Aldenderfer 1999 - Pleistocene Holocene Transition in Peru

8/11/2019 Aldenderfer 1999 - Pleistocene Holocene Transition in Peru

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12 'H. .4hten 'rler Quulermto: International 535 4 (1999) /l 19

D r y a s c l i m a t i c r e v e r s a l i n t h e s o u t h e r n h e m i s p h e r e

M e r c e r a n d Pa l a c i o s 1 9 77 ; C l a p p e r t o n 1 9 93 , 19 9 5;

He ine 1993, 1995). D ate d be tw een 12 ,500 an d 10 ,000

y e a r s a g o , t h is g l a ci a l r e a d v a n c e w o u l d h a v e r e v e r s e d t h e

w a r m i n g t r e n d i n i ti a t e d a f te r 1 4 ,0 00 B P , a n d w o u l d h a v e

r e t u r n e d t e m p e r a t u r e s t o t h e i r g l a c i a l m a x i m u m v a l u e s

o f 8 - 1 2 C c o l d e r t h a n t h e m o d e r n e r a a t h ig h e l e v at io n

IT ho m ps on e t a l ., 1995: 49). I f i t ex i s ted a t a l l , it i s

p r e s e n t l y u n c l e a r w h e t h e r t h e Y o u n g e r D r y a s w a s a n

A n d e s - w i d e p h e n o m e n o n , o r w a s l o c a li z e d b y t h e ef f ec t s

o f h i g h m o u n t a i n e n v i r o n m e n t a l s t r u c t u r e .

D e s p i t e t h e s e p r o b l e m s , t h e m o s t p r o b a b l e i n it ia l d a t e

o f s u b s t a n t i a l d e g l a c i a t io n t h r o u g h o u t m u c h o f t h e

c e n t r a l An d e s wa s 1 2 , 0 0 0 BP , wh i l e i n t h e s o u t h e r n

a l t i p l a n o , a s m o n i t o r e d b y p a l e o l a k e l e v e l s , t h e d a t e o f

d e g l a c i a t i o n r a n g e s f r o m 1 2 ,5 0 0 to 1 1 ,0 0 0 BP . Th e s e

d a t e s c o r r e l a t e we l l wi t h t h e Ta u c a p h a s e o f l a k e d e v e l -

o p m e n t o n t h e B o l i v i a n a l t i p l a n o , w h i c h r a n g e s c a .

1 3 ,0 0 0 t o 1 0, 50 0 BP W i r r m a n a n d Ol i v e i r a - A h n e i d a .

1 9 87 ), a n d wh i c h i t s e lf h a s b e e n c o r r e l a t e d w i t h m a s s i v e

d e g l a c i a t i o n i n t h e Bo l i v i a n c o r d i l l e r a Go u z e e t a l. ,

1986; Servant e t a l . , 1995) . There appears to be gen-

e r a l a g r e e m e n t t h a t a n o n - g l a c i a l e c o l o g y w a s e s t ab -

l i s h e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e l o w a n d h i g h - e l e v a t i o n z o n e s

o f t h e we s t e r n f l a n k s o f t h e An d e s a r o u n d 1 1 ,0 0 0 t o

10,000 BP.

Ex a c t l y h o w c l i m a t e v a r i e d f r o m 1 4 ,0 0 0 t o 1 0 ,0 0 0 BP

r e m a i n s s o m e w h a t c o n t r o v e r s i a l . I n p a r t , c li m a t i c r e c o n -

s t r u c t i o n s in m a n y a r e a s o f t h e A n d e a n h i g h l a n d s r e m a i n

u n f o r t u n a t e l y

' l o c a l ,

i n t h a t t h e c o m b i n e d f e a t u r e s o f

h i g h - m o u n t a i n e c o l o g y c re a t e p a t c h y e n v i r o n m e n t s w i th

c o n s i d e r a b l e l o c a l v a r i a b il i ty . H o w e v e r , d a t a f r o m c li -

m a t i c s i m u l a t i o n s , g e o l o g i c a l f i e l d o b s e r v a t i o n s , a n d

p a l y n o l o g i c a l s t u d ie s h a v e i d e n ti f ie d a n u m b e r o f t re n d s

i n c l i m a t e c h a n g e o v e r t h i s p e r i o d . I n t h e m o s t g e n e r a l

s e n s e, m u c h c l i m a t i c c h a n g e i n t h e r e g i o n f r o m 1 2 ,0 0 0 t o

6 0 0 0 B P c a n b e a t t r i b u t e d t o a w e a k e n e d s e a s o n a l c y c l e

a s s o c i a t e d w i t h s m a l l e r s e a s o n a l r a d i a t i o n e x t r e m e s i n

t h e S o u t h e r n H e m i s p h e r e K u t z b a c h a n d G u e t t e r , 19 86 :

K u t z b a c h a n d G a l l i m o r e , 1 9 8 8 ) . U s i n g c l i m a t i c s i m u l a -

t io n s , t h e s e a u t h o r s h a v e d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t l a n d t e m p e r -

a t u r e s r e m a i n e d n e a r g l a c i a l u n t il c a. 1 2 ,0 0 0 BP , wh e n

t h e y g r a d u a l l y b e g a n t o w a r m , r e a c h i n g n e a r m o d e r n

c o n d i t io n s a r o u n d 9 0 0 0 B P K u t z b a c h a n d G u e t t e r ,

1 9 8 6 : 1 7 3 3 ) . Of m o r e i m p o r t a n c e , h o we v e r , i s t h e i r h y -

p o t h e s i s t h a t t h e a u s t r a l s u m m e r w o u l d h a v e b e e n

c o o l e r a n d s h o r t e r t h a n i n m o d e r n t i m e s. W h i l e a v e r a g e

a n n u a l t e m p e r a t u r e a t c a . 1 0 , 0 0 0 BP wa s m o r e o r l e s s

t h e s a m e a s t o d a y , i t w a s p r o b a b l y 2 C c o l d e r i n t h e

a u s t r a l s u m m e r , a n d I C w a r m e r i n t h e a u s t r a l w i n t e r .

