SD=152 N). The result was significant at the P = 0.003 level. All fractures
were total fractures (through both the core in the area of the fuse and the veneer) that
occurred in one of the connector areas (in the fuses between an abutment crown and
the pontic) (Table 11).
V
Table 11. Loads at fracture in the two groups:fixed partial dentures (FPDs) supported by simulated teeth and FPDs supported by implants.
Load at fracture (N)FPDno. Simulated teeth Implants1 178 2932 230 4483 234 4614 246 5005 297 5296 314 5427 380 5938 435 6259 465 692
10 551 76511 567 90112 634 903
Mean 378 604SD 152 184
48
In this study (V) the FPDs loaded on implants resisted 60% higher loads
Results from the long-term follow-up examinations (II, IV).
The outcomes of the 2- and 3-year follow-ups of the zirconia FPDs were similar. All
FPDs were still in service and showed no signs of fractures other than the minor chip-
off fractures discovered at the 2-year follow-up.
The survival rate of the alumina FPDs, however, decreased dramatically. The last
follow-up was made when the FPDs had been in service for 11±1 years (mean 11). Of
the original 20 patients, 3 dropped out: 2 died and 1 was untraceable. At this follow-up,
11 (65%) of the remaining 17 FPDs were still in service. The surface condition of 10 of
these 11 was excellent. The one that was not excellent had an excessively rough
occlusal surface. Ten (59%) of the FPDs were considered successful (no signs of
secondary caries, no excessive clinical wear, no cracks, or no structural flaws).
No abutment teeth were lost during the period (Table 12).
In the patient interview, all patients with FPDs still in service stated that they were
satisfied with their prostheses. The patients who had their FPDs removed were unable
to clearly explain why.
Table 12. Results of long-term follow-ups of 20 alumina and 20 zirconiafixed partial dentures (FPDs). Dropouts: 15% (alumina) and 0% (zirconia)
Material Observation FPD Remainingperiod
(yr)Successrate (%)
Survival(%)
Removed(%)
abutmentteeth (%)
Alumina 11 ± 1 59 6 35 100Zirconia 3 100 0 0 100
49
50
51
DISCUSSION
Several different material systems intended for all-ceramic FPDs are available in
dentistry; some of them since more than 15 years. Despite this length of time, few
results from clinical studies are available to support (or refute) the use of all-ceramic
FPDs. Although in-vitro studies are reporting promising results concerning the flexural
strength and fracture toughness of ceramics in the oxide ceramic group—and in
particular zirconia—long-term clinical trials are needed to establish the advisability of
such procedures 22,25,40,43,52,59,60,64. In-vitro studies can, on the other hand, give useful
information, and together with data from actual in-vivo measurements, they can be
used to determine indicative values for occlusal loads to be resisted by prosthetic
reconstructions, basic information that is valuable for other researchers in the design
of clinical trials16,25. The second (II) and the fourth (IV) studies in this thesis are clinical
(in-vivo) trials of all-ceramic FPDs. The others (I, III, V) are in-vitro studies that focus
on important steps in the clinical procedures, which must be considered when
designing an FPD.
The clinical studies in the thesis (II, IV)
The time, complexity, and expense that are entailed in fixed prosthetic treatment are
justified only if the lifetime of a restoration is lengthy23. It is not evident, however, how
“a long time” or “failure” should be defined. The failure criteria used to evaluate FPDs
differ substantially between published studies. The clinical definitions vary from
“loosening of one retainer” to “endodontically treated” and “unacceptable esthetics”,
while for the individual patient the criterion of failure may be extremely subjective10.
