AL Book Uschi

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Accelerative Learning:Wonder method orpseudo-scientificgobbledygook?

By Uschi Felix

Published by

Melbourne, 2006


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Accelerative Learning: Wonder method or pseudo-

scientific gobbledygook?

By Uschi Felix

ISBN: 1 876339 46 2

Cover Design, Typesetting and Layout: Gabrielle Markus

Photography: Steph Tout

Published by CAE Press

First Published 2006

Uschi Felix. With the exception of Appendix 1 and Appendix 2copyright in this document is owned by Uschi Felix.

No parts may be reproduced by any process except with the

written permission of the copyright holders or in accordance

with the provisions of the Copyright Act.

For further information contact:

CAE Publications

Level 5, 253 Flinders Lane

Melbourne

VIC 3163

AUSTRALIA

The views expressed in this publication are those of the author

and do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of CAE.


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ACCELERATIVE LEARNING: WONDER-METHOD OR PSEUDO-SCIENTIFIC GOBBLEDYGOOK? ii i

Contents

Foreword v

Introduction

Chapter 1. Introduction 1

Part I. Background

Chapter 2. The evolution of Accelerative Learning 13

from Lozanov to the present

Introduction 13

Suggestopedia 14

Adaptations of the Lozanov model 20

Superlearning 21

Suggestive Accelerative Learning and Teaching (SALT) 28

Psychopdie 31

Summary 35

Part II. Literature Review

Chapter 3. The effects of music, relaxation and 39

suggestion in the learning environment.

Introduction 39

Music 40

Relaxation 51

Suggestion 59

General conclusions 66


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iv ACCELERATIVE LEARNING: WONDER METHOD OR PSEUDO-SCIENTIFIC GOBBLEDYGOOK?

Chapter 4 A critical analysis of the claims made for 69

Accelerative Learning

Introduction 69

Lozanovs research 70

Western research 80Non-experimental studies, Experimental

and quasi-experimental studies

General conclusions: research claims 105

Part III. Empirical Investigations

Chapter 5. A quasi-experimental investigation of the 109

effects of Accelerative Learning on behaviour,

self-concept, attitude and achievement in the natural

secondary school language class.

Introduction 109

Method 110

Results 114

Discussion 129

Chapter 6. An experimental investigation of the 135

effects of Accelerative Learning on language

learning, language self-concept and attitude in

the primary school.Introduction 135

Method 137

Results 141

Discussion 148

Chapter 7. The effects of Accelerative Learning 153

on the functional use of language in a year 10

German class.

Introduction 153Method 155

Results 161

Discussion 167

Chapter 8. Conclusions and recommendations 173

for research

Bibliography 183

Appendices 199


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ACCELERATIVE LEARNING: WONDER-METHOD OR PSEUDO-SCIENTIFIC GOBBLEDYGOOK? v

Foreword

I have long been intrigued by Suggestopedia and sought a contemporary adaptation

of the original version. Uschi Felix, a highly respected language education scholar,

provides exactly this, a contemporary, researched, thought-through adaptation.

Long controversial, Suggestopedia is one of those fringe methods that has aroused

either scepticism or cynicism, adulation or imitation; but more careful reflection

should induce us to listen, learn, adapt and reflect. Felix tackles the controversy

surrounding the method in three important new ways. First, and probably for the first

time, she assembles an illuminating overview of its evolution from Lozanovs earliestconceptualisation to the present day. Second, Felix critically examines claims made

for Suggestopedia in the entire body of research conducted into its effectiveness.

Third, she conducts three innovative investigations addressing important gaps in this

research. These studies are not only superb models of controlled research designs, but

also, again for the first time, look at affective variables, such as self-concept and

on-task behaviour in the natural school environment. Felix concludes that a great

deal of pseudo-scientific gobbledygook has been promulgated about Accelerative

Learning. However, her rigorous warts-and-all analysis also presents a substantial

body of credible, valid evidence that should persuade us to take a second look at anapproach whose core values echo what good language teachers have long embraced as

pedagogically sound. For this we should all be very grateful.

Joseph LoBianco

Professor of Language and Literacy

The University of Melbourne


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vi ACCELERATIVE LEARNING: WONDERMETHOD OR PSEUDOSCIENTIFIC GOBBLEDYGOOK?


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ACCELERATIVE LEARNING: WONDER METHOD OR PSEUDO-SCIENTIFIC GOBBLEDYGOOK? 1

Chapter 1Introduction

Kopf, Herz und Hand.

[Head, heart and hand]

Pestalozzi

Accelerative Learning, originally known as Suggestopedia, has been the subject of

confusion and controversy. Comments have ranged from the damaging at one extreme

(Scovel 1979:258):

...suggestopedy, taken as a self-contained method for language instruction,

offers at best nothing much that can be of benefit to present day, eclectic

EFL programs, and at worst nothing more than an oversold package of

pseudoscientific gobbledygook!

to the fantastic at the other (Ostrander & Schroeder 1979:43):

With the Bulgarian approach, 500 words a day was just Mach1. By 1966, a

group learned 1000 words in a day, and by 1974, a rate of 1800 words a day

was charted. In 1977, Lozanov reported, some tests showed people capable

of absorbing even 3000 words per day.

Having examined the methodfrom both a theoretical and a practical viewpoint, it can

be said with confidence that neither of the above descriptions bears a resemblance

either to the nature ofSuggestopedia or to the realistic claims that can be made for

the effectiveness of the approach.

There are several reasons for the confusion and controversy associated with

Suggestopedia. When the method emerged in Europe and North America in the late

1960s it appeared to be shrouded in mystery since only incomplete information was

available from Bulgaria. In this environment of deficient information the Western

popular press was quick to sensationalise the isolated bits of research that became

available, a practice to this day continued by some commercial enterprises for better

advertisement of their courses. To make things worse, several different versions of

the approach were introduced, some contributing substantial changes to the original

Suggestopedia. Descriptors for the approach were often used interchangeably,


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INTRODUCTION

2 ACCELERATIVE LEARNING: WONDER METHOD OR PSEUDO-SCIENTIFIC GOBBLEDYGOOK?

with Superlearning being used for commercial courses while Suggestopedia and

especially SALT (Suggestive Accelerative Learning and Teaching) were the versions

most frequently used in experimental research. The terms Accelerative learning and

Accelerated Learning also emerged. In the interest of clarity we will throughout this

book useAccelerative Learning as a generic term to refer to all versions collectively,

while individual versions will be referred to by their specific names.

Historical Background

The original version of the method was devised by Georgi Lozanov, a Bulgarian

medical doctor, psychotherapist, Yogi and educator. In the 1950s and 1960s Lozanov

was researching suggestion largely in the area of medicine, psychotherapy and

parapsychology in Sofia. This field of research became known asSuggestology. Lozanov

used suggestion in a waking state (in his view in contrast to hypnosis) in the treatment

of skin diseases, ulcers and allergies, in a limited number of organic diseases, and

for psychological disorders. He also experimented with reducing sensitivity to pain

under extreme conditions such as surgical operations. In a controversial example,

Lozanov successfully sustained anaesthetization during a hernia operation lasting

fifty minutes which was filmed and subsequently reported at the International

Psychosomatic Congress in Rome in 1967 (Lozanov 1978). Nowadays, of course, these

procedures are no longer deemed sensational and are included quite frequently in the

practice of dentistry.

Lozanov became interested in applying the principles ofSuggestology to the learning

process. Together with a team of experts he created a unique teaching approach which

he called Suggestopedia. The term simply meant what it represented linguistically,

namely learning through suggestion.

Following his experiences with suggestology and psychotherapy, Lozanov (1978)

formulated the following principles ofSuggestopedia.

Learning is characterised by joy and the absence of tension. Learning takes place on both a conscious and an unconscious level.

The learners reserve potential can be tapped through suggestion.