T e m p e r a t u r e s , t h e r e f o r e , w o u l d h a v e b e e n s i g n i f i -

c a n t l y c o l d e r t h a n t o d a y a r o u n d 1 2,0 00 B P , w i th g r a d u a l

w a r m i n g t a k i n g p l a c e u n t i l 9 0 0 0 B P , a n d p o s s i b l y l a t e r

F i g . 1 ) .

Th e r e wa s p r o b a b l y m o r e r a i n f a l l f r o m 1 4 ,0 0 0 t o

1 2, 00 0 B P , e s p e c i a ll y w h e n c o m p a r e d t o m o d e r n t im e s .

P a l y n o l o g i c a l s t u d ie s i n a n u m b e r o f p la c e s t h r o u g h o u t

t h e An d e s Ha n s e n e t a l. , 19 8 4; Ba i e d a n d W h e e l e r , 1 9 9 3 )

c o n f i r m t h i s t r e n d : a r b o r e a l s p e c i e s we r e i n c r e a s i n g l y

r e p l a c e d wi t h g r a s s e s a n d m o r e m e s i c s p e c i e s . Th e s e

d a t a a r e a l s o c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e d a t a f r o m H u a s c a r f i n ,

w h i c h s h o w t h a t t h e i c e d e p o s i t e d d u r i n g t h e L a t e

Gl a c i a l s t a g e wa s v e r y d u s t y , i m p l y i n g t h a t b i o l o g i c a l

a c t i v i t y t o t h e e a st t h e Am a z o n Ba s i n ) wa s re l a t i v e l y l o w.

Du s t l e v el s d e c r e a s e d r a m a t i c a l l y a f t e r c a . 1 4 ,0 0 0 BP , a n d

r e m a i n l o w, a l t h o u g h h i g h l y v a r i a b l e , u n t i l a f t e r 1 0 , 0 0 0

BP , wh e n t h e y s t a b i l i z e a t l o w l e v e ls i n d i c a t i v e o f t h e

e x p a n s i o n o f fo r e s t o n t h e e a s t e r n f l a n k s o f t h e A n d e s

{ Th o m p s o n e l a l . , 1 9 9 5 : 4 8 ) . La k e l e v e l s i n t h e s o u t h e r n

a l t i p l a n o a p p e a r t o r e a c h t h e i r m a x i m u m e x t e n t f ro m c a .

1 2 ,0 0 0 t o 1 1 , 00 0 BP , f u r t h e r s u p p o r t i n g t h e i n f e r e n c e o f

i n c r e a s e d r a i n f a l l d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d Se l t z e r, 1 9 9 4 : 1 1 0 ) ,

a n d a p p e a r t o m a i n t a i n t h e m s e l v e s u n t i l s o m e t i m e a f t e r

9 0 0 0 BP .

Y e a r s 8 . R

8 0 0 0 - -

] 0 0 0 0 - -

1 2 ~ 0 0 0 - -

1 4 ~ 0 0 0 - -

I I 7 ~ 3 0 ; I i 2 ~ 0 ,

8 4 0 4 8 2 IO O IO 30

- -

Fig. I. Te mper atur e and rainfall change over /h e period 14,000 to 8000 } cars ago. The left sidc of the figure shows the change in averag e annua l

tempe ratu re in degrees C; the zero value indicates a modern te mpera ture baseline. The right side port rays the percenta ge change in average an nual

rainfall, again with the zero value indicati ng a mod ern baseline.


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1 4 M. Aldender/er / Quaternary International 53/54 1999) 1l 19

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F ig .2 . T h e o ca t io n f a r ch aeo lo g i ca li t e s e sc r ib edn th e t ex t .

r a d i o c a r b o n d a t e s , a n d f i n a l l y , u n a m b i g u o u s a r t i f a c t s

wi t h i n t h e s e c o n t e x t s . Us i n g t h e s e c r i t e r i a s i m u l t a -

n e o u s l y , i t i s a p p a r e n t t h a t f e w, i f a n y , o f t h e s i t e s li s t e d i n

T a b l e 1 a r e u n a m b i g u o u s l y o f L a t e P l e i s t o c e n e d a te .

L e t u s r e v i e w t h e d a t a f r o m l o w l a n d s a n d h i g h l a n d s

s e p a r a t e l y .