52
Scurria et al.51 describe three categories of FPD failure: 1) the prosthesis had been
removed, 2) the prosthesis had been removed or had technically failed, necessitating
replacement, and 3) one or more abutments were lost. The failures in the present
thesis are technical failures if the follow-ups are restricted to 5 years (II). Meta-
analyses of the outcome of treatment with conventional FPDs show survival rates of
95%–98.5% after 5 years, compared to 90% in the present material, which is
considered acceptable10,23,51. When the material was followed up after 11 ± 1 years,
comparisons become more uncertain because the reasons for FPD replacement were
unknown. In comparisons with results after 10 years or longer on PFM FPDs, the
failure rate of the alumina FPDs in this thesis is higher than published failure rates for
high-gold alloy PFM reconstructions.
Studies on conventional FPDs report survival rates of 90%–92% after 10 years and
67.5% after 15 years10,23,51. It has been stated that half-life close to or slightly more
than 15 years must be considered both a satisfactory outcome of a complex
restorative treatment and a sound economic investment for the patient23. Based on the
assumption of a linear relationship, a 65% survival rate after 11 ± 1 years (II) is close
to a half-life of 15 years. If this assumption holds, the clinical suitability of alumina-
based all-ceramic FPDs could be considered acceptable. Such linearity, however,
cannot always be assumed, especially in the case of ceramics that are susceptible to
time-dependent fatigue. Conclusively, the clinical performance of alumina is not as
good as that of comparable high-gold alloy based PFM FPDs. This conclusion,
however, is based only on study II, which comprised 20 FPDs.
Zirconia, on the other hand is more than 3 times stronger and tougher than alumina.
The fracture strength of glass-infiltrated alumina is approximately 400 MPa and the
53
fracture toughness approximately 3 MPa m½. The corresponding values for zirconia
are 1200 MPa and 9 MPa m½, which are substantially higher than for alumina17,19,50.
Furthermore, CAD-CAM is being used in many new material systems to produce the
FPD cores under optimized industrial conditions by milling a substructure from a blank.
In this way, it can be assumed that the population of intrinsic flaws in the new
materials is reduced in both number and size compared to traditional ceramics. Thus,
it makes it possible to produce a core with enhanced integrity and strength5.
The results of the 3-year zirconia study (IV) are promising when compared with results
from clinical studies on alumina-based FPDs. Pröbster reported in 1993 that 13 of 15
anterior and posterior In-Ceram® FPDs were still in use after a clinical trial period of 2–
35 months. The cumulative survival rate was calculated to be 93.3% for a 12-month
observation period. One anterior FPD fractured due to improper dimensioning of a
connector and one posterior FPD was removed because of periodontal
complications44. In a 1-year perspective, the 20 zirconia FPDs (IV) had a 100%
success rate.
Another study reported an 82.5% success rate for posterior alumina FPDs after 3
years of service57; the success rate in our alumina study was 95% after 3 years (II). In
our study on zirconia (IV), the success rate after 3 years was 100%. Other authors
have had similar success with zirconia. Molin reported a 100% survival rate for 18 all-
ceramic zirconia-based FPDs after 2 years in service39. Thus, it might be assumed that
in this short term perspective, clinical results for zirconia-based all-ceramic FPDs are
comparable to those of high-gold alloy PFM FPDs. Long-term follow-up studies,
however, are needed to establish their longevity.
54
The minor occlusal chip-off fractures experienced in study IV were not a cause for
replacing any of the reconstructions, especially since the patients were unaware of
them until the clinical examination. That the chip-off fractures occurred is important to
discuss since a fracture is always undesirable and in one way a failure, even though
such fractures are insignificant. The fracture pattern is similar to that found in another
study (III) in this thesis where two types of fractures occurred: total fractures, through
both the core and the veneer, and partial fractures, through the veneer only. Veneer
fractures were more frequent in the zirconia group in this in-vitro study.
One reason for chip-off fractures could be that the strength of the veneering porcelains
is insufficient, as was the case with the early veneer porcelains used in titanium-PFM
FPDs and crowns that were susceptible to chip-off fractures. The survival probability of
ceramic-veneered titanium FPDs in a 3-year follow-up study was only 59% after 30
months28. One of the criteria for failure in that study was the presence of cracks or
chipping of the veneering porcelain, failures which did not result in the replacement of
the entire construction.
