AJJ Fall MeetingAJJ Fall MeetingNovember 2, 2002November 2, 2002Sophia UniversitySophia UniversityIchigaya CampusIchigaya Campus

Session 1B: Global Encounters

Hail Japan's Hail Japan's Conquering Heroes: Conquering Heroes:

and the discourse of national and the discourse of national efficacyefficacy

sports reportssports reports

Todd Joseph Miles HoldenTodd Joseph Miles Holden

Graduate School of Graduate School of International Cultural International Cultural

Studies (GSICS)Studies (GSICS)Tohoku UniversityTohoku University

Sendai, JapanSendai, Japanhttp//:lark.langc.tohoku.ac.jp/~holden/Presentations/AJJ-02

I. Introduction: Sports, Globalization, and the Discourse of National

Efficacy

“Aim for Shinjo…”

Peter Tasker is a BritisPeter Tasker is a British commentator who h commentator who has lived and worked has lived and worked in Japan. He has penin Japan. He has penned a couple of bookned a couple of books about the politics as about the politics and economics of the nd economics of the countrycountry.

“Aim for Shinjo…”

After discussing:

the possible rebirth of Japanese nationalism,

The populist stylings of Prime Minister Koizmi,

The problems inherent in an “elite” model of technocratic leadership,

The frustrated pathways for youth and women workers…

“…Aim for Shinjo”

The host displayed Tasker’s “message tThe host displayed Tasker’s “message to Japan’s citizens…”o Japan’s citizens…”

It read: “the kind of spirit needed to open It read: “the kind of spirit needed to open the country …”the country …”

“Aim for Shinjo?”…

HostHost: “What do you mean by that?” : “What do you mean by that?”

TaskerTasker: “I mean, the top-level players like (ba: “I mean, the top-level players like (baseball’s) Ichiro or (soccer’s) Nakata, for exseball’s) Ichiro or (soccer’s) Nakata, for example, go overseas and achieve big resultample, go overseas and achieve big results…s…““but even players who cannot excel to thabut even players who cannot excel to tha

t level but can reach their potential and at level but can reach their potential and achieve a result at that (lesser) level… thchieve a result at that (lesser) level… that’s the kind of role model (Japan needs at’s the kind of role model (Japan needs now).” now).”

Role Models and Challenges

Female announcerFemale announcer: “You are not seeing : “You are not seeing that in Japanese today?”that in Japanese today?”

TaskerTasker: “Right. Not that degree of chall: “Right. Not that degree of challenge…enge…““From the international forum we see a goFrom the international forum we see a go

od trend. (But) there is a wall between thod trend. (But) there is a wall between the outside world and Japan that must be e outside world and Japan that must be overcome (in order for Japan to prospeovercome (in order for Japan to prosper).”r).”

During this interchange the host joked:“Let’s not make a mistake… you don’t mean the Shinjo city in the state of Niigata…”

The joke being that Niigata is one of Japan’s less progressive areas, home to rural farm interests.

Niigata was home to Prime Minister Tanaka, one of the more powerful politicians in the Post-War era. It is because of him and the conservative policies of his Liberal Democratic Party, in power for 5 decades of nearly continuous reign, have led Japan into its current lethargy

To some, not very funny…

At the close of the show, the host At the close of the show, the host apologized for having joked about apologized for having joked about Niigata in that way.Niigata in that way.

International Sports / the Global and the Local

In this vignette we encounter In this vignette we encounter discourse about:discourse about:

internationalism,internationalism, domestic economic policy,domestic economic policy, spiritual renewal, spiritual renewal, the engineering of success, andthe engineering of success, and global versus localglobal versus local

International Sports / the Media

Most importantly, we see how Japan’s sports exports – players like Ichiro, Nakata and Shinjo – have become essential text in mainstream media

They are “Sports Exports”“Sports Exports” who become “Media “Media (or Information) Imports” Imports”

Media and …The Discourse of National

Efficacy

They are part of the public conversation about things other than sportsThings such as will, ability, achievementThey serve as signifiers for what Japan

can be, as opposed to how it normally isThey tell viewers about a Japan that is

potent and efficacious

A Telling Example,A Research Thesis

This vignette is far from uncommonIn fact, one thesis of this research is that t

he outflow of cultural goods – in the form of sports stars – over the past decade (but moreso in the past 2 years) has had profound, but relatively invisible effects in Japanese society

Consider France?