2 1 Lowlands

W i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f t h e S h e ll R i n g S i t e a n d

Q u e b r a d a T a c a h u a y , b o t h l o c a t e d n e a r t h e m o d e r n

p o r t o f I l o a t c a . 1 7 s o u t h l a t i t u d e , l o w l a n d s i te s a r e

f o u n d o n t h e m o d e r n c o a s t o f n o r t h e r n P e r u a b o v e

1 2 s o u t h l a t i t u d e C h i v a t e r o s) , w i t h m o s t lo c a t e d

a t c a . 8 s o u t h l a t i tu d e M o c h e V a l l e y a n d C u p -

s i n i q u e d e s e r t s it es ). W i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f t h e s o u t h -

e r n P e r u v i a n s i te s , t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e k n o w n e a r l y

s i t e s w o u l d h a v e b e e n l o c a t e d a t d i s t a n c e s f r o m

2 4 5 0 k m f r o m t h e o c e a n i n L a t e P l e i s t o c e n e t i m e s ,

t h u s m a k i n g t h e m p a r t o f a n i n t e r i o r - o r i e n t e d se t tl e -

m e n t p a t t e r n Ch a u c h a t , 1 9 8 8 : 6 0 ). As i d e f r o m t h e

Sh e l l R i n g S i t e , t h e n , t h e r e a r e n o o t h e r e a r l y l o wl a n d

s i t e s t h a t a r e l i k e l y t o r e f l e c t a m a r i t i m e s u b s i s t e n c e

o r i e n t a t i o n .


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M. Aldenderfer Quaternary International 53/54 1999) 11-19

5

The northernmost sites fall within two distinct cultural

complexes: a unifacial tradi tion Talara) said to be

related to early coastal Colombian and Ecuadoran

unifacial assemblages, and the bifacial Paijan tradi tion

La Cumbre, Quirihuac, and Pampa de los Fosiles).

These traditions are thought to represent different tech-

nological solutions to similar environmental contexts,

although Dillehay et al. 1992: 172) have suggested that

the two traditions share more technological similarities

than has been previously noted. The southernmost sites

Chivateros, Ancon) are also part of a generalized

unifacial tool tradition.

Faunal associations in all sites are highly limited, and

floral remains indicative of subsistence adaptations are

non-existent. Of greatest interest are the Moche Valley

sites of La Cumbre and Quirihuac. The former is a com-

plex of open air sites, while the latter is a small rock-

shelter found below a giant boulder. Bone splinters found

on the surface at La Cumbre led to the excavation of test

pits, within which, albeit not in direct association with

the lithic materials, were discovered the remains of

mastodon and horse. Unfortunately, no faunal materials,

were recovered from Quirihuac, although human re-

mains dated to the Early Holocene were discovered

Chauchat, 1988: 50-51). There are no other lowland

archaeological sites dating to the Late Pleistocene with

the remains of extinct fauna found in a secure archae-

ological context. The fauna of the Shell Ring Site are fully

modern, and reveal an almost wholly maritime subsis-

tence adaptation Sandweiss et al., 1989). These data are

complementa ry to those recovered from the recently dis-

covered site at Quebrada Tacahuay; here, marine mol-

lusks were found along with the remains of sea birds.

While it is certain that the mollusks were consumed by

humans, the human use of the birds is equivocal. What is

clear, however, is that there are no extinct fauna to be

found in association with either the mollusks or the

hearth found at the site.

The radiocarbon evidence from the lowland sites re-

veals two clusters of dates: one around 12,500 BP, and

the other around 10,500 BP Table 1). There does not

appear to be any specific relationship between type of

material and the age of the sample. It is important to

note, however, that at least two of the materials used for

dating - - bone apatite and marine shell carbonate - - are

notoriously unreliable, and frequently provide mislead-

ing estimates of the age of the archaeological context

from which they were taken. Note also that the standard

deviations of many of the age estimates, especially far the

La Cumbre and Quirihuac samples, are quite large. Us-

ing two standard deviations, two of the three dates older

than 12,000 BP could easily date to after 11,000 BP

which would make them more consistent with the other

dates from the two sites.

Given these considerations, the best estimate of the

earliest human presence in the lowlands of the western

Andean flanks in Peru is from 13,000 to 11,000 BP. What

little is known of subsistence adaptations suggests that

even at the earliest of these dates, these groups were likely

exploiting a fully modern faunal assemblage.

2 2 Highlands

Without question, the most controversial data said to

date to the Late Pleistocene on the western Andean

flanks of Peru are those recovered by MacNeish et al.

1981) from Pikimachay Cave in Ayacucho at an

elevation of ca. 2850 masl. Although there is some ques-

tion about the varied presentation of the dates Rick,

1988: 13; Lynch, 1990a: 25), they range from ca. 20,000 to

14,000 BP, and belong to the Paccaicasa and Ayacucho

Phases, respectively. The purported artifacts from the

levels of these phases are made from the same type of

stone tha t comprises the cave wall, and while Rick 1988:

13-14) is unwilling to venture an opinion either pro or

con as to whether these objects were in fact modified by

humans, Lynch 1990a: 25) is frankly far more skeptical,

and believes that the few non-cave stone materials in

these levels could have been introduced by mixing from

levels above. Further, the dates from the Ayacucho sites

were made on sloth bone that shows no obvious signs of

human modification. Given the absence of dates from

other highland -- or for that matter, lowland -- sites

before 12,000 BP, I am inclined to agree with Lynch.

