AL Economics_Unit 2 Short Notes

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P . S U T H A H A R A N - B B A ( M a r k e t i n g S p l ) ( C o l ) D i p M C I M

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Unit 2 - Syllabus

Analyses the rational behavior of household and firms in the market

1 Classifies market according to the economic analysis

Market

Classification of markets o Goods and service market o Factor market

2 Investigating the factors determining the market demand

Demand

Definition o Individual demand o Market demand

The theory of demand o Individual demand o Market demand

Demand function o Individual demand function o Market demand function

3 Analyses the relationship between the prices and the quantity demanded

The law of demand

Methods of presenting the law of demand o Demand schedule o Demand curve o Demand equation

Reasons for the slope of demand o Income effect o Substitution effect o Diminishing marginal utility

Exceptions to the law of demand

o Geffen goods o Demonstrative goods o Speculation

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4 Distinguishes between changes in quantity demanded and change in demand

Change in QD o Increase in QD o Decrease in QD

Change in demand o Increase in demand o Decrease in demand

5 Calculates elasticity to identify the types of PED

Concept of elasticity

Definition o Point elasticity of demand o Formula and calculation o Arch elasticity of demand

Formulas and calculation

Elasticity categories according the coefficient of elasticity o Price in elastic o Inelastic o Unitary elastic o Elastic o Perfectly elastic o PED and slopes of the demand curve o PED and demand equation

6 Examines the rational decision making in market based on PED

Determinants of PED

Price elasticity and consumer out lay

Practical relevance of PED 7 Examines rational decision making in market based on YED

YED

Definition

Formula and calculation

Classification of goods according to the elasticity coefficient

Substitute goods

Complementary goods

Practical importance of cross price elasticity of demand

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8 Examines rational decision making in market based on YED

YED

Definition


Calculation of goods according to the elasticity coefficient]

o Normal goods o Inferior goods o Practical importance of YED

9 Analysis the factors determining market supply

Supply

Definition

Firms supply o Essential goods o Luxury goods

Market supply

Theory of supply

Supply function

10 Examines the relationship between price and quantity supplied

The law of supply

Ways of presenting law of supply o Supply curve o Supply schedule o Supply equation

Reasons for the law of supply

Increasing opportunity cost

11 Distinguishes between changes in quantity supply and changes in supply

Changes in QS o Increase in QS o Decrease in QS o Changes in supply

Increase in supply and reasons Decrease in supply and reasons

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12 Investigate rational decision making process in a market according to PES

Price elasticity of supply

Definition


Categories of price elasticity of supply according to elasticity coefficient o Perfect inelastic o Inelastic o Unitary elastic o Elastic o Perfect elastic

Price elasticity of supply and slope of the supply curve

Price elasticity of supply and supply equation

Determinants of price elasticity of supply

Usefulness of price elasticity of supply and its practical applications

13 investigates the determination of price in a market

Market equilibrium

Definition

Methods of determination market equilibrium o Demand and supply schedules o Graphical methods o Equations

Concepts associated with market equilibrium

14 investigates the changes equilibrium according demand and supply changes

Excess demand

Excess supply

Excess demand price

Excess supply price

Consumer surplus

Producer surplus

Change in equilibrium

Demand changing in fixed supply

Supply changing in fixed demand

Change in both demand and supply

15 investigates the impact of producer taxes on market operations

Taxes on goods and services

Specific tax/unit tax

Ad valorem tax

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Methods of presenting impact of taxes

Demand and supply schedule

Graphical method

Equations

Effects of taxes on

Equilibrium

Total outlay

Total revenue

16 investigates the distribution tax incidence according demand and supply elasticity

Consumer surplus

Producer surplus

Government revenue

Social welfare

Tax incidence of taxation on

Consumers

Producers

Tax incidence according to demand and supply elasticity

17 investigates the effects of subsidies on market operations

Producer subsidies

Unit subsidy

Ad valorem subsidy

Methods of presenting impact of subsidies

Demand and supply schedule

Graphical method

Equations

Impact of producers subsidies on

Equilibrium

Total outlay

Total revenue

Consumers surplus

18 investigates the effect of price controls on market operations

Producer surplus

Government expenditure

Social welfare

Distribution benefits of subsidies on

Consumers

Producers

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Distribution benefits of subsidies according elasticity of demand and supply

Price controls

Price ceiling/maximum price o Graphical presentation o Impact

Arrangements to make meaningful of price ceilings o Rationing o Importation o Encourage production

Floor price / minimum price o graphical presentation o impact

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Rational behavior of house hold and Firms in the market

A firm exists when a person or a group of people decides to produce a product or products By transforming inputsthat is, resources in the broadest senseinto outputs, the products that are sold in the market

Entrepreneur A person who organizes, manages, and assumes the risks of a firm taking a new idea or a new product and business. Turning it into a successful The consuming units in an economy are households. Household decisions are presumably based on individual tastes and preferences. The household buys what it wants and can afford

Input Markets and Output Markets: The Circular Flow Households and firms interact in two basic kinds of markets:

Product (or output) markets

Input (or factor) markets.

o Goods and services that are intended for use by households are exchanged in product or output markets. In output markets, firms supply and households demand. To produce goods and services, firms must buy resources in input or factor markets.

o Firms buy inputs from households, which supply these inputs. When a firm

decides how much to produce (supply) in output markets, it must simultaneously decide how much of each input it needs to produce the desired level of output.

o To produce automobiles, Ford Motor Company must use many inputs,

including tires, steel, complicated machinery, and many different kinds of labor.

The Circular Flow of Economic Activity

Here goods and services flow clockwise: Labor services supplied by households flow to firms,

and goods and services produced by firms flow to households. Payment (usually money) flows in

the opposite (counterclockwise) direction:

Payment for goods and services flows from households to firms, and payment for labor services

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flows from firms to households

The circular flow of economic activity through a simple market economy Note that the flow reflects the direction in which goods and services flow through input and output Markets. For example, goods and services flow from firms to households through output Markets. Labor services flow from households to firms through input markets. Payment (most often in money form) for goods and services flows in the opposite direction. Types of Market Labor market: The input/factor market in which households supply work for wages to firms that demand labor.

Capital market: The input/factor market in which households supply their savings, for interest or for claims to future profits, to firms that demand funds to buy capital goods. Land markets: The input/factor markets in which households supply land or other real property in exchange for rent. Factors of production: The inputs into the production process. Land, labor, and capital are the three key factors of production. Quantity Demand The quantity demanded is the number of units of a good that consumers are willing and can afford to buy over a specified period of time. A household's decision about what quantity of a particular output, or product, to demand depends on a number of factors, including:

The price of the product in question.