But it is not just But it is not just Sports stars.Sports stars.It is all things sport It is all things sport that somehow that somehow pertain to Japan.pertain to Japan.For instance: news For instance: news about this guy:about this guy:

Who is that man?Who is that man?

The recently departed head coach of the Japanese national squad…

Here exchaging a few words to Prime Minister Koizumi

before bidding “adieu” to Japan

For the two weeks he For the two weeks he was negotiating to was negotiating to become the head of become the head of the French National the French National soccer team his name soccer team his name was in the Japanese was in the Japanese press more than this press more than this guy:guy:

Sports: more significant than world politics?

When this would-be assassin pulled a rifle out of a guitar case and fired a shot at French President Jacques Chirac, it was news for 30 seconds on one day in Japan.

Moreover, it was the rare time that France ever appears in national television news in Japan…

II. Terms

Term 1: Globalization

One aspect of the Export / Import One aspect of the Export / Import phenomenon, clearly, is globalizationphenomenon, clearly, is globalization

But… what is globalization?But… what is globalization?

An Early Conception: Wallerstein and World System Analysis

Capitalism – the economic – rather than the political has been the fundamental global influenceIt has been the most adept at enabling the

penetration of goods, values and practices

It has been the least resistant to the integration of these elements into local contexts

Giddens: 4 Dimensions of Globalization

Nation-state system

World capitalist economy

World military order

International division of labor

Eades: on GlobalizationEades: on GlobalizationGlobalization and Social Change in Contemporary Japan Globalization and Social Change in Contemporary Japan (with Tom(with Tom Gill and HGill and H

arumi Befu, 2000arumi Befu, 2000))

Invokes CastellsCastells, who sees the world economy – through the aegis of multinational companies -- speeding up the flow of capital (and, consequently, labor) both within and across international boundaries

Adds a cultural dimension

globalisation is "the global diffusion and 'creolization' of cultural forms and meanings, manifested in phenomena such as the 'McDonalidization' of eating habits, the proliferation of theme parks, or the popularity of international brand name goods.”

AppaduraiAppadurai On Globalization On Globalization

Of all the formal theories of globalization, the most widely cited is Appadurai’s (1990).

In his conception, globalization was about the push-pull between:

cultural homogenization cultural heterogenization

Appadurai Applied:

As we consider in conclusion, the Sport ExpSport Export / Media Importort / Media Import phenomenon engages Appadurai’s categories in almost every contemplated way

Sports and globalizationFor now we can observe that numerous changes For now we can observe that numerous changes

have prepared the foundation for sport export / have prepared the foundation for sport export / media import (globally). Among these:media import (globally). Among these:

the advent of professional sport leaguesthe advent of professional sport leagues the proliferation of electronic forms of the proliferation of electronic forms of

communicationcommunication the steady accretion of leisure-time the steady accretion of leisure-time the concomitant ascent of sport as a fixture in the concomitant ascent of sport as a fixture in

many national culturesmany national cultures The lessening difficulty of international travelThe lessening difficulty of international travel The increased connection between local clubs The increased connection between local clubs

and foreign-based media marketsand foreign-based media markets The rise of a global pool of athletesThe rise of a global pool of athletes

Term 2: Sports ImportsTerm 2: Sports Imports

Sports importsSports imports have long served as a p have long served as a potentially powerful globalizing forceotentially powerful globalizing forceOne of a small list of external infuences tOne of a small list of external infuences t

hat are allowed to enter a relatively herhat are allowed to enter a relatively hermetic Japanmetic Japan

Now, however, we are in the throes of Now, however, we are in the throes of a different phenomenon:a different phenomenon:A reverse process of cultural flowA reverse process of cultural flow

Term 3:Sports Exports

This flow can be called “This flow can be called “Sports Sports ExportsExports””

Now we are in the throes of a diaspoNow we are in the throes of a diaspora of Japanese athletes, competing ira of Japanese athletes, competing in foreign markets, participating in prn foreign markets, participating in professional leagues from America to ofessional leagues from America to England, Holland to Italy.England, Holland to Italy.