Other reasons for chip-off fractures can be flaws emanating from the fabrication of the
porcelain powder or the build-up of the porcelain at the laboratory33. A ceramic
laminate will always form a constant strain system because of the mismatch of elastic
moduli across the core-veneer interface. Furthermore, the interface is an important
source of structural flaws29 due to wettability factors and difficulties to build up the
green porcelain prior to firing densely and homogenously over the core surface without
trapping air bubbles. All chip-off fractures in the present clinical study, however, were
superficial. The shape of the high strength inner construction normally serves to
support the less strong veneer material. In study IV, where the design of the
55
framework was processed in the computer by "true" CAD/CAM, there is an inherent
risk that the occlusal shape is insufficient regarding veneer support. Mechanically
defective microstructural regions in the porcelain, including areas of porosities,
agglomerates, inclusions, and large-grained zones, are other possible reasons for
veneer fractures31,33.
The try-in procedure (I)
There are several possible mechanisms that, after try-in in the mouth and subsequent
glaze firing, could decrease the strength of the veneering porcelain. One is that the
strength of the ceramics is directly related to the number of firings; additional firings
have been shown to decrease ceramic strength. The advantages of glaze firing with
respect to flaw-healing are not achieved if the glaze firing itself weakens the material14.
The specimens in the first part of study I (I a) were all fired twice, irrespective of which
group they represented, to avoid any influence that different numbers of firings might
have had. Polishing, on the other hand, can strengthen a material by eliminating
surface flaws and the development of residual compressive stresses in the porcelain
surface14,21,30.
Other explanations for the differences found in the first part of study I (I a) can be
saliva molecule residues on the surface or in cracks and porosities of the specimens
as well as inadequate cleaning procedures that leave behind saliva molecules which
could react with the porcelain during firing and thus decrease strength. Finally, residual
moisture after clinical and cleaning procedures may expand during firing and act to
decrease the strength. The results in the first part of study I (I a) lead to the conclusion
that short-term exposure to saliva prior to the final firing could have a negative effect
56
on the strength of porcelain. With respect to the limitations of an in-vitro study,
however, this phenomenon must be investigated further.
The cervical shape of the preparation
The question of how strong a ceramic reconstruction needs to be to withstand loads in
the oral cavity during service is still unclear. Insufficient clinical data often led
manufacturers and dentists to place great emphasis on the data for the strength of a
material to define clinical indications. Hence, data from laboratory studies are used to
extrapolate strength and toughness values to promote novel materials and processing
technologies25. Survival probability analyses assume that the maximum biting forces
on anterior crowns rarely exceed 900 N and the maximum force on posterior crowns
rarely exceeds 2200 N whereas most patients generate typical bite forces between
400 N and 800 N3. To withstand such loads, it is important not only to select materials
with suitable material properties, but to design the prosthesis to reduce stresses in the
beam of the prosthesis.
The cervical shape of a supporting abutment can be critical to the strength of all-
ceramic crowns. It has been shown that fracture resistance is related to cervical shape
since chamfer preparations induce higher levels of stresses in crowns when loaded
than do shoulder preparations. Thus, it has been emphasized that all-ceramic crowns
should be supported by shoulder preparations to resist loading12,55.
However, no studies have been conducted on whether the stress that occurs when
loading an FPD supported by chamfer preparations also affects the connector areas.
Together with the complexity of the stress pattern that occurs during loading of
57
FPDs24,27, regardless of the cervical shape, the type of preparation could influence
failure mechanisms and be a factor to consider when trying to reduce stresses.
The other results in study I (I b) show that there are dissimilarities between the fracture
patterns in FPDs supported by chamfer preparations and the fracture patterns in FPDs
supported by shoulder preparations. All fractures in the latter were fractures through
both core and veneer—total fractures—while the former exhibited two modes of
failures: total fracture or partial fracture through the veneer only. This might be
explained by differences in stress distribution in FPDs supported by the two
preparations as discussed above.