The remaining highland sites all have artifact assem-

blages characterized by foliate or lanceolate projectile

points in a variety of forms. They are rockshelters found

at elevations exceeding 4000 m on the high puna Tele-

marchay, Pachamachay, PAn-12-58) or are valley sites at

intermediate elevations Guitar rero Cave, Huargo Cave,

Pikimachay) and the faunal assemblages found at them,

aside from possible horse or sloth ribs at Huargo Cave,

and the remains of giant ground sloth at Pikimachay in

the earliest phases, are wholly of modern origin, such as

deer and camelids. Flora l remains, insofar as they exist

Guitar rero Cave is the outstanding exception with excel-

lent preservation of these materials), also appear to be of

Holocene origin.

The radiocarbon dates from these sites span a period

from roughly 12,500 to 10,500BP. Interestingly, very

few of the authors who have presented dates of Late

Pleistocene age appear to have much confidence in them

Lynch, 1990a: 24), and few discuss them at any length.

Like many of the lowland samples, some have been run

on unreliable materials. The 12,000 BP dates from

Guitarrero Cave are now accompanied by dates ca.

10,000 BP, an age much more consistent with the content

of the lithic assemblage. Look ing at standard devia-

tions, it is clear that virtually every one could be as

late as ca. l l,500BP, with the major ity being later

than 11,000 BP. This, combined with the evidence from

the lithic, faunal, and floral assemblages, argues for a


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16 M, ,4ldende Ti~r Qua termtp 3 , ln lerna t iomt / 53 54 1999) I 1 19

r e l a ti v e l y l a te e n t r y o f h u m a n s i n t o t h e A n d e a n h i g h -

l a n d s , p r o b a b l y n o t e a r l i e r t h a n 1 1 ,0 0 0 BP , a n d p o s s i b l y

a s l a t e a s 1 0 , 5 0 0 BP .

I n s u m m a r y , t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l d a t a f r o m t h e w e s t e r n

A n d e a n f l a n k s s u p p o r t s a l b e it v e r y w e a k l y t h e

n o t i o n o f a h u m a n o c c u p a t i o n b e g i n n i n g s o m e t im e

a r o u n d 1 2,0 00 B P i n th e l o w l a n d s a n d a r o u n d 1 1,0 00 B P

o r l a t e r a t h i g h e r e l e v a t i o n s . En t r y r o u t e s i n t o t h e r e g i o n

a p p e a r t o b e c o a s t a l i n o r i e n t a t i o n , a l t h o u g h d i r e c t e v i d -

e n c e o f t h is i s l a c k i n g s i n c e t r u e c o a s t a l s i te s o f t h e La t e

P l e i s t o c e n e we r e i n u n d a t e d f o l l o wi n g s e a l ev e l ri s e a f t e r

d e g l a c i a t i o n . I n t h is r e g a r d , t h e l a c k o f c o n s i s t e n t a n d

r e l i a b l e e a r l y d a t e s i n t h e h i g h l a n d s i s p e r h a p s a s t r o n g e r

a r g u m e n t a g a i n s t a h i g h l a n d r o u t e o f A n d e a n p e n e t r a -

t i o n a s a r g u e d b y Ly n c h 1 9 71 ). W h a t l i t tl e c a n b e r e a d

f r o m t h e s p a r s e d a t a o n s u b s i s t e n c e a d a p t a t i o n s i s t h a t

t h e y w e r e d i r e c t e d a t m o d e r n f a u n a l a n d f l o r a l a s s e m -

b l a g e s . Th e wi d e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f s i m i l a r p r o j e c t i l e p o i n t

s t y l e s , e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e h i g h l a n d s , a r g u e s f o r s u b s t a n t i a l

a n d wi d e l y r a n g i n g r e s i d e n t i a l m o b i l i t y . F i n a l l y , t h e

s m a l l n u m b e r o f s it e s o f L a t e P l e i s t o c e n e d a t a s u g g e s t

t h a t v e r y s m a ll p o p u l a t i o n s w e r e p r e s e n t u n t i l m u c h l a t e r

i n t h e H o l o c e n e .

3 H u m a n r e s p o n s e s t o L a t e P l e i s t o c e n e c l i m a t i c c h a n g e

B e c a u s e o f t h e v e r y l i m i te d a r c h a e o l o g i c a l d a t a a v a i l-

a b l e i n P e r u t h a t d a t e s t o t h e P l e i s t o c e n e / H o l o c e n e

t r a n s i t i o n , m u c h o f t h e f o l l o wi n g d i s c u s s i o n i s b e s t s e e n

a s a n a t t e m p t t o p r o v i d e s o m e i n s ig h t f o r f u t u r e st u d ie s

r e g a r d i n g h o w h u m a n p o p u l a t i o n s a d a p t e d t o c l i m a t i c

c h a n g e a t t h i s t i m e .

3.1. Changes on the littoral

Th e m o s t s t r i k i n g e f f e c ts o f La t e P l e i s t o c e n e c l i m a t i c

c h a n g e o n t h e l i t t o r a l wo u l d h a v e b e e n t w o f o l d : 1 ) s e a

l e v e l r i s e , c o o l e r o c e a n t e m p e r a t u r e s , a n d a t t e n d a n t

c o a s t a l r e s o u r c e i n s t a b i l i t y , a n d 2 ) t h e c r e a t i o n o f

a c o a s t a l d e s e r t . De g l a c i a t i o n , o f c o u r s e , le d t o s i g n i f i c a n t

s e a l e v e l r i se . Th e e f f e ct s o f th i s r i s e wa s g r e a t e s t a l o n g t h e

n o r t h c o a s t o f P e r u , w h e r e a p p r o x i m a t e l y 5 0 t o 7 5 k m o f