The income available to the household.

The household's amount of accumulated wealth.

The prices of other products available to the household.

The household's tastes and preferences.

The household's expectations about future income, wealth, and prices.

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Individual & Market Demand Individual demand: It refers to demand from the individuals /family/household. It is a single consuming entitys demand. Market demand: It refers to the total demand of all buyers, taken together. It is the aggregate of the quantities of a product demanded by all the individuals buyers at a given price over a given period of time-it is the sum total of individual demand function Market demand is more important from the business point of view, sales depends on market demand ,so does planning future marketing strategy Prices are determined on the basis of demand for the product etc. INDIVIDUAL DEMAND

Price of the products

Income

Tastes, Habits, Preferences

Relative price of other goods-substitutes and complementary goods

Consumers Expectations

Advertisement Effect

MARKET DEMAND

Price of the product

Distribution of wealth and income in the community

Communitys common habit sand scale of preferences

General standard of living and spending habits of the people

Growth of the population

Age structure/sex ratio of the population

Future Expectations

Level of taxation and tax structure

A demand schedule is a table showing how the quantity demanded of some product during a specified period of time changes as the price of that product changes, holding all other determinants of quantity demanded constant.

A demand curve is a graphical depiction of a demand schedule. It shows how the quantity demanded of some product will change as the price of that product changes during a specified period of time, holding all other determinants of quantity demanded constant.

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Demand function At any point of time, the quantity of a given product (good/service) that will be purchased by the consumers depends on a number of key variables/determinants. The most important variables are listed below:

The own price of the product (P) The price of the substitute and complementary

goods(Ps or Pc) The level of disposable income(Yd) with the

buyers(ie; income left after direct taxes) Change in the buyers taste and preferences(T) The advertisement effect measured through the level of advertising expenditure(A) Changes in the population number or number of buyers(N)

o Individual demand function

o Market demand function

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Properties of Demand curve 1. They have a negative slope. An increase in price is likely to lead to a decrease in quantity demanded, and a decrease in price is likely to lead to an increase in quantity demanded. 2. They intersect the quantity (X-) axis, a result of time limitations and diminishing marginal Utility. 3. They intersect the price (Y-) axis, a result of limited income and wealth. Demand Equation A linear demand function may be stated as D = a bP Where, D amount demanded a - is a constant parameter which signifies initial price irrespective of price b- Denotes functional relationship b/w (P) &(D) Questions on Demand Equation - Refer your workbook

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The law of demand The law of demand expresses the nature of functional relationship b/w two variables of the demand relation viz; the price and the quantity demanded. It simply states that demand varies inversely to change in price. Statement of law of demand Ceteris paribus, the higher the price of a commodity the smaller is the quantity demanded and lower the price, larger the quantity demanded Other things remaining unchanged, demand varies inversely with price so, D= f (P) Assumptions of law of demand The law of demand is based on certain assumptions

No change in consumers income No change in consumers preferences No change in fashion No change in the price of related goods No expectation of future price changes or shortages No change in government policy etc.

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Reasons for downward sloping demand curve

1. Income effect Changes in price can affect buyers' purchasing decisions; this effect is called the income effect. Increases in price, while they don't affect the amount of your paycheck, make you feel poorer than you were before, and so you buy less. Decreases in price make you feel richer, and so you may feel like buying more

2. Substitution Effect

Tendency to change your purchase based on changes in relative price is called the Substitution effect

3. 'Law of Diminishing Marginal Utility' A law of economics stating that as a person increases consumption of a product - while keeping consumption of other products constant - there is a decline in the marginal utility that person derives from consuming each additional unit of that product.

Exceptions to the law of demand The upward sloping curve is contrary to the law of demand, where there is a direct relationship b/w price and demand These exceptional cases can be listed as

Giffen goods : In the case of certain inferior goods called Giffen goods(named after Sir Robert Giffen), in spite of price rise, demand will also rise. It was seen in Ireland in 19th. Century people were so poor that they spent a major part of income on potatoes and a small part on meat, as price of potatoes, rose the demand also rose since they could not substitute it for meat which was very expensive. Giffens paradox is seen the case of inferior goods like potatoes, cheap bread etc.

Speculation : when people speculate about prices on the commodity in the future they may not act according to the laws of demand. Speculating the prices of the commodity will further increase they will demand more of the commodity for hoarding etc. In the stock market, people tend to buy more shares when prices are rising in the hope of bull runs in anticipation of future profits.

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Article of snob appeal : Certain commodities are demanded because they happen to be expensive or prestige goods or snob value having a status symbol. So increase in price will lead to increase in demand for such goods. E.g. Diamonds, exclusive cars etc.

Consumer psychological Bias: when a customer is wrongly biased against quality of a commodity a fall in price may not lead to an increase in demand example clearance of stock, discounted sale, etc.

Types of demand The demand behavior of the consumer differs with different types of demand in the study of managerial economics it is important to distinguish these types of demand

Demand for consumers goods and producers goods

Goods /services that are demanded by the consumer for direct satisfaction of their wants ie; for consumption purpose- food, clothes, services of doctors ,maids, teachers

Goods that demanded by producers in the process of production are called production goods eg; tools and equipment, machinery, raw material, factory building, offices

Demand for consumer goods is direct /autonomous ,whereas demand for producer goods is derived ie; based on demand for output

Dean (1976) explained this distinctive demand behavior for producer goods in the economy.

o Buyers of producers goods are professionals /experts, so they are less likely to be influenced by sales promotion.

o Producer buyers are more sensitive to factor price differences and substitutes. The motive of the producers are purely economic and capital goods are bought on account of profit prospective. The demand of producers goods is derived from consumption demand, so there are frequent fluctuations in demand levels.

Demand for perishable and durable goods:

Perishable goods have no durability, they cannot be stored for a long period of time eg. Fish, egg, vegetables etc.

Durable good have a long shelf life and can be stored example furniture, car etc.

Perishable goods give a one shot service whereas durable goods can be used for several years

Demand for perishable goods depends on convenience, style & income of the consumer. This demand is always immediate.

Demand for durable goods depends on product design, current trends, income levels, price etc. this demand is postponable.

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Autonomous and derived demand:

Spontaneous demand for goods is based on a urge to satisfy some want directly, such a demand is called Autonomous demand. Demand for consumer goods is autonomous. It is a direct demand, it is a final demand.