The characteristic strength and elasticity modulus of the alumina core is much higher
than that of the veneer porcelain. Kelly et al. described an interfacial mismatch in
properties between the core and the veneer material29. This could imply that when
FPDs supported by chamfer preparations are loaded, tensile and shearing stresses
reach critical levels in the veneer before they do in the core ceramic, resulting in
different kinds of failures depending on the cervical shape of the preparation. This,
together with our finding that FPDs on shoulder preparations resisted higher loads
than FPDs on chamfer preparations, supports earlier findings concerning crowns, that
all-ceramic restorations should be made on shoulder preparations; this
recommendation is also valid for all-ceramic FPDs.
The abutment support
Other sources of stress in an FPD beam could be differences in support provided by
the different abutments of a prosthesis. An FPD will splint the abutment teeth, but
resultant bending forces will be absorbed in the beam of the prosthesis, especially in
58
the connector areas58,66. The biomechanical support provided by implants differs,
however, and the biomechanical situation is similar to that of tooth ankylosis where no
periodontal ligament exists13.
The results of study V suggest that the support provided by implants might be
favorable compared to that provided by natural teeth since implants give a more solid
support than teeth. Because all-ceramic FPDs are more susceptible to bending forces,
implant support could be especially favorable compared to natural support. Implants,
on the other hand, if well integrated, do not allow for sensory response or movements.
This could be detrimental to the veneering porcelain if it is subjected to excessive
loads that exceed the load bearing capacity of the veneer. This could more easily
result in chip-off fractures in a reconstruction that is supported by implants compared
to one supported by teeth. Concerning the framework, however, the situation is
different. A more resilient attachment, such as the periodontal ligament, may respond
to loadings with different amounts of movement occurring at each end of the FPD7.
The resultant bending forces absorbed in the beam of the FPD might then be
proportional to the different amounts of movement. Thus will a solid support be
favorable compared to a more resilient one. Conclusively, these results (V) suggest
that all-ceramic FPDs might be used in combination with implants.
Aspects of the methods used
When analyzing results obtained from in-vitro studies, it is important to keep in mind
that masticatory system are highly complex and that the actual clinical situation is
impossible to mimic to more than a limited extent. It has been concluded that only
simple surveys should be carried out and that rigid die stone models can provide
experimental data of the same quality as more complex ones15,45. Less complicated
models than those used in this thesis (I, V) could have been used, but the approach
59
chosen was considered valid since a more rigid model could have been resulting in
unrealistically (high) fracture strength values17,63. Comparisons between the results
should, furthermore, be made only intra-individually to compare the methods or
techniques under study. The fatigue tests used in the thesis (I,III, V) are recognized as
valid for ceramic testing and have been used in previous studies8,67. Finally, the clinical
parts of the study could preferably have included control groups. Clinical studies are,
however, complicated for several reasons. One reason is that it is very difficult to find
patients with indications for the reconstructions that are to be studied. If patients only
with indications for both the studied reconstruction and an intra-individually control
should be included, this would result in few patients or an unacceptable time gap
between the first and the last patient in the study. The approach chosen was therefore
considered valid and acceptable.
60
61
CONCLUSIONS
Within the limitations of the in-vitro parts of this thesis, the following conclusions can be drawn:
Short-term exposure to saliva, before the final firing, could have a negative
effect on the strength of dental porcelain. The mechanisms behind this
phenomenon are, however, not fully known and further studies are needed to
confirm this finding. The hypothesis that dental porcelain which is glazed prior
to saliva exposure will resist higher loads than equivalents that are subjected to
saliva prior to the final firing, is thus confirmed.
All-ceramic FPDs cemented with non-adhesive cementation techniques should
be supported by shoulder preparations in order to resist extensive loading
whenever this is expected. The hypothesis that all-ceramic FPDs supported by
abutments cut with circumferential shoulders will resist higher loads than
equivalents that are supported by abutments cut with circumferential chamfers
is thus confirmed.