Joy and absence of tension

Suggestopedic classes were designed to take place in a physically pleasant

environment, away from conventional academic surroundings. Classrooms look

more like sitting rooms with comfortable easy chairs, plants and colourful posters.

Ideally, class size is restricted to a maximum of 15 students.

Overall, enjoyment and relaxation are provided inSuggestopedia through the creation


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INTRODUCTION CHAPTER 1


of what may be called apositive suggestive atmosphere. Music plays a strategic role

in this endeavour. The tone is exclusively positive and non-threatening, emphasis

is given to co-operation and support rather than to competition, and students are

encouraged to function at the highest level of their academic potential. While all this

is equally emphasised in good Communicative Teaching (Widdowson 1978, Brumfit

1979), inHumanistic Language Teaching (Moskovitz 1978) and even in more recent

constructivist approaches (Felix 2002, 2003; Jonassen 1991, 1996), Suggestopedia

has at its disposal more powerful means to realise these conditions. The unique

combination of suggestion and music has the potential to create a state of relaxed

alertness in the students which Lozanov (1978) calls concentrative psychorelaxation, a

state which is not only generally perceived as pleasant, but which is also claimed to

enhance learning (Lozanov 1978).

Unity of conscious and unconscious processesLozanov (1977:3) believes that the inhibition of unconscious functions during the

consciously directed learning process does not correspond to the natural, dialectic,

inseparable link between conscious and unconscious processes. This is not meant

to imply that unconscious functions remain completely unutilised in conventional

teaching approaches (Lozanov 1978:259). Lozanovs system simply draws more

attention to the importance of these functions and to ways in which they can

effectively be integrated into the instruction process. In practical terms this principle

is observed in suggestopedic teaching at all times. It is best demonstrated by looking

at the behaviour of the teacher and at the presentation of the materials.

The role of the teacher is paramount in Suggestopedia. Lozanov expects a great deal

from his teachers. While most of the positive characteristics he outlines (Lozanov

1978:187) are equally required in other successful teaching methods, Lozanov gives

special attention to dual plane behaviour. This means that the teachers verbal

behaviour has to be completely congruous with their unconscious non-verbal behaviour.

Paralinguistic phenomena such as gestures, mimicry, eye contact and posture are very

important in communication and especially in persuasion. Teachers will not succeed

in convincing students that learning will be easy and successful while shuffling aboutnervously and avoiding eye contact with the students. Lozanov (1978:194) suggests

that mastery of dual plane behaviour is not achieved through practice which would

render the technique artificial, but through sincerity.

Paralinguistic elements are also included in the presentation of the materials in

Suggestopedia, in particular during the introduction of materials and during the active

concert session when verbal language is accompanied by appropriate body language

(various elements are discussed in detail in Chapter 2). In this way students perceive

the language material simultaneously on a conscious and on an unconscious level.

Studies by Baur and Grzybek (1984) and Schiffler (1992) indicate that learning may


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INTRODUCTION


Chapter 3

The three major elements common to most versions of Accelerative Learning, and

which distinguish the approach from other methods with similar objectives and

strategies, are music, relaxation and suggestion. While Lozanov (1978) claims that

the combination of these elements is effective in the learning process, he has notprovided detailed empirical evidence for this claim. Subsequent research inAccelerative

Learning has, however, placed some emphasis on isolating individual elements for

investigation in order to determine the relative effectiveness and importance of each

of these elements. This chapter provides a detailed review of the relevant literature

within the field ofAccelerative Learning and in related and independent fields.

Chapter 4

Literature reviews on research findings in Accelerative Learning when used as a

complete teaching method, have so far been rather skimpy. Even major theses suchas Fassiyian (1981) and Botha (1986) are largely restricted to an uncritical report

of a small number of research studies.Furthermore, literature reviews tend not to

distinguish between different versions ofAccelerative Learning being used and, most

importantly, with the exception of Schuster (1984) and Schuster & Gritton (1985),

little or no distinction tends to be made between controlled experimental studies

and non-experimental studies in terms of the significance of findings. As a result

of this it is impossible to arrive at definite conclusions about the exact effects of

Accelerative Learning. In this chapter an attempt was made to address these problems.

A comprehensive critical review of the literature beginning with the Lozanov studiesis presented. This includes non-language studies as well as language studies in order

to determine whether the approach is particularly suited to language teaching as has

often been claimed. The major aim of the chapter is to identify the claims made for

the effectiveness ofAccelerative Learning, to examine these in the light of controlled

empirical support, and to highlight important gaps in the research.

Chapter 5

Although Accelerative Learning has been extensively used and tested in language

classes, the most important gap in the research is of controlled studies in the natural

school environment. While the claim for moderately improved achievement appears to

be reasonably well supported, claims for improved affective variables such as attitude,

self-concept and behaviour, have not been well supported overall, and particularly

not in this environment. Comparative studies have also generally not given much

attention to the teaching method used in the control groups. Our quasi-experimental

study carried out in the natural secondary school environment reported in this chapter

addresses these problems. Eight classes and five teachers at three different schools

took part in the study. Emphasis was given to the testing of affective variables with

language achievement being tested by means of broad measures only.


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INTRODUCTION CHAPTER 1


Chapter 6

Following the findings of the secondary school study which showed that use of the

Accelerative Learning approach does have the potential to improve affective variables

in this environment without compromising language achievement, it was decided to

carry out an experimental study on a smaller scale in the primary school environment.The reason for this was threefold. Firstly, a study on a smaller scale allowed for more

detailed language tests to be administered. Secondly, a study of this nature could

more easily address a possible teacher-treatment confound. Thirdly, a study in the

primary school environment could check the responsiveness of younger children to

Accelerative Learning. In this study primary school children were assigned at random

to either the experimental or control condition and teaching was carried out by the

same teacher with teacher behaviour being monitored by independent observers. All

four language skills as well as affective variables were tested.

Chapter 7

In the light of the findings of the primary school study which largely supported

those of the secondary school study regarding affective measures, and which showed

significant all round improvement in language achievement favouring the experimental

students, the question arose whether this improved performance in achievement was

solely due to improved memory skills, as has been claimed by some critics (Scovel

1979), or whether more sophisticated language skills were also affected byAccelerative

Learning. In order to administer detailed language tests, a final study was again

carried out on a small scale with one year 10 class providing the subjects. A simpletime series analysis was employed which meant that the same group of students took

part in both the experimental and the control condition. Teaching was provided by the

same teacher for both conditions with extensive checks for differential behaviour in

place. Language tests were designed to test both quantitative and qualitative aspects

of the students language use.

Chapter 8

This chapter, Conclusions, draws together the extensive information provided

previously and considers the pedagogical implications for Accelerative Learning and

for language teaching in general. It also includes a brief discussion of the limitation

of our own studies and suggestions for further research.


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10 ACCELERATIVE LEARNING: WONDERMETHOD OR PSEUDOSCIENTIFIC GOBBLEDYGOOK?

INTRODUCTION


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Part IBackground

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Chapter 2The Evolution of Accelerative Learning from

Lozanov to the present

IntroductionSo many different versions ofSuggestopedia exist that it is difficult to arrive at a

description of its structure which would cover all possible variations. A number of

adaptations are known around the world today such asSuperlearning, SALT (Suggestive

Accelerative Learning and Teaching), Psychopdie, LIND (Learning in New Dimensions),

Optimalearning andHolistic Learning. Elements have been included or omitted over

the years, some according to sound research findings, some simply at a personal whim

or more often for better commercial viability. This has resulted in confusion about the

exact structure and content of a suggestopedic course.

When interpreting research results, it is important to know precisely what form of

experimental treatment was used, since the inclusion of visualisation techniques

(SALT) or synchronised breathing (Superlearning), for example, may have an effect not

otherwise associated withSuggestopedia. Unfortunately not all studies give a detailed

description of the treatment used. Furthermore, terms, especially Superlearning and

Suggestopedia, tend to be used as synonyms even though there exist clear distinctions

between the two approaches.