Term 4:Information Imports

Stories of these human exports’ Stories of these human exports’ exploits and information about the exploits and information about the worlds they venture out into, is re-worlds they venture out into, is re-imported by news and entertainment imported by news and entertainment media.media.

Information Importsare Media Re / Imports

And due in large part to the media, these exports And due in large part to the media, these exports have served a powerful transformative function have served a powerful transformative function in Japanese society: influencing attitudes and in Japanese society: influencing attitudes and behaviors about self and societybehaviors about self and society

III. Theses

Thesis 1: Sports Imports are part of the Discourse of Self

This importation transpires ONLY because it This importation transpires ONLY because it touches and concerns Japan, its touches and concerns Japan, its information consumers and their interestsinformation consumers and their interests..

However, once imported, this information However, once imported, this information takes the form of valuable knowledge.takes the form of valuable knowledge.

It carries a potent moralizing and socializing It carries a potent moralizing and socializing functionfunction In a word, it is socially productive In a word, it is socially productive

An Example

Hidetoshi Nakata was Japan’s first high-visibility soccer export. Not the first to venture Not the first to venture

out, but the first to out, but the first to project confidenceproject confidence

Brash, by Japanese Brash, by Japanese standardsstandards

Possibly even arrogantPossibly even arrogant

“Hide”: Individualist

““Hide” as Nakata is called was one of Hide” as Nakata is called was one of Japan’s so-called “new, new human Japan’s so-called “new, new human beings”.beings”. He thought and acted for himselfHe thought and acted for himself He didn’t defer, he didn’t apologize, he said He didn’t defer, he didn’t apologize, he said

little, but when he did he was outspokenlittle, but when he did he was outspoken Advertisers soon moved to use this image as a Advertisers soon moved to use this image as a

signification for their unique or bold productssignification for their unique or bold products

Hide: SignifierAnd so, Hide was presented in a copier ad in a

vaulted, Baroque European chamber full of chairs

Each chair was different: some ornate, others austere, heavy, delicate, antique, modern.

Hide is depicted considering each chair carefully: sitting in each, feeling the fit, choosing which he wishes to be seated in

Hide becomes a signifier for a company, but also for a different kind of Japanese, a different kind of Japan

Thesis 2: Sports Exports Become Information Imports

The examples we have seen or will see:The examples we have seen or will see:- Tasker/ShinjoTasker/Shinjo- Troussier/ChiracTroussier/Chirac- Hide/IndividualistHide/Individualist- Ono/persistenceOno/persistence

All exemplify how individual lived text All exemplify how individual lived text becomes part of the public discoursebecomes part of the public discourse- through mediathrough media

Thesis 3: Cultural Production is linked to Societal Transformation

Re-ImportationRe-Importation works to communicate works to communicate numerous things to Japanese. Not numerous things to Japanese. Not the least of which is:the least of which is: Their identityTheir identity Their possibilitiesTheir possibilities The status of their country in the world The status of their country in the world

of nationsof nations The thoughts and behaviors of “others” The thoughts and behaviors of “others”

beyond Japan’s bordersbeyond Japan’s borders

Thesis 4: Media Plays a Central Role

It is because of the media that this transformation is It is because of the media that this transformation is transpiringtranspiring Without the importation of information about these

cultural exports, everyday Japanese – and the life that they live here – would not be much affected

The transformation is via TV:The transformation is via TV: News, advertising, game and quiz shows primarilyNews, advertising, game and quiz shows primarily

(but also newspapers and magazines):

The content centers on:The content centers on: the players’ travels and daily exploits, the sights, sounds, values and behaviors of the

places in which they are plying their tradeBut for the active hand of the media: But for the active hand of the media: the lessons learned

(or interpreted or invented) would not strike the information consumer back home

Thesis 5: Sports Imports are Information Imports

Clearly, sports provides more Clearly, sports provides more opportunities to learn about the opportunities to learn about the world than via cultural exports (and world than via cultural exports (and many other imports).many other imports).

An Example

In the recently completed World Cup, Japan In the recently completed World Cup, Japan encountered large segments of the world encountered large segments of the world that it normally never thinks about.that it normally never thinks about.