There is no difference in fracture strength between crowns made of zirconia
cores and crowns made of alumina if they are subjected to loading without any
previous cyclic preload or thermocycling. There is, however, a significant
difference in the fracture mode. This conclusion is restricted to the crown design
used in this study.
Crowns made with zirconia cores have significantly higher fracture strengths
after preloading compared with crowns made with alumina cores. The
hypothesis that zirconia-based reconstructions veneered with dental porcelain
and subjected to fatiguing and stress-corrosion can resist higher loads than
alumina-based equivalents is thus confirmed.
The hypothesis that all-ceramic FPDs supported by dental implants will resist
higher loads than equivalents that are supported by natural teeth is confirmed.
62
Hence, all-ceramic FPDs might be used in combination with dental implants.
Clinical studies, however, are needed to confirm these findings because other
factors also influence the final clinical outcome.
The results of the clinical (in-vivo) parts of this thesis justify the following
conclusions:
The In-Ceram Alumina slip-cast technique, properly employed, is acceptable
for three-unit FPDs in the posterior region in a 5-year perspective. The clinical
performance, however, is not as good as that of comparable high-gold alloy
based PFM FPDs concerning fracture resistance. Longer restorations than the
three-unit FPDs used in this study cannot be recommended.
The DC-Zirkon technique is excellent for up to five-unit FPDs in all regions in
the mouth in a 3-year perspective, and the properties of the core material equal
those found in previous clinical trials of high-gold alloy PFM FPDs. Those
findings, however, are limited to the design adopted in the present thesis,
especially concerning the dimensioning of the connector area which was a
minimum diameter of 3 mm. Furthermore, special attention must be paid to
avoid chip-off fractures. Further studies must be performed before the material
system can be recommended for more extended restorations, or restorations
with smaller dimensions, than the FPDs in the present thesis.
The hypothesis that oxide ceramics veneered with dental porcelain can be used
for FPDs with extensions of up to five units if based on zirconia and three units
if based on alumina can not be rejected.
63
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
To the many people who made this thesis possible I wish to extend my sincere gratitude. They include:
Professor Krister Nilner for his advice, invaluable support and personal involvement in this work.
Professor Per-Olof Glantz for his valuable advice and comments on this thesis.
Professor Tore Dérand for his valuable advice and comments on the first part of the study.
Associate professor Erik Strandman for many valuable hints and stimulating discussions and for always giving a helping hand.
Professor Björn Söderfeldt for advice and stimulating discussions.
Dr Yuji Kokubo, Tsurumi University, Japan, for fruitful collaboration and stimulating discussions.
Mr Stig A Svensson for his most skilful technical assistance and help with technical illustrations.
Mrs Gail Conrod-List for valuable linguistic advice and revision of the text.
Mrs Solweig Näsström-Nilsson for her support and clinical assistance.
Mr Sten Ahrne for assistance with the technical illustrations.
Mr Bertil Rohlin for the financial support that initiated this work.
My coauthors (if not mentioned above) for making this thesis possible; in order of appearance:
Dr Ola Jönsson Dr Asim Al-Ansari Mrs Katarina White Miss Sandra Ebbesson Miss Jenny Holmgren Dr Per Haag Dr Per Carlsson
The staff of the Department of Prosthetic Dentistry and Dental Technology, Faculty of Odontology, Malmö University.
64
The staff of the faculty library for their valuable help
Nobel Biocare AB, Gothenburg, Sweden, for material support
Mr Bengt Hoffman, Stockholm, Sweden, for material support
Swedish Dental Society for financial support
Last and most profoundly I extend my gratitude and love to my wife and my family for their love and never ending patience and support.
65
REFERENCES
1. Kappert HF. Academy of Dental Materials. Proceedings of Conference on Clinically Appropriate Alternatives to Amalgam: Biophysical Factors in Restorative Decision-Making. Transactions 1996; 9: 180-199.