One important element missing in the research is a precise description of the evolutionofSuggestopedia since its inception by Lozanov in the 1960s to the present day.

Bancroft (1978a,b), Gassner-Roberts (1986a,1986b) and Strudel (1986) point out

different versions ofSuggestopedia and Bayuk (1983) discusses the possible dangers

involved in the confusion of one method with another. Although both Baur (1980) and

Philipov (1981) refer to early and later versions ofSuggestopedia, neither elaborates

further.

The aim of this chapter is to present an analysis of the changes that have been made, as

well as to provide a detailed description of three versions ofSuggestopedia referred to

in the literature. These are the two major versionsSuperlearning and SALT, both North


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PART I BACKGROUND


American adaptations, and Psychopdie, a European version. We will endeavour to

isolate distinguishing elements between these versions and LozanovsSuggestopedia,

highlight individual contributions in terms of innovation, discuss these in the light

of the relevant research and finally, determine whether or not these constitute a

beneficial contribution toSuggestopedia.

Suggestopedia

Suggestopedia has undergone a number of changes since it was first experimentally

used by Lozanov in the early 1960s. Why some changes were made is not entirely clear.

Lozanov (1978) claims, for example, that research was carried out on the suitability

of certain types of music without giving any further details. Although he elaborates a

little in a paper given to American researchers in 1977 (in Hinkelmann 1986), no data

is available on this research in the West.

Until recently Lozanov himself never gave a clear description of a suggestopedic class.

His main publication in English Suggestology and Outlines of Suggestopedy (1978),

based on his Ph.D. thesis published in Bulgaria seven years earlier, is poorly organised

and somewhat vague when it comes to a description of what actually happens in a

suggestopedic classroom. This resulted in harsh criticism by linguists such as Scovel

(1979) who based their review of suggestopedic language teaching solely on this

publication. Bancroft (1976) suggests that there may have been a deliberate attemptto make the method inaccessible to the West and that certain items, especially those

referring to Yoga, may have been removed for political reasons prior to publication.

Barzakov (in Ostrander & Schroeder 1979) confirms the notion of secrecy surrounding

Suggestopedia in Bulgaria.

Confusion about the method became even more acute with the publication of

Superlearning (Ostrander & Schroeder 1979). This book gave an account of Lozanovs

method that consisted partly of an early version which Lozanov stopped using in the

1970s, and partly of elements that were allegedly observed in classes in Bulgaria,

but never officially acknowledged by Lozanov. Furthermore, the book elaborated

on Lozanovs method by advocating self-study courses using audio cassettes for

instruction. The result of this was that teachers went out to practice what they thought

wasSuggestopedia, often usingSuperlearning andSuggestopedia interchangeably as

a label for their method. This was particularly true for commercial courses which will

be further discussed below.

In the 1980s numerous articles appeared, particularly in Western Europe, claiming to

describeSuggestopedia. However, no two articles can be found that give an identical

account of the structure and content of the method. If we compare Suggestopdiealias Superlearning Lernen wie ein Kind (Nuber 1986), and Superlearning und


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THE EVOLUTION OF ACCELERATIVE LEARNING FROM LOZANOV TO THE PRESENT CHAPTER 2


Suggestopdie als Superlernmethoden im Fremdsprachenunterricht(Brenn 1986), for

example, it becomes obvious that Nuber is describing the American adaptation called

LIND while Brenn is clearly describingSuperlearning.

In order to throw some light on the confusion, which still exists today, we will make

an attempt to trace the development of LozanovsSuggestopedia from its first officialmodel to the latest model first described by Lozanov and Gateva in 1984. Since the

changes were made largely within the phase referred to as the suggestopedic session, we

will concentrate on this phase here, and give a description of the entire suggestopedic

cycle with the final model below.

First Model

The first description in English of what is involved in a suggestopedic session can be

found in the report of the research committee working on a project in 1965 (Lozanov1978:25):

The suggestopedic session consists of an active and a passive part. During

the active part the teacher reads the unfamiliar words and phrases three

times (with their Bulgarian translation), using a special kind of intonation.

The students listen intently following the words and phrases on a printed

program. During the passive part the students relax in a passive state of

distraction without concentrating their attention on anything in particular.

The words and phrases are read again with special intonation by the

teacher.

The special intonation referred to means that a word or short phrase was presented

three times, first in a normal speaking voice, second in a soft voice and third in a loud

voice. At what stage the translation was given is not clear from this account, nor is it

mentioned at any other stage in the book. Ostrander and Schroeder (1979) report that

it was given first, before the intoned target language material.

When exactly music was introduced to the programme is also not entirely clear. Lozanov

(1978:268) speaking of the numerous experimental variants of the suggestopedic

session, mentions that In the beginning the passive part was accompanied by pre-classical or classical music playing in the background. The passive part was therefore

termed the concert session. The active part was not accompanied by music at this

stage, but emphasis was given to a dramatic performance of the materials by the

teacher using gestures, mimicry, body language, voice intonation in short, all

possible artistic means available. During this part, students were completely alert,

following either their text or the teachers performance or both. Before the passive

part students were given relaxation exercises.

Which form the relaxation took is also vague in Lozanovs (1978) own account.

The only concrete reference to be found is: With this variant (the concert session)


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PART I BACKGROUND


verknpft ist, lsst die Suggestopdie (wie auch andere Methoden der Fremds

prachenvermittlung) wichtige Faktoren des Erwerbs unbercksichtigt.

[The language input is exclusively conducted via listening, reading and

musical-emotional backing. Because language perception in communication

is very strongly related to non-verbal elements such as eye contact, mimicry,gestures, proximity, as well as other factors of situational perception

and proprioceptive processes, Suggestopedia (as well as other methods

of language teaching) does not take into account important factors of

acquisition.]

Baur speaks of the students Wahrnehmung [perception] rather than of the production

of language items. Even though the students in Suggestopedia remain physically

passive during the presentation stages, they do not exclusively perceive and receive

the language via reading and listening. Lozanov (1978) makes it abundantly clear that

communication takes place on more than one level, namely verbal and non-verbal and

that the teacher needs to use every possible device, such as mimicry and gestures, in

order to make materials more accessible to the students. Baurs criticism, therefore,

is more appropriate regarding theSuperlearning courses produced on cassettes where

such elements cannot be included.

Baur is, however, justified in claiming that the students are not physically involved

in what he terms Gestikduring the long receptive periods in intensive suggestopedic

courses. He not only believes that the students need to practise the materials earlier

than Lozanov suggests, but that they also need to reproduce the non-verbal elementsincluded in the presentation of the materials. He emphasises (Baur & Grzybek 1984:70)

that the term Gestikhas to be broad since gestures are inevitably linked with other

non-verbal and/or paraverbal communication. In order to investigate the efficacy of

Gestik in the suggestopedic presentation phases, Baur and Grzybek (1984) carried

out a study in which 60 lexical items of Russian were presented to 203 volunteer

adult students who knew no Russian. The presentation phases were largely based on

Lozanovs first model:

First decoding (bilingual text) with the help of mimicry, gestures and

movements. Second decoding as above, but students imitate words and non-verbal

elements.

Intoned reading of the material (neutral, loud,whispering) without music.

Musical sance materials read to the playing of baroque music.

Presentation of materials took place in three different conditions as follows:

Teacher presents materials with Gestikduring the first phase.

Students reproduce materials with Gestikduring the second phase.

Teacher presents materials with Gestikduring the first phase.Students repeat materials verbally without Gestikduring the second phase.


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Teacher presents materials audio-visually.

Students repeat materials verbally.