Some of this was due to its role as hostSome of this was due to its role as host

But the rest of it simply was because But the rest of it simply was because Japanese media was passing national Japanese media was passing national experience through the filter of sport experience through the filter of sport

Through Sports’ Information Imports:

learning about the Other

Thus, cities that played host to the participating Thus, cities that played host to the participating nations set up:nations set up: Special language courses for their citizens,Special language courses for their citizens, Food and cultural fairs,Food and cultural fairs, Sponsored web pages that introduced the Sponsored web pages that introduced the

history and cultures of the nation they were history and cultures of the nation they were hostinghosting

Introduced the foods of the visitors into the Introduced the foods of the visitors into the school lunches of the childrenschool lunches of the children

Thesis 6:

Sports Exports / Media Imports are a major component of

Japan’s contemporary globalization

IV. Media Role

The Media: Filtering the Imports

In communicating information about the In communicating information about the imports, news and entertainment media imports, news and entertainment media play an essential roleplay an essential role They educate Japanese about the thoughts They educate Japanese about the thoughts

and practices of the various nations and practices of the various nations participating, for example, in the world cupparticipating, for example, in the world cup

Same with the traditions of Wimbledon or the Same with the traditions of Wimbledon or the British OpenBritish Open

Sports-Inspired Discourse: Entertainment

For example, consider the popular “Wonders of the World” quiz show, airFor example, consider the popular “Wonders of the World” quiz show, aired on Saturday nights at 9:00 p.m.ed on Saturday nights at 9:00 p.m.

The show’s format is to explore a particular country, explain various aspThe show’s format is to explore a particular country, explain various aspects of its history and culture, then raise obscure riddles. Based on tects of its history and culture, then raise obscure riddles. Based on these descriptions six celebrity panelists seek to solve the puzzles.hese descriptions six celebrity panelists seek to solve the puzzles.

Just before the World Cup, Belgium – one of the teams in Japan’s preliJust before the World Cup, Belgium – one of the teams in Japan’s preliminary round group – was presented.minary round group – was presented.

What “wonders” were presented? What riddles to solve? After showing What “wonders” were presented? What riddles to solve? After showing some preferred foods (like waffles and parfaits) that Belgians like to some preferred foods (like waffles and parfaits) that Belgians like to eat, the question was asked: “with what topping do the Belgians eat eat, the question was asked: “with what topping do the Belgians eat french fries?” The answer: “mayonnaise”. And television viewers in Jafrench fries?” The answer: “mayonnaise”. And television viewers in Japan suddenly knew that much more about Belgian culture. pan suddenly knew that much more about Belgian culture.

Sports-Inspired Discourse: News

Such “Infotainment” shows are Such “Infotainment” shows are pervasive on Japanese TV today. pervasive on Japanese TV today.

And it has become the dominant And it has become the dominant mode of discourse in news, as mode of discourse in news, as well.well.

With sports content as one of the With sports content as one of the core thematic areas.core thematic areas.

Consider the following example, Consider the following example, again just prior to the World Cupagain just prior to the World Cup

Sports-driven Infotainment

One of the news stations (set to One of the news stations (set to broadcast a few of the matches) broadcast a few of the matches) sent their anchor to Tunisiasent their anchor to Tunisia

Why TunisiaWhy Tunisia? Because, like Belgium, it ? Because, like Belgium, it was another team in Japan’s was another team in Japan’s preliminary group.preliminary group.

The anchor:The anchor: Interviewed the people of the country,Interviewed the people of the country, Explained Tunisia’s history,Explained Tunisia’s history, Visited important sites,Visited important sites, Ate their food and drank their coffeeAte their food and drank their coffee

Need it be mentioned that under Need it be mentioned that under “normal” circumstances, Tunisia is “normal” circumstances, Tunisia is never on Japanese television, never never on Japanese television, never in the news.in the news.

V. Japan, Globalization and Sport

Japan and globalization

In trying to understand Japan’s In trying to understand Japan’s relationship to globalization, relationship to globalization, some precursor work exists.some precursor work exists.