When the demand of the product depends on the demand of some other product, it is called derived demand. When the demand of the product is tied to the purchase of some parent product its demand is called derived(Dean 1976). Eg. Demand for doors derived from demand from houses. demand for bulbs derive from demand for lamps.

Demand for dependent product is caused by complementary consumption. Example demand for sugar emerges from demand for tea.

Demand for all capital goods are derived. Nowadays it is rare to see demand for goods to be wholly dependent of all other demands. Most demands are derived demands.

Example demand for car by an individual is derived from demand of transportation service.

This distinction between two types of demand is a matter of degree. Industry demand and firm / company demand :

A firm is a business unit, whereas industry is a group of closely competitive firms.

A firms/companys demand relates to the market demand for the firms output. An industrys refers to the to the total demand for a commodity produced by a particular industry eg; Car industry, Sugar industry etc.

The basic relationship of a firms demand and industry/market depends on the market structure whether perfect competition, monopoly or monopolistic competition. The elasticity of the demand curve will vary accordingly.

Movements Along and Shifts in Demand Curves A movement along the demand curve occurs when quantity demanded changes because of a change in the price of the commodity alone, while other factors in conditions of demand (income, tastes, population, price of complements and substitutes, etc) remain constant.

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A shift in the demand curve or a change in demand occurs when quantity demanded changes only because there are changes in conditions of demand, while the price of the commodity remains constant. The demand curve can shift either to the right or to the left, depending upon the changes in the conditions of demand. The shift in the demand curve is shown as follows:

Factors Influencing Demand (determinants) There are indeed several factors which affect the quantity demanded for a certain product. 1. Change in the price of the commodity itself:

Changes in the price of the commodity will lead to changes in quantity demanded. For instance, a rise in the price of good X will lead to a fall in quantity demanded for good X. This is because good X is now more expensive and consumers buy less.

2. Change in real income: A change in real income means that there is a change in the quantity of goods and services money income can buy. For most goods, an increased in real income will lead to an increase in demand.

3. Tastes and fashion: Demand depends on the individuals taste which is controlled and influenced by advertising and sales promotion. A change in consumer tastes in favour of a good can increase the demand for that commodity. This may be attributed to a successful advertising campaign. Similarly, if a commodity is in fashion, demand will rise.

4. Changes in the prices of complements and substitutes: Demand for a commodity depends much on the price of its complementary goods. If the price of a complementary good falls, demand for the product will rise.

For example, if the price of car falls, demand for petrol will increase. This is because more people will buy cars, and hence, more petrol. Thus, there exists an inverse relationship between demand for a commodity and the price of its complements.

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Demand for a commodity is also influenced by changes in the price of its substitutes. If the price of substitutes increases, demand for a commodity will also increase.

For example, if the price of tea increases, demand for coffee will also increase. This is because people will buy less tea, and therefore, they will shift to coffee. Thus, there exists a direct relationship between demand for a commodity and the price of its substitutes.

5. Changes in population: When the size of the total population changes, demand for goods and services would generally change. An increase in total population would generally lead to an increase in demand. However, the pattern of demand depends on the composition of the population in terms of age and sex. An increase in old age people would mean a greater demand for walking sticks, spectacles. An increase in young people would mean greater demand for CD players. On the other hand, more females in the population indicate that demand for goods and services consumed by women will rise.

6. Expectation of future changes in price: Expectations by consumers of future changes in prices would affect demand. For example, if consumers expect future increases in the price of a commodity, then they will buy more of it now in order to avoid paying a higher price for it later.

7. Changes in distribution of income: Demand is also affected by changes in the distribution of income within a society. Incomes could be redistributed to achieve greater equality of income by taxing the rich and subsidizing the poor. This would leave the poor with more money, thus, increasing their demand for goods and services.

8. Government policy income tax: If government imposes high income tax rate or lowers transfer payments, this would lead to a fall in disposable incomes, thus reducing demand for the commodities.

9. Saving and Rate of interest: An individuals desire to save would influence his demand for commodities. An increase in savings would lead to a fall in demand since the individual forgoes present consumption in order to save. But what encourages people to save is the rate of interest. Hence, an increase in rate of interest will cause demand to fall.

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Elasticity Elasticity A general concept used to quantify the response in one variable when another variable changes. Type of Elasticity

Price elasticity o Price elasticity of demand o Price elasticity of Supply o

Income Elasticity

Cross elasticity Price elasticity of demand

We define price elasticity of demand simply as the ratio of the percentage of change in Quantity demanded to the percentage change in price.

Percentage changes should always carry the sign (plus or minus) of the change. Positive Changes, or increases, take a (+). Negative changes, or decreases, take a ().

The law of demand implies that price elasticity of demand is nearly always a negative number. Price increases (+) will lead to decreases in quantity demanded (), and vice versa.

Measuring Price elasticity of Demand

Price elasticity of supply = change in quantity supplied * initial price

Change in price. Initial quantity supplied

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Types of Elasticity Demand for most goods is elastic, inelastic or unitary depending on whether its coefficient is greater than, less than or equal to one. Demand is said to be elastic when a percentage change in price brings about a more than proportionate change in quantity demanded.

Perfectly inelastic demand Demand in which quantity demanded does not respond at all to a change in price.

Inelastic demand Demand is said to be inelastic when a percentage change in price brings about a less than proportionate change in quantity demanded.

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Unitary elastic Demand is said to be unitary when a percentage change in price brings about an equal proportionate change in quantity demanded. The coefficient of elasticity is equal to 1 (PED = 1). Elastic demand Inelastic demand occurs when the percentage change in quantity demanded is less than the percentage change in price, and the coefficient of the elasticity is less than 1 (PED < 1). Perfectly elastic demand Demand in which quantity drops to zero at the slightest increase in price.

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Relationship between price and total revenue depending upon price elasticity of demand Total Revenue (TR) / Total Expenditure (TE) = Price (P) * Quantity (Q)

Whether total expenditure or total revenue rises, falls or remains constant with a change in price depends on the price elasticity of demand of the commodity.

1. Price Elastic:

When demand is elastic, an increase in price causes TR to fall and a decrease in price causes TR to rise. Thus, there exists an inverse relationship between price and total revenue or total expenditure when demand is elastic.

2. Price Inelastic: When demand is inelastic, an increase in price causes TR to rise and a decrease in price causes TR to fall. Thus, there exists an direct relationship between price and total revenue or total expenditure when demand is inelastic.