Phases three and four of the presentation cycle remained as above and were identical

for all groups. Subjects were given a 20 item multiple choice test immediately after

the sessions and one week later. Students did not know that they were going to

be re-tested. Baur and Grzybek were particularly interested in the results after one

week since items had to be recalled from long-term memory. The results showed the

following:

An increase in retention rate after one week in the first condition.

An unchanged retention rate after one week in the second condition.

A decrease in retention rate after one week in the third condition.

These trends were highly significant for all within-group tests. Between groups the

difference between the first and second condition, as well as between the second and

third condition was significant. The difference between the first and third condition

was highly significant.

In order to integrate these findings and to provide a more balanced model in terms of

the alternation of active and passive states inSuggestopedia, Baur (1984) developed

the following structure for hisPsychopdie cycle (information is included to give some

idea about the distribution of time for the individual phases in an intensive language

course):

Psychopdie structure

Preparation

Before the course begins students are informed about the nature of the course

and introduced to the relaxation techniques used. Baur does not specify the time

involved.

Presentation

Introduction Phase

The first 20 minutes of the course are spent decoding the new materials in a livelymanner integrating non-verbal elements to bring the text alive. This part is identical

to the beginning of Lozanovs presentation session, although the short duration

suggests that fewer lexical items are introduced here. Baur (1984:309) stresses that

the role of the teachers use ofKinesik, GestikandMimikis not to convey the meaning

of the text, since its translation is given, but to activate the interest of the learner

and to superimpose on the text characteristics which are perceived via a multitude of

channels and are stored as secondary associations which aids in the retention of the

materials.


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PART I BACKGROUND


Reproduction Phase

The next 90 minutes are spent with active reproduction of the text by the students

through interactive exercises. This phase does not exist in this position in any other

model of Accelerative Learning; the exercises described here, such as role play and

introductions, are part of the review and elaboration sessions in all the other models.In a sense Baur distributes the activities for review and elaboration over two sessions.

In this session the learners are to be made familiar with the text so that items used

in the activation session are easily recognised. They are given the opportunity to

develop their playful-creative fantasy, to lose their fear of speaking, to realise that

it can be fun to operate in the target language, and with the integration of physical

activities overcome their passive involvement in the learning process.

Analytical Phase

This 40 minute session is largely based on the second model of Lozanovs active concertsession. Baur (1984:313) points out that here the cognitive-analytical abilities of the

learners are activated through the reading of the text, the recognition of word and

syllable divisions, the comparison of mother tongue and target language structures,

and the comparison of phonetics and spelling.

Associative Phase

This session of 30 minutes is largely based on the first model of Lozanovs passive

concert session. Before this session the students have a relaxation period with

physical exercises and visualisation exercises. The placement of a relaxation session

here, although different from the other models discussed earlier (except Lozanovs first

model), is supported by some other practitioners ofAccelerative Learning. Stockwell

(1985), for instance, feels that students, especially in intensive courses, do not need

relaxation at the beginning of the course but at this stage. Baur (1984:315) points

out that here the logical-analytical processes of the left hemisphere, which were

predominant in the phase before, give way to right hemisphere dominated processes.

Now the materials are again perceived holistically with the superimposition of the

musical structures.

Activation

Baur stresses that before this session at least one night of rest should be given to

consolidate the materials. The next four to six hours are spent with the activation of

materials in playful communicative situations. Emphasis is put on the development

of spontaneous speaking, although writing skills and grammar are also included. Baur

(1984:319) believes that because materials were already presented in a playful fashion

during the reproduction phase, the transfer from input to activation and functional

use is more natural than inSuggestopedia.

Psychopdie appears to be a well designed adaptation ofSuggestopedia for intensive


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language teaching. Baur, too, points out that his model can be adapted for different

learning environments, provided that the relationship of time and phases is held

constant. The main difference between this model and Lozanovs model is the

inclusion of a reproduction phase before the concert sessions. In the Lozanov model

as in Superlearning andSALT the students remain in a receptive state right up to

the review and elaboration sessions. Baurs model by contrast provides a more even

alternation between receptive and active states which may well be more attractive to

the students. However, the receptive phases inSuggestopedia are generally not seen

as unpleasant, especially by adult students. Baurs model may also be attractive from

the teachers point of view. Intensive courses, in particular, tend to be very demanding

on teachers in these prolonged performance sessions.

In terms of structure all Baur does is reshuffle Lozanovs model by taking some time

devoted inSuggestopedia to elaboration and practice and using it for similar purposes

in the presentation stages. Although Baur and Grzybek (1984) have given some

empirical evidence for the efficacy of students reproducing non-verbal elements in the

presentation phase, this study on its own does not give sufficient support to the rationale

of including a reproductive phase in the presentation sessions. Lozanovs and more

recent researchers use of non-verbal elements in the review and elaboration sessions,

and indeed throughout the suggestopedic cycle, may well prove equally as efficient. In

order to prove the superiority of a reproductive phase it would be more appropriate to

compare the results after teaching with the entire cycles of both models.

Summary

Suggestopedia has undergone a variety of changes over the two decades of its existence.

Some changes, mainly those to the concert session, were made by Lozanov himself,

others were made by exponents adapting the method for their own environment. The

latest version of the suggestopedic cycle includes a preparation session, decoding of

the materials to be learnt, an active and a passive concert session in which materials

are read with the backing of entire classical or baroque pieces respectively, andextensive review and elaboration sessions.

In Eastern Europe the method differs the least from this model and it is still referred

to asSuggestopedia. Researchers, however, have reduced the two concert sessions to

one and made changes to Lozanovs music selection. Music from the baroque period

which is still predominant in Lozanovs selection is no longer used as a result of

research which showed more favourable student responses for the Vienna classical

period.

The two major versions ofSuggestopedia in the West areSuperlearning andSALT, bothoriginating in North America. Another version developed by a linguist in Germany


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PART I BACKGROUND


is called Psychopdie. The originators of these versions have also made changes to

LozanovsSuggestopedia. The chief contribution ofSuperlearning is theinclusion of

synchronisation of breathing and presentation of words during the passive concert

session. The limited research does not consistently show this element to have a positive

effect on the retention of materials. However, the literature suggests consistently that

this element may be cumbersome for the students to handle which is reflected in

the fact that synchronisation has been dropped by most practitioners.Superlearning

also advocated self-study courses produced on audio-tapes, a system which was

adopted by commercial enterprises around the world. Although good examples of such

courses exist, vital elements such as the teachers presence, group dynamics and the

communicative interaction between students cannot be included in such courses.

The most important contribution ofSALT is the inclusion of mind-calming during

the presentation phase. Although research, here too, is not extensive, the literature

shows a positive trend towards improved learning and improved behaviour as well as

other positive psychological effects being associated with mind-calming. This may

therefore well be a positive addition to Suggestopedia which is reflected in the fact

that most Western practitioners have adopted mind-calming in their programme.

The contribution ofPsychopdie toSuggestopedia is the insertion of a reproductive

phase before the concert sessions. The rationale for this was to break up the long

passive states in which suggestopedic students in intensive courses find themselves.

Although there is no empirical evidence as yet which supports the efficacy of such a

phase, it may well be attractive to students and teachers alike to have a more balancedprogramme in terms of students arousal level.

Although there are distinct differences between the four versions ofAccelerative

Learning discussed in this chapter, caution must be exercised when interpreting

research results if the treatment is not described in detail. Labels are sometimes

used interchangeably, and elements generally associated with a particular version

may no longer be used. This has led to some confusion about the exact content of

anAccelerative Learning course. However, all four versions consistently use the same

three elements. These are music, relaxation and suggestion. While in the West special

attention is given to relaxation in the form of progressive relaxation or mind-calming

either during the preparation phase or before the concert session, practitioners in the

East no longer practice relaxation explicitly. According to Lozanov (1978), however,

relaxation is still produced through other suggestive means, such as music, teacher

behaviour and classroom atmosphere.