2. Andersson M, Odén A. A new all-ceramic crown. A dense-sintered, high-purity alumina coping with porcelain. Acta Odontol Scand 1993; 1: 59-64.
3. Anusavice KJ: Indirect Restorative Materials. In: Anusavice KJ (ed); Phillips´ Science of Dental Materials, 11th ed. Saunders, St Louis, USA 2003; 675.
4. Aydin AK, Tekkaya AE. Stresses induced by different loadings around weak abutments. J Prosthet Dent 1992; 68: 879-884.
5. Besimo CE, Spielmann HP, Rohner HP. Computer-assisted generation of all-ceramic crowns and fixed partial dentures. Int J Comput Dent 2001;4:243-62.
6. Björkner B, Bruze M, Möller H. High frequency of contact allergy to gold sodium thiosulphate. An indication of gold allergy? Contact Dermatitis 1994; 3: 144-51.
7. Breeding LC, Dixon DL, Sadler JP, McKay LM. Mechanical considerations for the implant tooth-supported fixed partial denture. J Prosthet Dent 1995; 74: 487-492.
8. Chitmongkolsuk S, Heydecke G, Stappert C, Strub JR. Fracture Strength of All-Ceramic Lithium Disilicate and Porcelain-Fused-to-Metal Bridges for Molar Replacement After Dynamic Loading. Eur J Prosthodont Rest Dent 2002; 10: 15-22.
9. Christel P, Meunier A, Heller M, Torre JP, Peille CN. Mechanical properties and short-term in vivo evaluation of yttrium-oxide-partially-stabilized zirconia. J Biomed Mater Res 1989; 23: 45-61.
10. Creugers NHJ, Käyser AF, van´t Hof MA. A meta-analysis of durability data on conventional fixed bridges. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol 1994; 22:448-452.
11. Dérand P, Dérand T. Bond Strength of Luting Cements to Zirconium Oxide Ceramics. Int J Prosthodont 2000; 13: 131-135.
12. Dérand T. Analysis of stress in the porcelain crown. Academic thesis, Odontol Revy 1974; 25, suplement 27.
13. Esquivel-Upshaw J. Dental Implants. In: Anusavice KJ (ed); Phillips´ Science of Dental Materials, 11th ed. Saunders, St Louis, USA 2003; 759-781.
14. Fairhurst CW, Lockwood PE, Ringle RD, Thomson WO. The effect of glaze on porcelain strength. Dent Mater 1992; 8: 203-207.
15. Fernandes CP. Comparative in-vivo and in-vitro studies on the biomechanics of maxillary partial dentures. A methodological and experimental study. Lund University Odontological dissertations. Sweden 1998.
66
16. Ferrario VF, Sforza C, Zanotti G, Tartaglia GM. Maximal bite force in healthy young adults as predicted by surface electromyography. J Dent 2004; 32: 451-457.
17. Filser F, L thy H, Kocher P, Schärer P, Gauckler LJ. Posterior All-ceramic Bridgework. Assessment of Fracture Load and Reliability of Materials. QJDT 2003; 1: 28-41.
18. Friedlander LD, Munoz CA, Goodacre CJ, Doyle MG, Moore BK. The effect of tooth preparation design on the breaking strength of Dicor crowns. Int J Prosthodont 1990; 3: 159-168.
19. Fritzsche J. Zirconium Oxide Restorations with the DCS Precident System. Int J Comput Dent 2003; 6: 193-201.
20. Gilman JJ. The Nature of Ceramics. Scientific American 1967; 217: 113.
21. Giordano R, Cima M, Pober R. Effects of surface finish on flexural strength of various dental ceramics. Int J Prosthod 1995;8:311-319.
22. Giordano RA, Pelletier L, Cambell S, Pober R. Flexural strength of an infused ceramic, glass ceramic and feldspathic porcelain. J Prosthet Dent. 1995; 73: 411-418.
23. Glantz PO, Nilner K, Jendresen MD, Sundberg H. Quality of fixed prosthodontics after 15 years. Acta Odontol Scand 1993; 51: 247-252.