Most notably… Most notably…

Befu on Globalization

Befu has argued that there are 3 distinct periods to Japan’s globalization: pre-Tokugawa; mid-19th century through 1945; the period following the Pacific War

He terms this “Nikkei” Defined as “those who moved away from Japan

and resided or reside outside Japan and their descendants”

Nikkei in the Context of Globalizing Japan -- http://www.janm.org/inrp/english/sc_befu.htm

Period 1: Pre-TokugawaPeriod 1: Pre-Tokugawa

From the 15th century to 17th centuries Japanese patrolled the coasts of China and Southeast Asia

as pirates and merchants

establishing "Japan towns" abroad

This era came to end by governmental fiat

Period 2: Mid-19th Century Period 2: Mid-19th Century to WWIIto WWII

This era was marked by Japanese emigration by the millions to: Hawaii North and South America East and Southeast Asia Oceania

This period of diasporadiaspora was brought to a close with the conclusion of the Pacific War in 1945

Period 3: Post-War Period 3: Post-War DiasporaDiaspora

The third period started soon after the end of the war and continues to the present

According to Befu, it is characterized by 8 distinct categories of diaspora

8 Diasporic Types

(1) Pre-war emigrants (5) Multinational business expatriates and their families

(2) "War brides" (6) Those providing service infrastructure for the business expert community

(3) Postwar emigrants (7) Those who abandoned Japan (out of discontentment with their life situation in Japan)

(4) International marriage (not involving foreign servicemen)

(8) Social dropouts

Alternative Conceptualizations

The categories above quite accurately reflect Japan’s diaspora until the contemporary moment of cultural exchange involving, above all, sports and entertainment

Could the historical data be coded in other ways? Inward Flow (Import) v. Outward Flow (Export) The “dimensions”: military, economic, politica

l, social and cultural

Globalization and Japan: Outflow (historically)

Athletes were not Japan’s first globalizersAthletes were not Japan’s first globalizersFirst were the diplomats who went to China in the early 3First were the diplomats who went to China in the early 3rdrd ce ce

ntury;ntury;Next were the militarizers who went to what is now the KoreaNext were the militarizers who went to what is now the Korea

n peninsula in the late 4n peninsula in the late 4thth century; century;More diplomacy followed: with missions to China in the 7More diplomacy followed: with missions to China in the 7thth ce ce

ntury and finally to Europe in 1613;ntury and finally to Europe in 1613;And then the militarists had their day: they fought with China And then the militarists had their day: they fought with China

in 1894 and Russia in 1904. They then moved to occupied in 1894 and Russia in 1904. They then moved to occupied China in the 1920sChina in the 1920s

Following the generalized Asian expansion that preceded the Following the generalized Asian expansion that preceded the Pacific War, the next bout with outward-reach was in the mPacific War, the next bout with outward-reach was in the mass-production export-driven era, running from the mid 195ass-production export-driven era, running from the mid 1950s to mid-1980s.0s to mid-1980s.

Globalization and Japan: Inflow (historically)

Inflow has been more extensive Buddhism came in the 6th century The gun and then Christianity in the middle of

the 16th century Business from Holland came in the early 17th

century and Russia in the later stages of the 17th century

The forced opening of Japan by the United States transpired in the mid-19th century

Once again, the enforced reconstruction by the United States following armed conflict between the nations

Athletics… An alternative way of coding globalization

Viewed as a swinging door:Post-war inward flow (sports imports)Recent outward flow (sports exports)

Viewed in stages:From tentative trickleTo steady flow

Athletic Globalization I: Athletic Globalization I: at at first a tentative tricklingfirst a tentative tricklingStockholm Olympics: 1912Davis Cup: 1921Wimbledon: 1934Professional baseball: 1914; 1915 Mikami Goro, a graduate student, was the first pro b

aseballer in the U.S. He played on a multiracial team in the (now defunct)

Federal League.

Pro-baseball redux: 1964; 1965 Murakami Masanori, was sent to the San Francisco

Giants by his parent club “for seasoning” He pitched 54 games.