c o n t i n e n t a l s h e l f we r e i n u n d a t e d b y c a . 1 0 ,0 0 0 BP . a n d

t h e e f f e c ts o f wh i c h we r e f e l t u n t i l c a . 5 0 0 0 BP , w h e n t h e

c o a s t l i n e s t a b i l i z e d . I n t h e s o u t h , t h e e f f e c t s o f s e a l e v e l

r is e w e r e fa r s m a l le r , a n d o n l y 2 - 4 k m o f c o n t i n e n t a l s h e l f

we r e l o s t . Ex i s t i n g r e s o u r c e p a t c h e s a l o n g t h e a n c i e n t

s h o r e l i n e w o u l d h a v e b e e n d i s t u r b e d , b u t n e w o n e s

w o u l d h a v e b e e n o p e n e d c o n s t a n t l y . G r o u p s u t i l i z i n g

t h e s e r e s o u r c e s , s u c h a s t h o s e a s s o c i a t e d wi t h t h e Pa i j a n

c o m p l e x , w o u l d h a v e h a d t o m a i n t a i n a r e l a t i v e l y

h i g h d e g r e e o f m o b i l i t y t o c o n s t a n t l y m o n i t o r t h e i r

p r o d u c t i v i t y .

T h e i n c r e a s i n g t r e n d t o w a r d a r i d i t y , c o u p l e d w i t h

c o o l e r o c e a n t e m p e r a t u r e s a n d t h e t r a c k i n g o f s t o r m s

f r o m e a s t t o w e s t c r e a t e d a r a i n s h a d o w a n d c o a s t a l

d e s e r t o n t h e w e s t e r n A n d e a n f l a n k s . T h i s d e s e r t w o u l d

h a v e b e g u n t o f o r m s o m e t i m e a f t e r 1 0 , 0 0 0 B P , a n d

a s a r i d i ty i n c r e a s e d , h u m a n g r o u p s e x p l o i t i n g m a r i -

t i m e r e s o u r c e s w o u l d h a v e a l s o f o u n d t h e m s e l v e s i n -

c r e a s i n g l y t e t h e r e d t o e x i s t i n g f r e s h wa t e r r e s o u r c e s ,

s u c h a s r iv e r m o u t h s a n d c o a s t a l s p ri n g s. T h e n e e d t o

t r a c k t h e l o c a t i o n o f r e s o u r c e p a t c h e s t h r o u g h m o b i -

l i t y a s c o a s t l i n e s c h a n g e d t h e i r c o n f i g u r a t i o n w o u l d

h a v e b e e n c o u n t e r a c t e d t o s o m e d e g r e e b y t h e n e c e s s -

i ty t o r e m a i n n e a r s c a r c e w a t e r r e s o u r c e s . T h i s m a y h a v e

l ed s o m e g r o u p s t o e x p l o i t a w i d e r r a n g e o f m a r i n e

s p e c ie s t h a n m a y h a v e b e e n t h e c a s e at t h e e n d o f th e

P l e i s t o c e n e .

3.2. Hw extinction ~4[ Pleistocene species

B e c a u s e o f t h e l a c k o f a c c e p t e d a s s o c i a t io n s i n P e r u o f

P l e i s to c e n e f a u n a a n d a r t if a c t s u n e q u i v o c a l l y m a d e b y

h u m a n s , w e c a n o n l y s p e c u l a t e u p o n t h e e f fe c t o f th e

e x t i n c t i o n o f t h e s e s p e ci e s o n h u m a n a d a p t a t i o n s . R e -

c e n t l y , Fa l g u e r e s e t a l . 1 9 9 4 ) h a v e r e p o r t e d o n t h e i r

d a t i n g o f e x ti n c t f a u n a f r o m n o r t h e r n P e r u i n t h e C u s -

p i n i q u e r e g i o n . F r o m t h e P a m p a d e F o s i l e s , t h e y h a v e

r e c o v e r e d t h r o u g h e x c a v a t i o n t h e r e m a i n s o f h o r s e

(Eqqus o r Amerhippus), Eremotherium, Pampatherium,

Paleolama, Scelidotherium, a n d Haplomasmdon. U s i n g

u r a n i u m s e ri e s d a t i n g t h e s e m a t e r i a l s h a v e b e e n d a t e d t o

c a . 1 5, 00 0 1 6 ,0 0 0 BP . I m p o r t a n t l y , n o n e o f t h e s t a n d a r d

d e v i a t i o n s o f th e s e d a t e s o v e r l a p w i t h a n y o f t h o s e f r o m

t h e Pa i j a n s i te s f o u n d in t h i s a r e a , a n d C h a u c h a t 1 9 9 2 )

h a s s h o w n t h a t a s y e t , t h e e x t i n c t f a u n a f r o m t h i s r e g i o n

a r e n e v e r f o u n d w i t h P a i j a n m a t e r i a l s o r a n y o t h e r c u l -

t u r a l c o m p l e x .

T h a t s u c h s p e c i e s w e r e e x p l o i t e d s e e m s h i g h l y p r o b -

a b l e : f u r t h e r t o t h e s o u t h i n Ch i l e , a t s it e s s u c h a s Qu e r e o .