Since music, relaxation and suggestion are also used in most other adaptations of

Suggestopedia not discussed here, we can assume that these elements are generally

seen as the most important in the approach. The presumed effects of these elements

will therefore be discussed in detail in the next chapter.


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Part IILiterature Review

ACCELERATIVE LEARNING: WONDERMETHOD OR PSEUDOSCIENTIFIC GOBBLEDYGOOK? 37


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Chapter 3The Effects of Music, Relaxation and

Suggestion in the learning environment

IntroductionThe aim of this chapter is to investigate whether music, relaxation and suggestion, the

three major elements present in most versions of Accelerative Learning, have indeed

been shown to be effective in the learning process. For this purpose studies have been

reviewed not only within the field of Accelerative Learning, but also outside it.

One of the interests in Accelerative Learning research has been to isolate individual

elements involved in the method in order to determine their effect on a number of

dependent variables. This has been particularly true for the element ofmusic. Some

studies have investigated the effect of background music on vocabulary learning,

both in laboratory settings (Schuster & Mouzon 1982, Stein et al 1982, Schuster

1985) and in the normal teaching environment (Schiffler 1986b). Other studies, some

independent ofAccelerative Learning, have looked at the effect of background music

on reading performance (Mullikin & Henk 1985), on students' on-task behaviour

(Davidson & Powell 1986) and on context-dependent memory (Smith 1985).

While the majority of studies explored the effect of music on achievement, Lehmann

(1982) investigated psycho-physiological responses to different types of music in order

to determine which music may be most readily accepted by students in AccelerativeLearning classes. His findings, together with those of Smith (1985), who included

white noise as a background to learning, and those of Mullikin and Henk (1985), who

investigated the effectiveness of easy-listening background music, are particularly

interesting since they indicate that music selections other than those recommended

by Lozanov (1978) and Lozanov and Gateva (1988) may be effective in the learning

environment. Generally, the role of music in Accelerative Learning has been given

more attention by researchers than either relaxation or suggestion.

Since Lozanov himself no longer recommends specific relaxation exercises, the

question arises whether this element ought to be retained inAccelerative Learning on


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PART II LITERATURE REVIEW


the basis of the Western research. There have been a number of studies investigating

the effect of various forms of relaxation training on achievement (Biggers & Stricherz

1976, Stricherz 1980, Johnson 1982, Baur 1982), on creativity (Gamble et al 1982),

and on physiological and psychological variables (Matthews 1983, Setterlind 1983).

The most extensive research on the effect of relaxation on achievement

independent of Accelerative Learning has been carried out in the field of

anxiety research. Since one of the principles ofAccelerative Learning is that

learning ought to be free from stress and tension, elements closely related

to anxiety, the findings of this research were found to be relevant to this

chapter and have therefore been included.

The least researched of the three major elements inAccelerative Learning is suggestion.

One reason for this may be that this element is particularly difficult to isolate in

any teaching environment. Results of studies in which the effect of suggestion in

Accelerative Learning was investigated (Bordon & Schuster 1976, Biggers & Stricherz

1976, Schuster & Martin 1980, Renigers 1981) are conflicting. Another reason for the

lack of research on suggestion may be its close association with hypnosis. The possible

relationship or distinction betweenAccelerative Learning and hypnosis will therefore

also be explored in this chapter.

Music

La musique est la langue du cur

[Music is the language of the heart]

Rousseau

While most elements ofAccelerative Learning can be found in education in some form or

other, the genuinely innovative element whichAccelerative Learning brings to today's

classrooms is the systematic use of music in the instruction process. While the coupling

of music and messages is extensively used in advertising and in entertainment, music

in education, outside official music classes, tends to be restricted to use with young

children in kindergarten and primary school. Although we know from experience

that words synchronised with music or rhythm are easier to learn than words alone,

preparation of materials in this form with older children or adults are usually only

found in music or drama classes, and perhaps in some language classes. The idea of

a mathematics class relaxing to the sounds of Handel's Watermusicwhile the teacher

recites a list of formulae, or an English class listening to Pachelbel's Canon while the

teacher reads excerpts from a novel, tends to elicit a variety of responses from today's

educators, ranging from amusement to disbelief. This form of learning, however, is not

new, and has been shown to be effective. As Rose (1985:97) points out, the coupling


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THE EFFECTS OF MUSIC, RELAXATION AND SUGGESTION IN THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT CHAPTER 3


of music and recital of words was already used by the ancient Greeks.

.....audiences would attend a festival in the Panathenes [of the Panatheneia]

once every four years. A presenter would chant the entire Iliad to the

heartbeat rhythm of a softly playing lyre. From memory. Records show that

many of the audience could remember large passages afterwards.

Although the music used has changed, the technique of presenting words and music

simultaneously in order to enhance retention of materials has been reintroduced in

Accelerative Learning. Two major rationales for this can be identified in Lozanov's

(1978) original work. The first was Lozanov's belief that music has the potential to

create a state of relaxed alertness in the students which he calls psychorelaxation.

Lozanov (1978) found that the body rhythms of students adjusted to the rhythms of

the baroque music he used. He recorded a significant increase in alpha brain waves

during the passive concert sessions with a corresponding decrease in beta waves. He

also recorded a drop in blood pressure and a slowing of the pulse. According to the

relaxation and anxiety research discussed below, this state may be conducive to better

performance.

The second rationale for the use of music in the instruction process was the idea

of whole brain learning. Lozanov (1978) believed that the interaction of both

hemispheres together with the neo-cortex had a positive effect on retention rates

of learned materials. Research by Claycomb (1978) supports this claim. Other models

on brain functioning, such as the Triune Brain system (McLean 1973), the Taxon and

Locale Memory system (O'Keefe & Nadel 1978) and the Holographic Memory system(Pribram & Coleman 1979) also suggest, according to Stein et al. (1982), that multiple

channels of input will increase information retention.

In Accelerative Learning language and music are presented simultaneously resulting

in a complex interaction between both hemispheres and the neo-cortex. Strict

lateralisation of music and language processing, as has been shown by Duffy et al

(1981), can no longer generally be supported since it has been demonstrated that

different and extended areas of both hemispheres undergo changes during musical

tasks (Petsche et al 1985). While Duffy et al (1981) suggested that language is

processed by the left hemisphere while music is processed by the right hemisphere,

Petsche et al (1985) found that subjects listening to a Mozart symphony generated

totally different topographic patterns of changes of the E.E.G. parameters studied. The

latter's findings support the proposition of Bever and Chiarello (1974) who suggested

that the holistic appreciation of music of naive listeners is usually processed by the

right hemisphere, whereas musically trained listeners tend to use their "analytical"

left hemisphere.

The most detailed research on the role of music in Accelerative Learning has been

carried out by Lehmann (1982,1983,1984) in the former German Democratic Republic(GDR). whose major findings are reported in translation in Lehmann and Gassner-


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Conclusions Music

Judging from the findings of these studiesit can be said that background music appears

to have a positive effect in the learning environment. While most studies found a

positive effect on the recall of vocabulary, one reported better reading performance

and another better on-task behaviour associated with the use of background music.Of the ten studies which investigated the effectiveness of music during learning, nine

reported significant positive effects either on short-term or on long-term memory. Of

the eight studies which looked at the effects of music immediately after the learning

task, six reported significant positive results. Of the seven studies which looked at

the effects of music after 48 hours or even later, six again reported significant positive

results.

The effect of music during testing has not been as extensively investigated, and

findings are not as consistent as the above. While one study found a significantpositive effect on performance when either classical or rock and roll music was played

during testing, two studies found no significant effect when classical, baroque or

jazz music was played during testing. Another study reported a significant positive

effect of classical and baroque music played during testing on vocabulary recall when

students were tested immediately after learning but not when testing took place after

one week. There is an indication, however, that best results are achieved when the

same music is played both during learning and during testing. The two studies which

investigated the effect of the reinstatement of the learning conditions during testing

found this.