Athletic Globalization II: Athletic Globalization II: now a now a steadily accreting streamsteadily accreting stream

Number of Japanese currently on MLB rosters: 15

1995: 1 2000: 7 2002: 15

Number of Japanese currently on European soccer rosters: 7

1995: 0 2000: 1 2001: 4 2002: 7

The Nomo ExperimentIt was not until the mid-1990s that the real cultural

outflow of athletes began…After pitching for 6 years in Japan, Hideo Nomo exploited a loophole in Japanese baseball rules: retirees are free to resign with whomever they choseNomo promptly quit and was signed by the Los Angeles DodgersHe was excoriated by the press and scorned by the public, but when he started winning games, all Japan became his fan club His games were transmitted live via satellite. “Nomo Tours” were arranged for Japanese to fly into LA, catch a N

omo game and perhaps visit Disneyland and Universal Studios

In 1995, Nomo was voted the National League Rookie of the YearIn 1996, he pitched a no-hitter against the Colorado Rockies.His three year record with the Dodgers: 43 wins, 29 losses; 703 strike-outs 627 innings.

The Ends of Nomo-ismWith many of Japan’s best players jumping to the States, interest in the Japanese game is on the decline.

Telecasts from the U.S. are now a daily – even twice a day -- occurrence: The Mariners with Ichiro, Sasaki and Hasegawa The Dodgers with Nomo and Ishii, and The Giants with Shinjo

As a consequence, Japanese pro TV ratings are down

MLB Sports merchandise seems more trendy and popular than Japanese team goods

Many worry that Japan will become merely a minor league whose role is to season players before they jump to the U.S.

VI. Measuring Impacts

Most Popular Sports

Source: Yomiuri Shimbun, February 2002

Sample: 3,000 Japanese aged 20 or older

A Media Effect?Japanese professional baseball was the num

ber-one choice of fans for the eighth year in a row

So what is all this noise about media, sport and globalization?

It turns out that Major League Baseball was up six percentage points over the previous year

Moreover, it cracked the top ten for the first time ever.

It is likely the result of Ichiro, Shinjo and Sasaki, taking the “Export Challenge” (and the media choosing to focus on it)

More on the Media Effect

The likely power of media in shaping public consciousness and tastes comes through in the next survey question.

There, we see that Ichiro topped all Japanese athletes -- foreign-based or domestic – by a whopping 2 to 1 margin

Moreover, 5 of the 10 listed athletes are playing in foreign leagues;

Two other athletes – a marathoner and a speed skater -- compete in foreign locations against international fields;

Only 3 are based primarily in Japan. All 3 play for the Japanese cultural icon, the Yomiuri Giants baseball team

Most Popular Players

Interest in Japanese Interest in Japanese Players OverseasPlayers Overseas

71% of all respondents indicated that they were "very interested" or "somewhat interested" in the exploits of Japanese players in the U.S. Over 70% of respondents between age 20 and

50 answered this way; 80% of those in their thirties

By profession: 88% of managers and professionals 80% of students

VII. A Time-Out About Gender

A Time-out About Gender

Of the Top ten athletes in the poll, only one is a woman. Naoko Takahashi, the Olympic Champion marathon

er and one-time World Record holder

Sports news is not impervious to female athletes in a global context: Tennis players Kimiko Date (now retired) and Ai Sug

iyama, as well a golfers a couple of professional golfers receive regular media attention.

However, whether due to uneven success, lack of widespread sport popularity or gender bias, these women are not fixtures in news and entertainment shows

A Time-out About A Time-out About GenderGender

Meaning that, as with many things in media (and life), there is an invisible gendering at work in media activity here vis-à-vis sport/exports

VIII. How Advertising Treats Sport Exports

Moral 1: An Adventurous Japan

In an ad for a digital camera, Hide Nakata In an ad for a digital camera, Hide Nakata is pictured traveling in the savannah of Ais pictured traveling in the savannah of Africa, snapping digital pictures which he frica, snapping digital pictures which he posts on his own websiteposts on his own website Here a signifier of a Japan/ese bold enough Here a signifier of a Japan/ese bold enough

to venture forth to alien climes… and thriveto venture forth to alien climes… and thrive

Moral 2: An Admired Japan

In another ad, again for cIn another ad, again for copiers, an Italian pre-teopiers, an Italian pre-teen practices overhead en practices overhead kicks with a color pictkicks with a color picture of Hide attached to ure of Hide attached to his face.his face. To the ad world, Hide is To the ad world, Hide is

not only capable of servnot only capable of serving as Tasker’s “role ming as Tasker’s “role model” for Japanese viewodel” for Japanese viewers, but to a foreign popers, but to a foreign population, as wellulation, as well

Moral 3:Moral 3: A Can-do JapanA Can-do Japan

Even more successful than Nakata has been Even more successful than Nakata has been Shinji Ono. While Hide’s Roma won the SeShinji Ono. While Hide’s Roma won the Serie A Championship, they did so with Hide rie A Championship, they did so with Hide coming off the bench.coming off the bench.