T a g u a - T a g u a , a n d M o n t e V e r d e , s p e c i e s e x p l o i t e d i n -

c l u d e a t th e m i n i m u m h o r s e a n d m a m m o t h . H o w e v e r , i t

a l s o s e e m s p r o b a b l e t h a t t h e e f fe c t o f t h e e x t i n c t i o n o f

P l e i s to c e n e sp e c ie s w o u l d h a v e b e e n d e p e n d e n t u p o n

t h r e e f a c t o r s : 1) t h e d e g r e e t o wh i c h L a t e P l e i s t o c e n e

p e o p l e s h a d a m a r i t i m e f o c u s , 2 ) w h e t h e r o r n o t o t h e r

t e r r e s t r i a l s p e c i e s , s u c h a s d e e r a n d c a m e l i d s , we r e a l s o

p a r t o f t h e s u b s i s t e n c e m i x , a n d 3 ) t h e d e g r e e o f re l i a n c e

u p o n t h e P l e i s t o c e n e s p e c i es . Th e Sh e l l R i n g S i t e i n

s o u t h e r n P e r u s u g g e s t s t h a t a t l e a s t s o m e g r o u p s h a d

a m a r i t i m e f o c u s , a n d f o r t h e s e , i t i s u n l i k e l y t h a t t h e

e x t i n c t i o n o f t h e s e s p e c i e s h a d a n y s i g n i f i c a n t e ff e c t o n

t h e i r d i e t. Bu t i f a n y o f t h e s e g r o u p s h a d a t e r r e s t r i a l

f o cu s , s u c h a n e f fe c t m a y h a v e b e e n f a r s t ro n g e r . F r o m a n

o p t i m a l i t y p e r s p e c t i v e , s p e c i e s s u c h a s h o r s e , b e c a u s e

t h e y a re h e r d a n i m a l s , a n d m a m m o t h , b e c a u s e o f t h e i r

l a r g e p a c k e t s i z e, wo u l d h a v e b e e n h i g h l y r a n k e d . I n

c o n t r a s t , d e e r a r e r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l a n d c r y p t i c i n t h e i r

b e h a v i o r , a n d c a m e l i d s g u a n a c o a n d v i c u f ia ) a r e f o u n d

i n r e la t i v e ly s m a ll f a m i l y g r o u p s . U n d o u b t e d l y , w h i c h


7/9

M. Aldender fer / Quaternary In ternat ional 53/54 1999 ) 11 -19

7

species were chosen and in what mix was highly depen-

dent upon local factors of resource density, the size of the

human group present, and the available technology.

What is clear, however, is that the archaeological re-

cord of the very Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene

shows clearly that humans rapidly and successfully ex-

ploited these modern species at both lowland and high-

land sites. This in turn suggests that foragers of the Late

Pleistocene had a relatively broad diet, at least in terms of

terrestrial species, and that they had sufficient knowledge

of the behaviora l characteristics of these modern species

to overcome any subsistence loss that was occasioned by

the extinction of the Pleistocene species.

3 3 Adaptive radiation and patterns of human movement

With the advent of deglaciation, new ecological niches

for both plants and animals began to appear. Between

12,000 and 10,000 BP, a major adaptive radia tion of

plants and animals occurred that was focused primarily

upon the ascent of these species into higher elevations.

Since the austral summers were both colder and shorter

than in the modern era (although certainly warmer than

in the glacial epoch), this adaptive r adiat ion would have

favored cc~ld-adapted species that were also able to with-

stand the effects of hypoxia as higher elevations were

reached. Since the growing season would also have been

shorter, plants that matured quickly and were able to

cast their seeds rapidly would also have been favored.

Likewise, animals that could acclimatize to the biological

effects of hypoxia on reproduction and diet would have

had a selective advantage over those species less capable

or unable to do so.

Snowlines along the western cordillera of the Andes

that may have been depressed as much as 500 m below

their modern limits during glacial times would have

gradually begun to recede, and very cold, periglacial

environments would have moved to elevations generally

exceeding 4800 masl. On the southern altiplano, the

reduction in size of the vast glacial lakes would have

opened new terrain as well. In both cases, these changes

would have led to opportunities for low elevation plant

and animal species to colonize these open niches, or

alternatively, it would have permitted existing, successful

high elevation species to dramat ically extend their range.

Most of this adaptive radiation would have been fo-

cused upon the major river valleys of the western flanks

of the Andes. While conditions were more humid during

this period than in modern times, permanent water in

these valleys would have provided a highly fertile base

upon which these species could move into higher elev-

ations. The result of this would have been the creat ion of

a relatively high terrestrial biomass that was essentially

unexploited to any significant degree by humans. Just

how the level of biomass compares to that of the Late

Pleistocene is unclear, but it is not the overall level, of the

biomass as much as it is its rapid growth and expansion

into new terrain.

The expansion of familiar species into new areas where

they thrived would have created a powerful resource pull

to the early human populations in the region. This pull

would have been an incentive for relatively high residen-

tial mobility, and it would have pulled these groups both

down the coast from water source to water source, but

also into the Andean highlands themselves, and thus

eventually into zones properly labeled as high elev-

ation . What is important to note about this argument,

however, is that this movement into higher elevation

zones could not have taken place until after these new

niches had been established by the adaptive radiation of

these species. If correct, this in turn implies that argu-

ments for a human occupation of high elevation environ-

ments prior to ca. 12,000 BP are likely to be incorrect.