In terms of the effectiveness of different types of music, the findings of the majority

of studies discussed here lend strong support to the special effectiveness of baroque

and classical pieces, as originally suggested by Lozanov (1978). However, it must be

pointed out that this type of music has also been most extensively used and tested.

Other types of music have only been sporadically tested in the same context. Yet

the three studies which investigated jazz or rock music did not find these types of

music to be effective in learning. One study, however, found rock music effective

during testing. A study which investigated the effect of easy-listening music, which

shared characteristics with the classical music found most effective for suggestopedic

teaching in the former GDR, also found this type of music effective in improving on-

task behaviour. When making statements about the relative effectiveness of music in

learning, it is important to give either exact titles or an accurate description of the

musical piece used. It is not possible to state categorically that classical music is more

effective in learning than pop music, since it appears that the individual properties of

the pieces are important factors in the outcome.

Although there is strong support for the effectiveness of music in learning, we still

know little about how the reported effects of music on learning are actually achieved.In the context of the studies reviewed here the effectiveness of music can be explained


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in several ways. Music appears to create a more pleasant learning environment in

terms of affective criteria (Schuster & Mouzon 1982) which may improve performance.

It further appears to have the potential to affect concentration and attention rate

and in turn improve on-task behaviour (Davidson & Powell 1986). Music also appears

to be associated with physiological effects such as a lowered heartrate (Blanchard

1979) and increased alpha brain waves (Lozanov 1978) which may be instrumental

in improved performance. Finally, studies which included the reinstatement of music

during testing (Schuster & Mouzon 1982, Smith 1985) indicate that context-cuing

may be involved.

Relaxation

Take rest;A field that rested

gives a beautiful crop.

Ovid

While Lozanov (1978:269) argues that the suggestive environment itself is enough

to produce concentrative psychorelaxation without special emphasis on physical or

mental exercises, Western users of all versions ofAccelerative Learning tend to include

some form of relaxation exercise in almost every class. Is there any evidence in theresearch that students actually benefit from this rather unorthodox addition to their

learning environment?

Positive effects of relaxation on psychological, physiological and academic measures

have not only been shown within the field of Accelerative Learning (Gamble et al

1982, Barber 1982, Johnson 1982, Baur 1982, Moon 1985), but also independent of

Accelerative Learning (Matthews 1983, Setterlind 1983). There are also some studies

which show relaxation as having no effect (Stricherz & Stein 1980) or even a negative

effect (Biggers & Stricherz 1976) on simple recognition tasks. Studies in the field of

anxiety research (Sinclair 1971) suggest that the effectiveness of relaxation training

may be related to the difficulty of the task and to the level of ego involvement. Other

studies indicate that not all students are equally affected by relaxation training.

While Straughan and Duford (1969) report a positive effect on high anxiety subjects,

Wilson and Wilson (1970), Martin and Schuster (1977) and Schuster and Martin (1980)

found relaxation to be most effective with low anxiety subjects. We will now look at

the research in detail.

Within the field ofAccelerative Learning research suggests that relaxation may improve

performance. Barber (1982) reported that modified (relaxation only) suggestopedicsessions in a college management class led to some academic acceleration, improved


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the end of the year, students taught withAccelerative Learning have reported fewer

feelings of anxiety than their counterparts in traditional courses. Although there is

not yet any systematic evidence for this, anecdotal reports from studies support this

(Felix 1987).

Conclusions - Relaxation

Although we cannot say at this stage how great an effect relaxation alone has in

Accelerative Learning, the findings of the majority of studies conducted within, as

well as outside, this field give support to the retention of relaxation as an important

element in the approach. Most studies report positive effects being associated with

the use of relaxation. This is true for short term studies conducted in laboratory

settings and for long term studies carried out in the natural learning environment.

Findings include positive effects on achievement as well as on students' psychological

and physiological states and creativity. However, one study reports no effect and

another reports a negative effect of various forms of relaxation on long-term memory.

In contrast to the bulk of studies reviewed here, both these studies investigated the

effect of relaxation on a fairly simple task, namely recognition of vocabulary items.

Research into the relationship between anxiety and performance suggests that

relaxation training may be most beneficial when the learning task is difficult or

complex and ego-involvement is high. Easy tasks appear to be facilitated by anxiety

while tasks with low ego-involvement appear to be either uninfluenced by anxiety

or facilitated. Although the learning task inAccelerative Learning is not necessarilyperceived as being difficult, it is nevertheless a complex task with a high content

of ego-involvement, especially in language learning, and it appears therefore,

that students are likely to benefit from relaxation in this context. There is some

evidence that progressive muscle relaxation may be more effective than other types

of relaxation.

There is also some evidence that the effect of relaxation may be related to the level

of measured anxiety. Although results are not entirely consistent, a strong trend can

be observed towards low anxiety students being more positively affected by relaxation

during learning than high anxiety subjects. Since in Accelerative Learning, at least

after a period of time, students appear to display more low anxiety characteristics

towards learning and testing than high anxiety characteristics, this research further

supports the retention of relaxation training inAccelerative Learning.


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Suggestion

They can

because they think they can.

Virgil

Suggestion has existed in one form or another as long as human communication

itself. Its effectiveness has best been demonstrated in hypnosis from the classical

approach of Bernheim (1880) to the naturalistic work of Erickson (1980). It has further

been demonstrated in Autogenic Training (Schultz 1959), in Progressive Relaxation

(Jacobson 1938), inPsychosynthesis (Assagioli 1965), inBiofeedback(Green & Green

1977) and inSubliminal Learning (Budzynski 1976). Detailed reports on the effects of

suggestion on learning as a result of experimental investigations are scarce, however,

and the findings of different studies (Biggers & Stricherz 1976, Bordon & Schuster1976, Schuster & Martin 1980 and Renigers 1981) are conflicting.

Equally as important as establishing the effects of suggestion on learning is deciding

whether or not it is ethical to use suggestion in the learning environment. One of

the problems in Accelerative Learning is that the term suggestion may be seen as

synonymous with hypnosis and the approach therefore dismissed by educators and

administrators as unsuitable or dangerous in the learning environment. What is the

evidence in the literature for such reasoning?

Harrison and Musial (1978), who reviewed the literature on hypnosis in education,

report inconclusive and confusing results, yet a trend towards positive outcomes. Some

examples given (p.72) are that Harley and Harley (1958) claim that hypnosis actually

inhibits learning while Krippner (1966), Mutke (1967) and McCord (1962) all report

success in using hypnosis to increase reading speed and comprehension. Hilgard (in

Harrison and Musial 1978:73) points to the benefits of hypnosis in education:

The hundreds of students who have improved their learning and academic

achievement do not need convincing. And those who may be helped in the

future should not be denied the benefit of hypnosis simply because we do

not understand precisely what it is or why it works. For now, it is enough to

know that, for many, it does work.

The effectiveness of suggestion in hypnosis cannot be disputed on the basis of a large

body of studies. However, very few studies exist on the effectiveness of suggestion

as a single variable and unrelated to hypnosis. Three studies, apart from Biggers and

Stricherz (1976), discussed in the relaxation section above, could be located in the

field of Accelerative Learning which investigated the effects of elements including

suggestion on recall or recognition of vocabulary in laboratory settings. During the

early years when synchronisation was still used, Bordon and Schuster (1976) conducteda study using a factorial design in which they isolated suggestion, words synchronised


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with students' breathing and words synchronised with background music. Thirty-two

volunteer adult subjects, 4 per treatment cell, took part in the experiment. Findings

were that all three elements separately had been effective in significantly improved

recall, and that the variables interacted cumulatively such that learning was best

when all three variables were present.

These findings concerning suggestion are supported by Renigers (1981) who in a

similar design examined the effects of music, and suggestion coupled with relaxation.