24. Glantz PO, Strandman E, Svensson SA, Randow K. On functional strain in fixed mandibular reconstructions. Acta Odontol Scand 1984; 42: 85-93.
25. Guazzato M, Albakry M, Ringer SP, Swain MV. Strength, fracture toughness and microstructure of a selection of all-ceramic materials. Part I. Pressable and alumina glass-infiltrated ceramics. Dent Mater 2004; 20: 441-448.
26. Jung YG, Peterson IM, Kim DK, Lawn BR. Lifetime-limiting Strength Degradation from Contact Fatigue in Dental Ceramics. J Dent Res 2000; 79: 722-731.
27. Kamposiora P, Papavasiliou G, Bayne SC, Felton DA. Stress concentration in all-ceramic posterior fixed partial dentures. Quintessence Int 1996; 27: 701-706.
28. Kaus T, Pröbster L, Weber H. Clinical Follow-up Study of Ceramic Veneered Titanium Restorations –Three Year Results. Int J Prothodont 1996; 9: 9–15.
29. Kelly JR, Tesk A, Sorensen JA. Failure of all-ceramic fixed partial dentures in vitro and in vivo: Analysis and modelling. J Dent Res 1995; 74: 1253-1258.
30. Kelly JR, Nishimura I, Campbell SD. Ceramics in dentistry: Historical roots and current perspectives. J Prosthet Dent 1996; 75: 18-32.
31. Kelly JR. Perspectives on strength. Dent Mater 1995; 11: 103-110.
32. Lang BR, Maló P, Guedes CM, Wang R-F, Kang B, Lang LA, Razzoog ME. PROCERA®AllCeram Bridge. Appl Osseointegration Res 2004; 4: 13-21.
67
33. Lange FF. Structural Ceramics: A Question of Fabrication Reliability. J Mat Energy Sys 1984. 6:107-113.
34. Lind T. The tooth-implant prosthesis. Umeå University Odontological Dissertations. Sweden 2001.
35. Mackert JR, Williams AL. Microcracks in Dental Porcelain and Their Behavior during Miltiple Firing. J Dent Res 1996: 75; 1484-1490.
36. McLaren EA. All-Ceramic Alternatives to Conventional Metal Ceramic Restorations. Compend Contin Educ Dent. 1998; 3: 307-325.
37. McLean JW. The Nature of Dental Ceramics and their Clinical Use. In: McLean JW. The Science and Art of Dental Ceramics. Quintessence Publishing Co., Inc. Chicago 1979: USA.
38. McLean JW. The Strengthening of Dental Porcelain. In: McLean JW. Science and Art of Dental Ceramics. Quintessence Publishing Co Inc, Chicago 1979; 51-114.
39. Molin MK, Karlsson SL. A 2-year Clinical Study of Ceramic Fixed Partial Dentures. J Dent Res 2003; Special Issue 2003: Abstract 73.
40. Neiva G, Yaman P, Dennison JB, Razzog ME, Lang BR. Resistance to Fracture of Three All-Ceramic Systems. J Esthetic Dent 1998; 10: 60-66.
41. Odén A, Andersson M, Krystek-Ondracek I, Magnusson D. Five-year clinical evaluation of AllCeram crowns. J Prosthet Dent 1998; 80: 450-456.
42. Ödman P, Andersson B. PROCERA AllCeram Crowns Followed for 5 to 10.5 Years: A Prospective Clinical Study. Int J Prosthodont 2001; 14: 504-509.
43. Pröbster L, Diehl J. Slip-casting alumina ceramics for crown and bridge restorations. Quintessence Int 1992; 23:25-31.
44. Pröbster L. Survival Rate of In-Ceram Restorations. Int J Prosthodont 1993; 3:259-263.
45. Randow K. On the functional deformation of extensive fixed partial dentures. An experimental clinical and epidemiological study. Academic thesis. Swedish Dental Journal Supplement 34, Sweden 1986.