3 4 Human acclimatization to high elevation

From a human biological perspective, a high elevation

environment exceeds 2500 masl. It is at this elevation that

humans begin to experience the effects of hypoxia, which

is the diminished availability of oxygen due to reduced

barometric pressure at altitude. Hypoxia, and at high

elevations, cold stress, combine to have significant and

dramatic effects on human biology in terms of health,

reproductive, nutritional, and work status. While mod-

ern Andean highlanders are now at least biologically

acclimatized to high altitude, the earliest travelers into

them were not, and thus, it is important to discuss the

process by which humans became permanent residents in

the newly-available high elevation environments into

which they had been pulled.

Surprisingly, no author that has written about high

elevation archaeology in the Andes has taken these fac-

tors into account when discussing the early human occu-

pation of the Andean highlands. Much of the following

discussion is based upon research conducted by this

author at Asana, a site located at 3350 masl in the high

sierra environment of the Rio Osmore drainage in far

southern Peru (Aldenderfer, 1997). While the initial occupa-

tion of the site is 9830_+ 160 BP, well into the Early

Holocene, the findings from the site provide significant

insight into the process by which the first foragers in the

region began to use the highlands and how they coped

with the stresses of life at high elevation.

The first foraging peoples to penetrate the highlands

would have experienced acute hypoxia, which includes

the symptoms of soroche, headache, and nausea, as well

as minor locomotor and sensory problems. While these

symptoms would have ameliorated over varying lengths

of time, they would have led to decreased work capacity,

which is typical to sojourners to high elevation. Work

that could have easily been performed at lower elevations

would have been more stressful, and it is probable that


8/9

18 M. ,4ldend edPr, Quaternat 3, Internat iona l 53/54 I 999) 11 19

l e s s w o r k w o u l d h a v e b e e n a c c o m p l i s h e d . T h i s i m p l i e s

t h a t s u b s i s t e n c e a c t i v i t i e s wo u l d h a v e b e e n d i r e c t e d a t

f a m i l i a r s p e c i e s , s u c h a s t h o s e e n c o u n t e r e d a t l o we r

e l e v a t i o n s .

Co l d a t t h i s t i m e wo u l d a l s o h a v e b e e n a s i g n i f i c a n t

s t r e s s o r fo r f o r a g i n g p e o p le s . A l t h o u g h t h e s e i n d i g e n o u s

p e o p l e s w o u l d h a v e b e e n p r e - a d a p t e d t o c o l d d u e t o t h e i r

N o r t h A s i a n a n c e s t r y , t h e y n e v e r t h e l e s s w o u l d h a v e

r e q u i r e d u s e f u l a n d s u b s t a n t i a l c l o t h i n g a n d e f f e c t i v e

s h e l t e r , a s we l l a s fi re , f o r l o n g - t e r m h a b i t a t i o n o f t h e

h i g h l a n d s .

G i v e n t h e s e e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s , t h e v e r y f i r s t

u t i l iz a t i o n o f t h e h i g h l a n d s a b o v e 2 5 0 0 m a s l w o u l d p r o b -

a b l y h a v e b e e n l o g i st i ca l l y o r g a n i z e d f r o m b a s e c a m p s

b e l o w t h i s e l e v a t i o n . I t is f u r t h e r l i k e ly t h a t t h e c o m p o s i -

t i o n o f th e g r o u p e x p l o i t i n g t h e h i g h l a n d s w a s e x c l u s iv e l y

m a l e , a n d w e c a n e x p e c t a n a c t iv i t y p a t t e r n t h a t e m p h a -

s i ze d a m i n i m i z a t i o n o f w o r k e f f o r t t h a t a m e l i o r a t e d

a c u t e h y p o x i a a n d k e p t c a l o r i c c o s t s a s l o w a s p o s s i b l e

g i v e n s u b s i s t e n c e r e q u i r e m e n t s .

T h e d i s c o v e r y a n d u s e o f t h e A n d e a n h i g h l a n d s w a s

l i ke l y d r i v e n b y s h o r t - t e r m d e c i s io n s d e s i g n e d t o m i n i m -

i z e e f f o r t wh i l e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y e n s u r i n g s u f f ic i e n t c a l o r i c

r e t u r n s f o r a ll m e m b e r s o f th e c o r e s i d e n t i a l g r o u p . T h e

r e s o u r c e p u l l o f t h e r a p i d l y c h a n g i n g h i g h l a n d s , e s p e -

c i a ll y a s r e g a r d s f a u n a l r e s o u r ce s , w o u l d h a v e p e r m i t t e d

f o r a g e r s t o a c h i e v e t h es e g o a l s a s n e w l y e m e r g e n t h i g h -

l a n d a n i m a l a n d p l a n t c o m m u n i t i e s b e c a m e m o r e

p r o d u c t i v e a n d s t a b l e . I n t h e e a rl i e s t s t a g e s, l a n d u s e

p a t t e r n s o f t h e h i g h l a n d s w o u l d h a v e b e e n m a d e o n a

l o g i s t ic a l b a s is o n l y , wi t h h u n t i n g p a r t i e s o f a d u l t m a l e s

m o v i n g i n t o t h e h i g h l an d s a n d r e t u r n i n g t o l o w e r e le v -

a t i o n b a s e c a m p s wi t h t h e i r k i l l s . Ho we v e r , i t wo u l d n o t

h a v e b e e n p o s s i b l e t o i n c r e a s e o r e v e n m a i n t a i n f o r a l o n g

p e r i o d r e t u r n s u n d e r t h i s s y s t e m b e c a u s e o f li m i t a t io n s in

t r a n s p o r t t e c h n o l o g y a n d t h e i n a b i li t y o f m e m b e r s o f th e

f o r a g i n g p a r t y t o o v e r c o m e t h e e ff e ct s o f h y p o x i a t h a t

l i m i t e d t h e i r wo r k c a p a c i t y .