The rationale for coupling suggestion with relaxation was the belief that suggestion

would be more effective when the subjects were in a relaxed state. Synchronised

breathing was also used but not isolated as a separate variable for investigation. Ninety

volunteer adult subjects, 15 per treatment cell, took part in this experiment. Renigers

(1981) found that suggestion coupled with relaxation was effective in significantly

improving vocabulary recall when compared to the control group.

These findings, however, are not supported by Biggers and Stricherz (1976), who

did not find a significant difference in performance between the control and the

suggestion condition in a recognition task. They are also not supported by Schuster

and Martin (1980), discussed above, who included suggestion in a study on the effects

of relaxation training on vocabulary recall. Although a positive influence of relaxation

on recall was reported in this study, suggestion was not found to have a significant

influence in the same context.

The conflicting findings of these studies in terms of suggestion highlight the

difficulty of accurately investigating variables of this kind. All four studies were well

designed and controlled. However, there is considerable variation in the manner in

which suggestion is administered in different studies. As a consequence, findings are

not readily comparable. In Renigers' (1981) study, for example, the subjects in the

suggestion condition received one verbal suggestion relating to the ease with which

subjects would learn the material, coupled with muscle relaxation (no time given)

and four minutes of Zen breathing. In Biggers and Stricherz (1976) the suggestion

condition involved a five minute concentration exercise focussing on the suggestion

that this exercise would result in higher level mental functioning. In Bordon and

Schuster (1976) the suggestion treatment consisted of a one hour preparation

including a lecture on Suggestopedia, verbal suggestions and instructions in the

use of imagery, and meditation procedures in order to establish an expectation that

learning would take place. In Schuster and Martin (1980) the suggestion treatment

consisted of an "early pleasant learning restimulation" (no time given) described as a

technique which "focuses on the bodily feelings, sensations, emotions and thoughts

associated with an early pleasant learning situation" (p.277). Although it can be said

that in all four studies subjects in the suggestion condition also received some form

of relaxation, the type of relaxation differed considerably between studies, and the

time involved in administering this variable varied substantially.


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Several other studies already discussed in previous sections of this chapter included

suggestion (e.g. Wilson and Wilson 1970, Schuster and Mouzon 1982 and Schuster

1985). However, this variable was either not separately analysed as in Wilson and

Wilson (1970), or the suggestion treatment was restricted to written suggestions

relating to either the ease or the difficulty of learning the materials as in Schuster

and Mouzon (1982) and Schuster (1985). Since we cannot be certain whether subjects

in these studies actually read the suggestions, their findings are not included in the

discussion here.

Studies which involve verbal suggestion might be described as having contained some

form of hypnosis. Since the possible relationship to hypnosis is an important issue

in the acceptance of Accelerative Learning in educational institutions, we will now

look at the relevant literature in order to present distinguishing factors between

Accelerative Learning and hypnosis, or between suggestion in the waking state and

suggestion in hypnosis.

Lozanov's early work in suggestology led him to claim that hypnosis is not involved in

suggestopedia because suggestions are exclusively administered in the waking state.

Yet little information is available on the differences or similarities between suggestion

in the waking state and suggestion under hypnosis, chiefly because of the difficulty of

finding a widely accepted definition of suggestion or hypnosis. As Marcuse (1966:19)

put it: "That hypnosis exists has become generally accepted; what it is, however,

is generally disputed." He offered a tentative definition of hypnosis as an "altered

state of the organism originally and usually produced by a repetition of stimuli inwhich suggestion (no matter how defined) is more effective than usual."(p.21) In the

literature on hypnosis this altered state is often referred to as a form of sleep, which

is in accordance with the etymological origin of the word hypnosis.

In the latest versions of Accelerative Learning there is no deliberate repetition of

stimuli and at no stage do the students find themselves in a state of induced sleep. It

is generally conceded, instead, that the students experience a state of alert relaxation

which is at all times defined as wakefulness. However, Tart (1969:167) defines light

hypnosis as "a state of relaxed wakefulness, accompanied by receptivity to suggestion,

with alpha brain waves as the dominant pattern." Bayuk (1983) believes that his study

establishes a direct relationship between the light hypnotic state and the intellective

alertness which characterises Suggestopedia. Bayuk claims that descriptions of the

suggestopedic state found throughout Lozanov's work (she has had access to the

original Bulgarian texts) closely parallel Tart's observations in his studies of light

hypnosis.

Marcuse (1966), too, speaks of waking hypnosis as a modification of hypnosis for

patients who are overly anxious about the loss of conscious awareness as a consequence

of being in a sleep-like state. Here, the verbal patterns of hypnosis are employed, butwithout any mention of sleep or drowsiness. Instead, the term relaxation is used.


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your stomach to relax. Tell your arms and hands to relax. Tell your feet and

toes to relax. Now let your mind relax. Let it become quiet and silent. Do

not let any thought distract you.

This scenario is as reminiscent of Jacobsons (1938)Progressive Relaxation as it is of

Unesthls (1986)Systematic Approach to Relaxation for Youths and Schultz's (1959)Autogenic Training. None of these approaches is immediately associated with hypnosis.

Maybe the difference really is only in the name. And maybe it is hypnosis which is

incongruous. According to Harrison and Musial (1978) even Braid who coined the term

hypnosis realised that the equation with sleep was probably erroneous, since a state

of heightened awareness is not really synonymous with sleep.

Suggestion as used in the approaches above, as in medicine and dentistry, is usually

seen as beneficial. Why then should we assume that suggestion used in education

is not beneficial or even dangerous? It could be argued that teachers, in contrast totherapists and dentists, are not qualified to use suggestion. However, is suggestion not

a constant part of their interaction with students? As Ginott (in Schuster & Gritton

1985:80) put it:

I have come to a frightening conclusion. I am the decisive element in the

classroom. It is my personal approach that creates the climate. It is my daily

mood that makes the weather. As a teacher I possess tremendous power

to make a child's life miserable or joyous. I can be a tool of torture or an

instrument of inspiration. I can humiliate or humour, hurt or heal. In all

situations it is my response that decides whether a crisis will be escalatedor de-escalated, and a child humanised or dehumanised.

Ginott speaks neither of hypnosis nor of suggestion but of the teachers everyday

behaviour in the classroom. He is pointing out that a mood-setting is part of any

teaching, that the teacher sets up some mood context for any lesson, and that this can

be negative as well as positive. What Lozanov has done is make teachers aware of the

power of the suggestions transmitted through everyday behaviour. These suggestions

are not exclusively verbal, but more often found in gestures, mimicry, posture and tone

of voice. Lozanov (1978:201) defines suggestion as a constant communicative factor

and does not advocate bombarding students with obvious direct verbal suggestions

such asLearning German will be fun. While this may be effective with volunteer adult

students, a statement like this given to less motivated students in a secondary school,

some of whom do the language only because it is a compulsory subject, may produce

a counter-productive reaction such as Oh, no it won't.

If teachers believe that learning should be fun, easy and without stress and fatigue,

then they have to demonstrate this to the students and let them experience it so that

students in fact believe it as a result of their personal success, not as a result of a

verbal suggestion which could not possibly have the same effect.


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Maybe Lozanov's decision to call his methodSuggestopedia was unwise in the light

of the fact that suggestion may be regarded with suspicion in the education process.

However, if educators are able to see suggestion with the same clinical neutrality

demonstrated by Lozanov, they may agree with Galisson (1983:104):

je ne vois pas comment la pdagogie (en gnral) pourrait se passer de la

suggestion, quand il est avr que celle-ci constitue un ferment d'interaction

essentiel entre les tres, et qu'elle est ce titre omniprsente l'cole, lieu de

socialit, donc d'interaction par excellence. En bref: la suggestion en pdagogie:

oui ncessairement; rien que la suggestion en pdagogie: srement pas!