3. Demand is unitary:

When demand is unitary, TR / TE remains the same with a change in price. A rise or fall in price causes TR / TE to remain unchanged.

Factors influencing price elasticity of demand: There are various factors which influence the price elasticity of demand.

1. Nature of commodity: (a)Necessities: The demand for necessities is inelastic because when their prices rise, the consumers demand will fall very slightly. (b)Luxuries: Demand for luxuries is elastic. If their prices fall, demand will increase by a much greater percentage, but if their prices rise, consumers will reduce their demand considerably.

2. Availability of substitutes:

The more close and numerous availability of substitutes a commodity has, the more will be its price elasticity of demand, that is, demand is price elastic. This is because if the price of a commodity rises, consumers would then shift to other substitutes. Thus, the demand for the commodity will fall by a greater proportion. But fewer substitutes a commodity has, the lower is the price elasticity of demand (inelastic). However, demand for a group of commodity as a whole has an inelastic demand.

3. Proportion of income spent on a commodity:

Commodities on which a very low proportion of income is spent, the demand for the product is inelastic. For example, an increase in the price of match box from 50 cents to 60 cents (20%) will not reduce quantity demanded to a larger extent. On the other hand, commodities on which a large proportion of income is spent, the demand is elastic.

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4. Number of uses of a product:

A product, which has several uses, has an elastic demand. For example, people use electricity for many purposes. A slight fall in the price of electricity will cause quantity demanded to increase by a larger extent. Consumers will be in a position to afford its use even for less important purposes. On the other hand, a product, which has a single use, has an inelastic demand, for example, toothpaste.

5. Habit:

There are certain goods which people consume because they have developed a habit, for example, cigarettes for a chain-smoker. Once consumers develop a habit for a particular commodity, they will continue to demand even if the price increases. Thus, the demand for these commodities is inelastic since quantity demanded will change very slightly to a change in price.

6. Time period: Demand tends to be more elastic in the long run than in the short run. This is because it takes time for consumers to develop satisfactory substitutes. For example, if the price of petrol rises, consumers will find it very difficult to switch from petrol to diesel immediately. Thus, in the short run, demand for petrol will fall by a smaller percentage.

7. Price of commodity itself: Demand is generally more elastic at higher level of prices than at lower levels. This is because at a lower price level, consumers can be expected to be already buying as much of the commodity as he desires. Thus, a further decline in price is unlikely to induce him to raise his demand for that commodity.

Evaluation of PED

However, the firm cannot only rely on the concept of price elasticity of demand to increase revenue. The data of price elasticity of demand do not reveal absolute truths. They are based on survey carried out on small sample of consumers. Hence, they cannot be completely accurate. Moreover, the concept of price elasticity of demand is calculated on the basis of all other factors affecting demand remain constant. But, in practice, demand keeps changing due to changes in other factors too. Besides, the concept of price elasticity of demand is useful for the producer in order to increase revenue. But in fact, the producer aims to maximise profits. Hence, the firm needs to know more about its costs. If the firm faces an inelastic demand curve, pushing up prices will reduce output, and therefore, costs will fall at the same time. With revenue rising, and costs falling, profits must go up. But the firm has a more difficult decision if facing an elastic demand curve. If price is lowered, this will also increase output, and therefore, costs.

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Income Elasticity of Demand: Income elasticity of demand measures the degree of responsiveness of quantity demanded to a change in income of consumers. Income elasticity of demand is calculated as follows:

Income elasticity of demand = percentage change in quantity demanded Percentage change in income.

OR Income elasticity of demand = Type of Goods with Income Elasticity

The coefficient of income elasticity of demand can be positive or negative depending upon the nature of the commodity.

In other words, demand might increase or decrease in response to a rise in income, depending upon whether the product is a normal good or an inferior good.

Normal Goods

The demand for normal goods increases as income increases, and therefore, the value of the income elasticity of demand is positive. It indicates the direct relationship between income and demand for normal goods.

However, it is important to distinguish between 2 types of normal goods namely luxuries and necessities. Though positive, the value of income elasticity of demand differs accordingly.

For a luxury, the value of income elasticity of demand is greater than 1, implying that the percentage increase in quantity demanded is larger than the percentage increase income. The commoditys demand is income elastic. On the other hand, for a necessity, the value of income elasticity of demand is less than 1, implying that the percentage increase in quantity demanded is smaller than the percentage increase income. The commoditys demand is income inelastic.

Inferior Goods

However, with inferior goods, as income rises demand falls and the coefficient of income elasticity of demand is therefore negative. It indicates the inverse relationship between income and demand for inferior goods.

An exceptional case is that demand will remain constant as income rises. In this case there is said to be zero income elasticity of demand.

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Usefulness of knowledge of income elasticity of demand

A knowledge of income elasticity of demand is useful to a manufacturer as it helps him to plan his sales and allocate resources more efficiently in order to maximise profits should there be any change in consumers income. Indeed, the producer must take into account the economic situation of the country.

To plan the demand , If the country experiences economic growth, national income will rise, and this rise in income will be shared among most households. As the latter finds their income increasing, they increase their demand for many commodities.

o However, even products with positive income elasticities, there is a great variability of response. For instance, with commodities for which income elasticity of demand is inelastic, although demand may rise with income, it might not rise faster. The booming industries tend to be those making products which are highly income elastic.

o On the other hand, a downturn in national income may well mean a rapid decline in the demand for positive income elasticities. Hence, only in such an economic situation should inferior goods be promoted.

Cross elasticity of Demand: Cross elasticity of demand measures the degree of responsiveness of quantity demanded of one commodity to a change in the price of another commodity. If two goods X and Y are taken, cross elasticity of demand of X in relation to the price of Y is calculated as follows:

CEDXY = percentage change in quantity demanded of X Percentage change in price of Y XED based on Goods The coefficient of cross elasticity of demand can be positive or negative depending upon the nature of interrelationship between the two commodities.

o If the tow goods are substitutes, then the value of cross elasticity of demand is positive as changes in price of the commodity will lead to changes in quantity demanded of another commodity in the same direction.

o If, the two goods are complements, then the value of cross elasticity of demand is negative, indicating the inverse relationship between quantity demanded of one commodity and the price of its complementary goods.

o The value of cross elasticity of demand may vary from - to + . But if the two goods are non-related, the cross elasticity of demand is zero.