A m o r e p e r m a n e n t o c c u p a t i o n o f t h e h i g h l a n d s w a s

p r o b a b l y d r i v e n b y t h e e v e n t u a l s t a b i l iz a t i o n o f r e s o u r c e

p a t c h e s w i t h i n t h e m . A s m o r e p e r m a n e n t a n d p r o d u c t i v e

p a t c h e s e m e r g e d o n t h e l a n d s c a p e , t h e i r p u l l w o u l d h a v e

b e e n s u f f ic i en t to d r a w t h e e n t i r e c o r e s i d e n t ia l g r o u p t o

t h e m . N o t e t h a t t h i s d o e s n o t i m p l y r e s o u r c e s h o r tf a l l in

l o we r e l e v a t i o n s b u t i n s t e a d s t r e s s e s t h a t t h e s e c h a n g e s

w o u l d h a v e p e r m i t t e d t h e e n t i r e g r o u p t o o b t a i n s u f f i -

c i e n t c a l o r i c r e t u r n w h i l e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y r e d u c i n g w o r k

e f f o r t f o r t h e g r o u p s m o s t p r o d u c t i v e m e m b e r s i ts

h u n t e r s . T h e r a p i d i t y o f th i s p r o c e ss , h o w e v e r , w o u l d

h a v e b e e n c o n t i n g e n t u p o n h o w q u i c k l y t h e s e n e w

p a t c h e s s t a b i l i z e d a s we l l a s t h e m i x o f f l o r a l a n d f a u n a l

r e s o u r c e s p r e s e n t i n a n y l o c a l i t y .

W h i l e a r e la t i v e ly r a p i d p e r m a n e n t o c c u p a t i o n o f t h e

h i g h l a n d s h a d c l e a r b e n e f i t s, t h e r e we r e a l s o h i d d e n c o s t s .

T h e r e w o u l d h a v e b e e n h i g h e r c a l o r i c d e m a n d s o n t h e

p a r t o f p r e g n a n t o r l a c ta t i n g w o m e n , a n d t h e r e m a y h a v e

b e e n i n c r e a s e d i n f a n t m o r t a l i t y f o r s o m e p e r i o d u n t i l

w o m e n m a d e a s u c c e s s f u l b i o l o g i c a l a c c l i m a t i z a t i o n t o

t h e e f f e c ts o f h y p o x i a . Ho we v e r , t h e s e c o s t s w e r e o f f s e t,

a t l e a s t i n th e c h i l d r e n b o r n a t h i g h e l e v a t i o n , b y th e e a r l y

o n s e t o f a c c l i m a t i z a t io n , w h i c h w o u l d h a v e a l l o w e d t h e m

t o a c h i e v e l e v e l s o f wo r k c a p a c i t y o v e r t h e i r l i f e t i m e

e s s e n t i a l ly e q u i v a l e n t t o t h a t o f t h e i r l o w e l e v a t i o n

c o u n t e r p a r t s .

4 C o n c l u s i o n s

M u c h w o r k r e m a i n s t o b e d o n e b e f o r e w e a r e t o h a v e

a c l e a r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e w a y s i n w h i c h h u m a n

g r o u p s r e s p o n d e d t o c l i m a t i c a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l c h a n g e

d u r i n g t h e P l e i s t o c e n e / H o l o c e n e t r a n s i ti o n . I n g r e a t

p a r t , th i s m e a n s t h a t a m o r e c o n c e r t e d e f f o rt m u s t b e

m a d e t o l o c a t e a n d p r o p e r l y e x c a v a t e s it e s o f t h is t i m e

f r a m e . B e c a u s e t h e h i g h l a n d s w e r e o c c u p i e d r e l a t i v e l y

l a t e in t h i s t r a n s i t i o n d u e t o a s u i t e o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l

f a c t o r s , a n d b e c a u s e w e a r e f o r t u n a t e t o h a v e t h e d a t a

f r o m A s a n a i n s o u t h e r n P e r u a s a p a r t i a l g u i d e t o t h e

p r o c e s s b y w h i c h t h e h i g h l a n d s w e r e p e r m a n e n t l y o c c u -

p i e d , m u c h o f t h i s f u t u r e r e s e a r c h e f f o r t s h o u l d b e d i -

r e c t e d a t l o w e r e l e v a t i o n s . To b e s u c c e s s fu l , t h i s r e s e a r c h

m u s t n e c e s s a ri l y b e m u l t i d i sc i p l i n a r y , w i t h e m p h a s i s

p l a c e d u p o n t h e d e t a i le d g e o m o r p h o l o g i c a l r e c o n s t r u c -

t i o n o f a r e a s l i k e l y t o h a v e s u r v i v e d i n t a c t s i n c e th e e n d o f

t h e P l e i s to c e n e . M o r e p a l y n o l o g i c a l d a t a a r e n e e d e d a s

we l l f r o m t h e s e l o w l a n d a r e a s . H o w e v e r , i f t h e p a s t d e c -

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