46. Ring M E. Dentistry, An Illustrated History. The Mosby Co 1995; StLouis: USA.
47. Ritter J E Jr. Engineering Design and Fatigue Failure of Brittle Materials. In: Bradt R C (ed); Fracture mechanics of ceramics. New York Plenum copy 1974: 3; 667-686.
48. Ritter JE. Critique of test methods for lifetime predictions. Dent Mater 1995; 11: 147-151.
49. Ritter JE. Predicting lifetimes of materials and material structures. Dent Mater 1995; 11: 142-146.
68
50. Rizkalla AS, Jones DW. Mechanical properties of commercial high strength ceramic core materials. Dent mater 2004; 20: 207-212.
51. Scurria MS, Bader JD, Shugars DA. Meta-analysis of fixed partial denture survival: Prostheses and abutments. J of Prosthet Dent 1998; 79: 459-464.
52. Seghi RR, Sorensen JA. Relative Flexural Strength of Six New Ceramic Materials Int J Prosthodont 1995; 8: 239-246.
53. Sherrill CA, O’Brien WJ. Transverse strength of aluminous and feldspathic porcelain. J Dent Res 1974; 53: 683-690.
54. Shillingburg HT, Hobo S, Whitsett LD, Jacobi R, Bracket SE. Fundamentals of Fixed Prosthodontics. Quintessence Publishing Co, Inc. Chicago 1997; 7: 85-103.
55. Sjögren G, Bergman M. Relationship between compressive strength and cervical shaping of the all-ceramic Cerestore crown. Swed Dent J 1987; 11:147-152.
56. Sobrinho LC, Cattell MJ, Glover RH, Knowles JC. Investigation of the Dry and WetFatigue Properties of Three All-Ceramic Crown Systems. Int J Prosthodont 1998; 11: 255-262.
57. Sorensen JA, Kang S-K, Torres TJ, Knode H. In-Ceram Fixed Partial Dentures: Three-Year Clinical Trial Results. CDA-Journal 1998;26:207-214.
58. Sutherland JK, Holland GA, Sluder TB, White JT. A photoelastic analysis of the stress distribution in bone supporting fixed partial dentures of rigid and nonrigid design. J Prosthet Dent 1980; 44: 616-623.
59. Tinschert J, Natt G, Mautsch W, Augthun M, Spiekermann H. Fracture Resistance of Lithium Disilicate-, Alumina-, and Zirconia-based Three-unit Fixed Partial Dentures: A Laboratory Study. Int. J Prosthodont 2001; 14: 231-238.
60. Wall JG, Cipra DL. Alternative crown systems. Is the metal-ceramic crown always the restoration of choice? Dent Clin Nort Am 1992; 3:765-782.
61. Van Noort R. Dental Ceramics. In: Van Noort R. Introduction to Dental Materials; Mosby 2002. Edingburgh. Scotland.
62. Wang F, Tooley FW. Influence of reaction products on reaction between water and soda-lime-silica glass. J Am Ceram Soc 1985; 41: 521-524.
63. Webber B, McDonald A, Knowles J. An in vitro study of the compressive load at fracture of Procera AllCeram crowns with varying thickness of veneer porcelain. J Prosthet Dent 2003; 89: 154-160.
64. Wen MY, Mueller HJ, Chai J, Wosniak WT. Comparative Mechanical Property Characterization of 3 All-Ceramic Core Materials. Int J Prosthodont 1999. 12:534-541.
65. Vult von Steyern P. Porcelain and High Strength Core Ceramics for Fixed Partial Dentures. A clinical and in vitro-study. Malmö University Odontological Dissertations 2001; Malmö: Sweden.
69
66. Yang HS, Lang LA, Felton DA. Finite element stress analysis on the effect of splinting in fixed partial dentures. J Prosthet Dent 1999; 81; 721-728.
67. Yoshinari M, Dérand T. Fracture strength of all-ceramic crowns. Int J Prosthodont 1994; 7: 329-338.