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Usefulness of knowledge of cross elasticity of demand:

The concept of cross elasticity of demand becomes more relevant in determining price structure in an oligopolistic market situation where few firms compete with each other.

These firms are interdependent in decision making, and as a result, ignoring cross elasticity might prove to be disastrous.

The concept of cross elasticity of demand allows the producer to identify whether his product is a complement or a substitute which is produced by other firms. Hence, he is able to assess the impact of sales and make better business decisions regarding price and output polices when prices for substitutes or complements change.

o If the cross elasticity of demand is positive, it means that a cut in price by a rival business will significantly reduce the firms sales.

o On the other hand, if the value of cross elasticity of demand is negative, the producer must be cautious when supplying the commodities. If the price of its complements rises, it is not advisable for the producer to increase production.

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THEORY OF SUPPLY Quantity supplied: The amount of a particular product that a firm would be willing and able to offer for sale at a particular price during a given time period. Supply schedule: A table showing how much of a product firms will sell at alternative prices. A supply curve is a graphical depiction of a supply schedule. It shows how the quantity supplied of some product will change as the price of that product changes during a specified period of time, holding all other determinants of quantity supplied constant.

law of supply: The positive relationship between price and quantity of a good supplied An increase in market price will lead to an increase in quantity supplied, and a decrease in market price will lead to a decrease in quantity supplied.

Explaining the Law of Supply : There are three main reasons why supply curves for most products are drawn as sloping upwards from left to right giving a positive relationship between the market price and quantity supplied:

1. The profit motive: When the market price rises (for example after an increase in consumer demand), it becomes more profitable for businesses to increase their output. Higher prices send signals to firms that they can increase their profits by satisfying demand in the market.

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2. Production and costs: When output expands, a firms production costs rise, therefore a higher price is needed to justify the extra output and cover these extra costs of production.

3. New entrants coming into the market: Higher prices may create an incentive for other businesses to enter the market leading to an increase in supply.

Supply Function Supply Equation

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Factors Influencing Market Supply Curve 1. The price of the good itself:

Changes in the price of the commodity will lead to changes in quantity supplied of that commodity. For instance, a rise in the price of good X will lead to a rise in quantity supplied of good X. This is because good X is now more profitable and producers supply more of it.

2. Weather / climatic conditions: The supply of agricultural products is affected by changes in weather conditions. A favorable climatic condition may bring bumper (abundant) harvest so that producers supply more of the agricultural products. On the other hand, an unfavorable season which results in a poor harvest may cause quantity supplied to fall

3. Technical progress: Technical progress means improvements in the performance of machines, labour, production methods, management control and quality. This allows more to be produced and supplied.

4. Changes in the prices / costs of factors of production: Movement in wages, prices of raw materials, fuel and power, rents, interest rates and other factor prices affects the cost of production. For instance, increase in wages paid to workers increases the cost of production and reduces the profits of firms. Hence, firms will supply less goods.

5. Government policy Indirect taxation and Subsidies: Governments can also influence supply. If the government wants firms to produce more, it may give them a subsidy which will lower their costs, boost their profits and increase supply. However, if government imposes indirect taxes on goods and services to the producers, supply will fall because of the increase in costs of production. Note: Indirect taxes increase cost of production and cause supply to fall (shift to the left), whereas subsidies reduce cost of production and cause supply to rise (shift to the right).

Movement along the Supply Curve and a Shift In The Supply Curve A movement along the supply curve occurs when quantity supplied changes because of a change in the price of the commodity alone, while other factors affecting supply remain constant. In fact, when a supply curve is drawn, only the price of the product is allowed to vary, while the conditions of supply do not change. The movement along the supply curve is shown as follows:

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A shift in the supply curve or a change in supply occurs when quantity supplied changes only because there are changes in conditions of supply such as weather conditions, prices of factor inputs, etc, while the price of the commodity remains constant. The supply curve can shift either to the right or to the left, depending upon the changes in the conditions of demand. The shift in the demand curve is shown as follows:

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Elasticity of Supply The law of supply, which expresses a direct relationship between quantity supplied and price, shows only the direction of supply. Measuring Elasticity of Supply Price elasticity of supply measures the degree of responsiveness of quantity supplied to a change in the price of the commodity. Price elasticity of supply is calculated as follows:

Price elasticity of supply = percentage change in quantity supplied Percentage change in price.

OR Price elasticity of supply = change in quantity supplied * initial price Change in price. Initial quantity supplied

Price elasticity of supplied is always positive, indicating the direct relationship between quantity supplied and price.

Supply for most goods is either elastic, inelastic or unitary depending on whether its coefficient is greater than, less than or equal to one.

Types of Elasticity Perfectly inelastic supply Perfectly inelastic supply curve value of price elasticity of supply is zero. Inelastic supply Any straight line supply curve that meets the vertical axis (Price axis) will be elastic and its value is greater than 1.

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Unitary Elastic Supply Any straight line supply curves passing through the origin whatever the slopes have unitary price elasticity of supply and its value is equal to 1. Elastic supply 2. A straight line supply curve that meets the horizontal axis (Quantity axis) will be inelastic and its value is less than 1. Perfectly elastic supply Perfectly elastic supply curve - The coefficient of elasticity is equal to infinity. Nothing is supplied at any price below 0P, while an infinite quantity is supplied at price 0P.

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Factors Influencing Price Elasticity of supply: 1. Time periods:

The elasticity of supply tends to be greater in the long run than in the short run because it is easier to increase the amount produced when the firm has more time in which to do it. It may be difficult to change quantities supplied in response to a price increase in the short run.

E.g. This is obvious if one considers agricultural products. Suppose that the price of an agricultural product rises unexpectedly.

2. Availability of resources: If a firm wishes to expand production, it will need more resources. If the economy is already using most of its scarce resources, then firms will find it difficult to employ more, and therefore, output will not rise.

3. Availability of stocks: When suppliers are holding large stocks, supply will be elastic. This is because any increase in demand can be easily met by running down the stocks. However, once the stocks are depleted, it may be very difficult to increase output, and therefore, supply will be inelastic.

4. Producing at full or below capacity: In some industries the expansion of capacity takes a long time. Once such industries operate at full capacity, supply will be inelastic. However, if industries operate below full capacity, supply will be elastic.

5. Risk taking: The more willing entrepreneurs are to take risks the greater will be the elasticity of supply. This will be partly influenced by the system of incentives in the economy. If the rates of taxes are very high, this may reduce the elasticity of supply.