[I do not see how pedagogy (in general) could do without suggestion, when

it is obvious that it constitutes an essential mode of interaction between

human beings, and when it is in this capacity everywhere present in the

school, which is par excellence a centre of socialising, and therefore of

interaction. In short, suggestion in pedagogy is necessary; but surely notnothing but suggestion in pedagogy.]

Conclusions Suggestion

We do not know from the research available exactly how effective suggestion is in

Accelerative Learning. When efforts were made to isolate this element for investigation,

studies showed conflicting results. Research in this area may be hampered by the

fact that suggestion is difficult to isolate and administer in an environment which

involves human communication. Other approaches in which suggestion is used, most

notably hypnosis, indicate that suggestion may indeed be effective in the learning

process. Although findings concerning the effect of hypnosis on learning tasks

are mixed, there appears to be a trend towards a positive effect of hypnosis in the

learning environment. However, hypnosis is still largely regarded with apprehension

and suspicion by educators and administrators in schools.

SinceAccelerative Learning is often associated with hypnosis, it is frequently dismissed

as a viable teaching method for the same reasons. While it cannot categorically be

stated that Accelerative Learning has nothing in common with hypnosis, especially

not when compared to recent naturalistic techniques, it can also not be claimed

thatAccelerative Learning is hypnosis. The difficulty with finding a clear distinction

between the two is the fact that no widely accepted definition of hypnosis exists.

Hypnosis may range from extremely light states, which are similar to the relaxed

states reached inAccelerative Learning, to deep somnambulism, a state which cannot

even remotely be associated with the state of relaxed alertness in which students

in Accelerative Learning courses find themselves. While suggestion in hypnosis may

be used for many forms of treatments, ranging from attitude changes to painless

tooth extractions, suggestions inAccelerative Learning are confined to addressing the

facilitation of the learning task.


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This is done using suggestive means such as music and positive teacher behaviour,

rather than by means of direct verbal suggestions. If students' attitudes towards

learning are changed for the better in the process (see chapters 5 and 6), then this is

most likely the result of a combination of variables present in Accelerative Learning,

one of which is suggestion. Suggestion per se is already constantly present in any

learning environment, and teachers make use of it both consciously and unconsciously.

Lozanov has simply drawn attention to this fact and developed a method into which

suggestion is integrated as an exclusively positive means. There is therefore no reason

to exclude its systematic and positive application inAccelerative Learning.

General Conclusions

Although findings are not completely consistent, it can be said that the bulk of

the research on music and relaxation suggests that these elements are effective in

learning. In music this applies especially to pieces from the baroque and classical

period, although background music which shares characteristics with these has also

been found to be effective. In relaxation there is some evidence that progressive

relaxation may be more effective than other forms of physical and mental relaxation.

Suggestion, as a variable, has not been extensively researched, and the limited results

are not consistent. However, results from research in related fields indicate that

suggestion may have a beneficial effect in learning.

What are the benefits, though, of isolating one element for investigation? Although we

will know something about the effectiveness of that particular variable, we do not know

anything about its relationship with the other variables used inAccelerative Learning.

The most obvious question, of course, would be to ask which is the most important

of all the common variables. No study has yet answered this question, although some

have thrown light on the relationship between some variables, suggesting a cumulative

effect. Stein et al. (1982) showed that music together with visualisation appeared

more effective than music alone for long-term retention. Gamble et al (1982) found

relaxation together with music more effective than music alone. Baur (1982) reportsthat relaxation plus music was more effective than relaxation alone, and Bordon and

Schuster (1976) showed that the elements suggestion, synchronisation and music

interacted cumulatively with each other so that learning was best when all elements

were part of the treatment.

Although there are some conflicting findings in these studies, especially regarding the

variables suggestion and relaxation, it appears that the findings for the variable music

are consistent throughout, suggesting that music may well be the most important

when more than one element is investigated. This conclusion must be treated with

caution, however, bearing in mind the difficulties involved in isolating and measuring


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variables such as suggestion and relaxation. Furthermore, the bulk of these studies

were short-term and conducted in a laboratory setting, their findings can therefore

not be generalised to the natural learning environment. Although it is interesting

to know about the contribution of individual elements in Accelerative Learning,

the most important interest, however, is how effective the method may be in the

natural learning environment. Chapter 4 will therefore investigate the claims made for

Accelerative Learning as a complete teaching method in this context.


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Chapter 4A Critical Analysis of the Claims Made for

Accelerative Learning

IntroductionResearchers have gathered much naturalistic and experimental data on the effects

of the use of Accelerative Learning through empirical, case and laboratory studies.

Subjects under investigation have been predominantly language students, yet many

other fields as far ranging as physical science (Gritton & Benitez-Bordon 1976), naval

science (Peterson 1977) and vocational agriculture (Walters 1977) have been studied

usingSuggestopedia andSALT.

Findings have varied greatly, depending on the particular aspect under investigation,

the particular setting and the soundness of the research design. None of the controlled

Western studies was ever able to replicate the dramatic findings of the original

Bulgarian studies, on the basis of which Ostrander and Schroeder (1979) claim that

results can be improved by fifty times. There are some Western studies (Schuster

1976b, Peterson 1977, Walters 1977) which claim that learning can be speeded up by

two to three times without loss in achievement.

A large body of studies carried out in non-experimental conditions in the university,

secondary and primary school environment (Herr 1978, Beer 1978, Gassner-Roberts

1982, Stockwell 1985, Wagner 1985) report larger amounts of material taught, higherachievement, better classroom atmosphere and more confident students. These studies

were not conducted only in the favourable conditions for which the method was

developed that is, with small classes (12-15 students), pleasant surroundings and

block teaching (Herr 1978,1979, Gassner-Roberts 1982, Stockwell 1985) but also in

natural conditions (Beer 1978, Wagner 1985).

Controlled experimental and quasi-experimental studies in natural conditions, such

as normal university or school classes (Robinett 1975, Prichard, Schuster & Gensch

1980, Botha 1986), also report significant gains in achievement. Their findings

are supported by Moon et al. (1986) who conducted a meta-analysis of 14 of the


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most controlled studies chosen from an overall 40 published in the Journal for the

Society of Accelerative Learning and Teaching (Journal of SALT). Treatments were

not identical in all 14 studies, but each had a viable control group with which to

compare results. Findings were that the distribution of effect sizes over all categories

and outcomes was leptokurtic and positively skewed in favour of the experimental

groups. Moon et al. concluded that the treatments were effective relative to foreign

language acquisition, foreign language retention, affective attributes, and cognitive

achievement and creativity. (p. 8)

A number of studies mention other benefits being associated with Accelerative

Learning, such as improved self-concept (Edwards & Thomas 1982, Portes & Foster

1986), attitude (Schuster & Ginn 1978, Gassner-Roberts & Brislan 1984), behaviour

(Brown 1986), health (Lozanov & Balevski 1975), reduced stress (Lozanov 1978,

Gassner-Roberts & Brislan 1984, Schuster & Gritton 1985), and improved motivation

for continuing language study (Knibbler 1982).

The purpose of this chapter is to take a critical look at the claims made for the

effectiveness ofAccelerative Learning in the literature from the early Lozanov studies to

the present day. We will attempt to give a view of the general trends in the results and

draw some conclusions about their general magnitude in the West. We will finally draw

attention to important areas which have not been covered by the research so far.

Lozanovs Research

Lozanovs research in the 1960s and 1970s was conducted predominantly at the

Institute of Suggestology at Sofia, Bulgaria. Most of his studies were carried out

withinSuggestopedia, that is to say that he looked for effects that the method may

have on memory and on physiological and psychological measures. He also conducted

a small number of comparative studies in order to determine the effectiveness of

Suggestopedia when compared to other teaching methods. Although Lozanov is not a

linguist, the majority of studies were

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