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Market equilibrium A situation in which the supply of an item is exactly equal to its demand. Since there is neither surplus nor shortage in the market, price tends to remain stable in this situation.

Market clearing

Equilibrium price is also called market clearing price because at this price the exact quantity that producers take to market will be bought by consumers, and there will be nothing left over. This is efficient because there is neither an excess of supply and wasted output, nor a shortage the market clears efficiently. This is a central feature of the price mechanism, and one of its significant benefits

How is equilibrium established?

Graphically, we say that demand contracts inwards along the curve and supply extends outwards along the curve. Both of these changes are called movements along the demand or supply curve in response to a price change.

Excess demand

Excess supply

Excess demand price

Excess supply price

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Consumer and producer surplus

Consumer surplus

Consumer surplus is derived whenever the price a consumer actually pays is less than they are prepared to pay. A demand curve indicates what price consumers are prepared to pay for a hypothetical quantity of a good, based on their expectation of private benefit.

For example, at price P, the total private benefit in terms of utility derived by consumers from consuming quantity, Q is shown as the area ABQC in the diagram.

The amount consumers actually spend is determined by the market price they pay, P, and the quantity they buy, Q - namely, P x Q, or area PBQC. This means that there is a net gain to the consumer, because area ABQC is greater that area PBQC. This net gain is called consumer surplus, which is the total benefit, area ABQC, less the amount spent, area PBQC. Hence ABQC - PBQC = area ABP

Producer surplus

Producer surplus is the additional private benefit to producers, in terms of profit, gained when the price they receive in the market is more than the minimum they would be prepared to supply for. In other words they received a reward that more than covers their costs of production.

The producer surplus derived by all firms in the market is the area from the supply curve to the price line, EPB.

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Economic welfare

Economic welfare is the total benefit available to society from an economic transaction or situation.

Economic welfare is also called community surplus. Welfare is represented by the area ABE in the diagram below, which is made up of the area for consumer surplus, ABP plus the area for producer surplus, PBE.

In market analysis economic welfare at equilibrium can be calculated by adding consumer and producer surplus. Welfare analysis considers whether economic decisions by individuals, organisations, and the government increase or decrease economic welfare.

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Changes in equilibrium

Graphically, changes in the underlying factors that affect demand and supply will cause shifts in

the position of the demand or supply curve at every price.

Whenever this happens, the original equilibrium price will no longer equate demand with

supply, and price will adjust to bring about a return to equilibrium.

There are four basic causes of a price change:

An increase in demand shifts the demand curve to the right, and raises price and output.

Demand shifts to the right

Demand shifts to the left

A decrease in demand shifts the demand curve to the left and reduces price and output.

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Supply shifts to the right

An increase in supply shifts the supply curve to the right, which reduces price and increases

output.

Supply shifts to the left

A decrease in supply shifts the supply curve to the left, which raises price but reduces output.

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The entry and exit of firms

In a competitive market, firms may enter or leave with little difficulty. Firms may be attracted into a market for a number of reasons, but particularly because of the expectation of profit. This causes the market supply curve to shift to the right. Rising prices may provide a sufficient incentive and provide a signal to potential entrants to enter the market.

There is a chain reaction, starting with an increase in demand, from D to D1. This raises price to P1, which provides the incentive for existing firms to supply more, from Q to Q1. The higher price also provides the incentive for new firms to enter, and as they do the supply curve shifts from S to S1. A market where prices are rising provides the best opportunity for the entrepreneur. Conversely, lower prices encourage firms to leave the market.

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Impact of producer taxes on market operations Taxes on goods and services A value-added tax levied on most goods and services sold for domestic consumption. The tax is levied in order to provide revenue for the federal government. The Goods and Services Tax is paid by consumers, but it is levied and remitted to the government by businesses.

Specific tax/unit tax &

A per unit tax, or specific tax, is a tax that is defined as a fixed amount for each unit of a good or service sold, such as cents per kilogram. It is thus proportional to the particular quantity of a product sold, regardless of its price. Excise taxes, for instance, fall into this tax category.

Ad valorem tax By contrast, an ad valorem tax is a charge based on a fixed percentage of the product value. Per unit taxes have administrative advantages when it is easy to measure quantities of the product or service being sold

Impact of taxes

Graphical method Unit Tax Graphical method Ad valorem tax

Equations

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Impact of taxes Equation Method Unit Tax Ad valorem tax - Removed From Syllabus Distribution tax incidence according demand and supply elasticity

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Effects of subsidies on market operations

Producer subsidies

A subsidy is a payment by the government to suppliers that reduce their costs of production and encourages them to increase output

The subsidy causes the firm's supply curve to shift to the right

The amount spent on the subsidy is equal to the subsidy per unit multiplied by total output

A direct subsidy to the consumer has the effect of boosting demand in a market

Different Types of Producer Subsidy

A guaranteed payment on the factor cost of a product e.g. a guaranteed minimum price offered to farmers such as under the old-style Common Agricultural Policy (CAP).

An input subsidy which subsidises the cost of inputs used in production e.g. an employment subsidy for taking on more workers.

Government grants to cover losses made by a business e.g. a grant given to cover losses in the railway industry or a loss-making airline.

Bail-outs e.g. for financial organisations in the wake of the credit crunch

Financial assistance (loans and grants) for businesses setting up in areas of high

unemployment e.g. as part of a regional policy designed to boost employment.

Economic and Social Justifications for Subsidies

Why might the government be justified in providing financial assistance to producers in certain markets and industries? How valid are the arguments for government subsidies?

1. To keep prices down and control inflation in the last couple of years several countries have been offering fuel subsidies to consumers and businesses in the wake of the steep increase in world crude oil prices.

2. To encourage consumption of merit goods and services which are said to generate positive externalities (increased social benefits). Examples might include subsidies for investment in environmental goods and services.

3. Reduce the cost of capital investment projects which might help to stimulate economic growth by increasing long-run aggregate supply.

4. Subsidies to slow-down the process of long term decline in an industry e.g. fishing or mining

5. Subsidies to boost demand for industries during a recession e.g. the car scrappage scheme

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Economic Arguments against Subsidies

The economic and social case for a subsidy should be judged carefully on the grounds of efficiency and fairness

Might the money used up in subsidy payments be better spent elsewhere?

Government subsidies inevitably carry an opportunity cost and in the long run there might be better ways of providing financial support to producers and workers in specific industries.

Free market economists argue that subsidies distort the working of the free market mechanism and can lead to government failure where intervention leads to a worse distribution of resources.

Distortion of the Market: Subsidies distort market prices for example, export subsidies distort the trade in goods and services and can curtail the ability of ELDCs to compete in the markets of rich nations.

Arbitrary Assistance: Decisions about who receives a subsidy can be arbitrary

Financial Cost: Subsidies can become expensive note the opportunity cost!

Who pays and who benefits? The final cost of a subsidy usually falls on consumers (or tax-payers) who themselves may have derived no benefit from the subsidy.

Encouraging inefficiency: Subsidy can artificially protect inefficient firms who need to restructure i.e. it delays much needed reforms.

Risk of Fraud: Ever-present risk of fraud when allocating subsidy payments.

There are alternatives: It may be possible to achieve the objectives of subsidies by alternative means which have less distorting effects.

Impact of Subsidy

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Impact of Subsidy Equation Method Unit Tax Ad valorem tax - Removed From Syllabus Distribution tax incidence according demand and supply elasticity

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MARKET STABILIZATION

Price stabilization schemes

Many primary markets are subject to extreme fluctuations in price. There are several methods of intervention available to governments and agencies

Buffer stocks

Buffer stocks are stocks of produce which have not yet been taken to market. They can help stabilise prices by taking surplus output and putting it into a store, or, with a bad harvest, stock is released from storage.

A target price can be achieved through intervention buying and selling.

Evaluation of buffer stocks

While buffer stocks can help stabilise price, there are several disadvantages, including:

1. Additional costs to society, such as building costs, extra storage, insurance and costs of managing the scheme.

2. Furthermore, some commodities cannot easily be stored because they are perishable.

3. The system relies on starting with a good harvest, indeed, without stocks in the system it is not possible to react to a poor harvest.

4. Buffer stocks do not prevent the initial problem from arising.

5. Critics argue that they distort the operation of free markets and prevent the price mechanism working effectively.

CEILINGS AND FLOORS

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The buffer stock managers are likely to establish a price ceiling, above which intervention selling will occur, and a price floor, below which intervention buying will take place.

Guaranteed prices

Guaranteeing a price to producers (at P1 in the diagram below), irrespective of the output they produce, is another way of stabilising prices and incomes.

A government or agency can establish a target price, and then guarantee to pay farmers and growers this price, whatever output is produced. If the market price rises above this guarantee, the market price will prevail. But if the market price falls below the guarantee, then the guaranteed price will prevail.

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However, they can also be criticised because:

1. They encourage over-production creating a surplus of Q2 to Q1.This problem is particularly associated with the EUs Common Agricultural Policy (CAP).

2. They can promote inefficiency. For example, farmers may question whether it is worth bothering to be efficient if they are guaranteed a buyer.

3. There are also extra costs of storage or disposal.

Maximum control prices

The government or an industry regulator can set a maximum price in an attempt to prevent the market price from rising above a certain level. One aim of this might be to prevent the monopolistic exploitation of consumers

To be effective a maximum price has to be set below the free market price.

One example might be when shortage of foodstuffs threatens large rises in the free market price.

Other examples include rent controls on properties for example the system of rent controls still in place in Manhattan in the United States.

A maximum price seeks to control the price but also involves a normative judgement on behalf of the government about what that price should be. An example of a maximum price is shown in the next diagram.

The normal equilibrium price is shown at Pe but the government imposes a maximum price of Pmax. This price ceiling creates excess demand equal to quantity Q2-Q2 because the price has been held below the equilibrium.

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Maximum prices and consumer and producer welfare

How does the introduction of a price ceiling affect consumer and producer surplus? This is shown in the next diagram. At the original equilibrium price consumer surplus = triangle ABPe and producer surplus equals the triangle PeBC.

Because of the maximum price ceiling, the quantity supplied contracts to output Q2. Consumers gain from the price being set artificially lower than the equilibrium, but there is a loss of consumer welfare because of the reduction in the quantity traded. At P max the new level of consumer surplus = the trapezium ADEPmax. Producer surplus is reduced to a lower level Pmax EC. There has been a net reduction in economic welfare shown by the triangle DBE.

Black Markets

A black market (or shadow market) is an illegal market in which the market price is higher than a legally imposed price ceiling. Black markets develop where there is excess demand for a commodity. Some consumers are prepared to pay higher prices in black markets in order to get

the goods or services they want.

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Minimum control prices

A minimum price is a price floor below which the market price cannot fall. To be effective the minimum price has to be set above the equilibrium price

The best example of a minimum price is a minimum wage in the labour market

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Price Mechanism Price Mechanism is a system where, the private sector allocates scarce resources or solves basic economic problems of an economy based on the market prices of goods and services which is decided through the intention of free market forces of demand and supply. Function of Prices in the Market

The price mechanism describes the means by which millions of decisions taken by consumers and businesses interact to determine the allocation of scarce resources between competing uses

The price mechanism plays three important functions in a market:

1. Signaling function

Prices perform a signalling function they adjust to demonstrate where resources are required, and where they are not

Prices rise and fall to reflect scarcities and surpluses

If prices are rising because of high demand from consumers, this is a signal to suppliers to expand production to meet the higher demand

If there is excess supply in the market the price mechanism will help to eliminate a surplus of a good by allowing the market price to fall.

In the example on the right, an increase in market supply causes a fall in the relative prices of digital cameras and prompts an expansion along the market demand curve

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2. Incentive function

Through their choices consumers send information to producers about the changing nature of needs and wants

Higher prices act as an incentive to raise output because the supplier stands to make a better profit.

When demand is weaker in a recession then supply contracts as producers cut back on output.

3. Rationing function

Prices serve to ration scarce resources when demand in a market outstrips supply.

When there is a shortage, the price is bid up leaving only those with the willingness and ability to pay to purchase the product. Be it the demand for tickets among England supporters for an Ashes cricket series or the demand for a rare antique, the market price acts a rationing device to equate demand with supply.

The popularity of auctions as a means of allocating resources is worth considering as a means of allocating resources and clearing a market.

Maximizing Behavior

To say that individuals maximize is to say that they pick some objective and then seek to maximize its value.

Economists pay special attention to two groups of maximizers: consumers and firms. We assume that consumers seek to maximize utility and that firms seek to maximize economic profit. The difference between total revenue and total cost, which is the difference between total revenue and total cost.

Judging the Market

Economists are interested in knowing how to judge whether market are the best way of allocating resources. There are two main ways in which they do this,

o Whether markets are efficient in resources allocation

o Whether equity is there in the economy

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Practice Questions

1) Calculate the producer surplus for the supply curves of S1 and S2 in following diagram.

2) Answer the questions using the diagram given below.

a. Identify the equilibrium price and quantity before and after government taxation.

b. What is the total amount of tax borne by the consumer?

c. What is the total tax income after the implementation of taxation?

d. Calculate the producer surplus before and after the implementation taxation?

e. Calculate the consumer surplus before and after the implementation taxation?

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3) Consider the following data regarding a product in a perfect competitive market,

Qd= 20-2P Qs=2P a. Draw the demand and supply curve according to the given data.

b. Assume government decides to provide 20% subsidy to the producers of this

product, draw the new supply curve.

c. Calculate the producer surplus and consumer surplus before and after the

provision of subsidy.

d. Identify the cost of government subsidy? Calculate the consumers subsidy benefit

and producers subsidy benefit?

4) Data of a product are given below,

Price Demand Supply

20 500 100

100 100 500

a. Draw the demand and supply curve and identify the equilibrium price and quantity.

b. Assume there is 50% VAT on this product. Show that in your graph.

c. What is the new equilibrium price and quantity?

d. Calculate the government tax income?

e. Calculate the tax burden of both the producer and the consumer?

f. Calculate the producer surplus and consumer surplus before and after tax.

g. Calculate the economic loss?


Price Demand Supply

2 500 -100

4 400 0

6 300 100

8 200 200

10 100 300


b. At the equilibrium point, calculate the price elasticity of demand and price

elasticity of supply?

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c. Identify the price for excess demand at100 units.

d. Identify the price for excess supply at 300 units.

e. If government introduces a maximum control price of Rs.6, what would be the

total demand, local supply, excess demand, black market price and excess income

for the producers?

f. Calculate the consumer surplus and producer surplus at the maximum control

price.

g. What government can do to protect the control price?


Price 2 4 6 8 10 12

Demand 100 80 60 40 20 0

Supply 0 20 40 60 80 100


b. Calculate the consumer surplus and producer surplus at the equilibrium point.

c. Assume that the government introduces a minimum control price of Rs.8; identify

the

d. Total supply, local demand, excess supply and the price requested by the

consumers.

e. In order to protect the control price what actions can be taken by the government?

f. Calculate the consumer surplus and producer surplus at the minimum control

price.


Price Demand Supply

1 250 50

5 50 250

a. Draw the demand and supply curve and identify the equilibrium price and quantity. b. Calculate the consumer surplus and producer surplus at the equilibrium point. c. Assume government plans to provide 50% subsidy per unit, draw the new supply

curve. d. Calculate the changes in consumer surplus and producer surplus after the

provision on subsidy. e. Calculate the benefit from subsidy for the consumer and producer. f. Identify the total government expenditure for subsidy.

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Price Demand Supply

4 200 40

20 40 200


b. Assume the government introduces a unit tax of Rs.4 per unit; show that in your

graph.

c. Calculate the consumer surplus and producer surplus before and after tax.

d. Calculate the economic loss.


Price Demand Supply

4 200 -50

6 150 0

8 100 50

10 50 100

12 0 150

14 -50 200


b. Calculate the consumer surplus and producer surplus at the equilibrium point.

c. Assume the government introduces a unit subsidy of Rs.2 per unit; show that in

your graph.

d. Identify the total government expenditure for subsidy.

e. Calculate the benefit from subsidy for the consumer and producer.

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Price Demand Supply

20 6000 0

120 1000 7000


b. Identify the following using your graph.

Excess demand at Rs.50

Excess supply at Rs.100

Excess demand price at 2000 units

Excess supply price at 5000 units

Price elasticity of demand at equilibrium

Price elasticity of supply at equilibrium

c. Identify the demand and supply equation.

d. Identify the excess demand and excess supply equation.


a. Draw the excess demand curve and identify the equilibrium.

b. Calculate the equilibrium price by identifying the excess demand equation.

12) Assume that a price elasticity of demand of a product is -0.4 and price elasticity of supply

is 1.5. this price 1000 units are demanded and 400 units are supplied.

a. Calculate the quantity demanded and the quantity supplied at Rs.24.

b. Draw the demand and supply curves and identify the equilibrium point.

Price Excess demand

5 200

10 -200

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13) Following graph shows the change in a market after government imposing indirect tax.

Calculate the following,

a) Equilibrium price and quantity before tax?

b) quilibrium price and quantity after tax?

c) Per unit tax borne by the producer?

d) Per unit tax borne by the consumer?

e) Total tax burden for consumers?

f) Total tax burden for producers?

g) Government tax income?

h) Consumer surplus before taxation?

14) Consider the following data for a product in competitive market,

Price Demand Supply

16 5000 1000

64 2000 4000


b. Assume that this product can be imported from a neighboring country at Rs. 32, draw the

supply curve.

c. If the government introduces 25% tax on import, show that in your graph.

d. Calculate the tax income for the government?

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Price Demand Supply

1 160 0

4 80 120


b. Assume that the government introduces a minimum control price of Rs.4; show that in

your graph.

c. How much should the government purchase in order to maintain the control price?

Calculate the purchasing expense?

d. Calculate government expense for the provision of subsidy?


Price Demand Supply

4 40 0

16 10 30


b. If government introduces a maximum control price of Rs.8, what would be the total

demand, local supply, excess demand, black market price and excess income for the

producers?

c. Identify the quantity to be imported?

d. Calculate government expense for the provision of subsidy?


Price Excess supply

10 -30

30 30

Draw the excess supply curve and identify the equilibrium price.


Price Demand Supply

8 80 0

40 0 80

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b. Calculate the price elasticity of demand and price elasticity of supply at equilibrium.

c. Calculate the Consumer surplus and producer surplus at equilibrium.

19) Demand and supply equations of a product is given below,

Qd=60-4p Qs= 20-6p a. Identify the equilibrium price and quantity.

b. If the government imposes an indirect tax of Rs.2, identify the new equilibrium

price and quantity.

c. Calculate the tax burden of the consumer and the producer.

d. Calculate the government tax income.

20) Demand and supply equations of a product is given below,

Qd = 400-10P Qs = -100+15P

a. Identify the equilibrium price and quantity.

b. Assume that the government imposes a maximum control price of Rs.15,

a. late the excess demand.

b. What is the black market price

c. Calculate the local supply?

d. Calculate the amount to be imported?

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AL Economics_Unit 2 Short Notes

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Transcript of AL Economics_Unit 2 Short Notes