Ono’s Feyenoord won the Holland League cOno’s Feyenoord won the Holland League championship in Shinji’s first year, with him hampionship in Shinji’s first year, with him serving as starter and midfield catalystserving as starter and midfield catalyst

Moral 4: No Barriers / No Barriers / Ultimate SuccessUltimate Success

And advertisers, again, were quick to take And advertisers, again, were quick to take advantage. Consider this ad:advantage. Consider this ad:

Shopping in a supermarket in Holland, Ono lifts Shopping in a supermarket in Holland, Ono lifts the soccer ball as he moves his carriage down the soccer ball as he moves his carriage down the food aisles. The ball never touches the the food aisles. The ball never touches the ground.ground.

Now settled into his car (it’s a car ad), he notices a Now settled into his car (it’s a car ad), he notices a blond-haired, pre-teen girl in the parking lot blond-haired, pre-teen girl in the parking lot trying to lift unsuccessfully. He calls out to her: trying to lift unsuccessfully. He calls out to her: “You just have to keep practicing… don’t give “You just have to keep practicing… don’t give up!”up!” For those familiar with Japanese soccer, this advice For those familiar with Japanese soccer, this advice

perfectly matches Ono’s personal soccer historyperfectly matches Ono’s personal soccer history

IX. How News Treats Sport Exports

A Representative Broadcast

To provide some idea about how the media To provide some idea about how the media does some of its work, let’s consider one does some of its work, let’s consider one broadcast from April 2001.broadcast from April 2001. While this was one broadcast on only one

station, it is fairly typical of how the news media has reacted to sport export in the past couple of years

This treatment can be seen in soccer and golf, primarily, in addition to baseball

Broadcast Background

This particular broadcast occurred within the first This particular broadcast occurred within the first two weeks of Ichiro’s and Shinjo’s initial seasontwo weeks of Ichiro’s and Shinjo’s initial seasons (2001)s (2001) For Sasaki it was year twoFor Sasaki it was year two For Nomo, year sixFor Nomo, year six

The Tease

The Sports Segment begins with The Sports Segment begins with the close of the previous the close of the previous segmentsegment the veteran anchor’s “perspective” the veteran anchor’s “perspective”

corner.corner.

Upon his close, the Sports anchor, Upon his close, the Sports anchor, a woman, comes in with the a woman, comes in with the frame for the upcoming frame for the upcoming sportscastsportscast

The Tease I

This particular tease begins with a This particular tease begins with a sequence of Ichiro collecting a hit sequence of Ichiro collecting a hit and righting his body for a throwand righting his body for a throw

The Tease II

Cut to a shot of Nomo receiving some kCut to a shot of Nomo receiving some kind of object in an official-looking cerind of object in an official-looking ceremonyemony

The Lead-in After commercial there is some

introductory comments by the Anchor.

He comments that this was the first game that Ichiro didn’t start this season…His tone is one of surprise

This serves to provide the frame for the story to follow

The Mariner’s Story

A pre-recorded voice-over by a male narrator begins…

To the title “Ichiro Bench Start” the reports begins in the 8th inning with Ichiro entering to pinch hit

The Mariner’s Story

Ichiro singles and the crowd is shown celebrating (with signs in Japanese reading: “hit-it, Ichiro”)

The Mariner’s StoryIchiro eventually scores, then goes on to

make a perfect throw to third base to cut down a runner. A final shot displays his day’s output and his gaudy batting average.

The Mariner’s StoryThis recap finishes by showing Sasaki on the This recap finishes by showing Sasaki on the

mound, ending the game with a strikeout.mound, ending the game with a strikeout.His “line” is posted: 1 inning, no hits, one His “line” is posted: 1 inning, no hits, one

strikeout, no runsstrikeout, no runs along with his 5th save and the final along with his 5th save and the final

score.score.

The Mariner’s StoryIn a final scene Sasaki and Ichiro are pictur

ed exchanging congratulatory words.

Shinjo’s story

Shinjo’s StoryAfter detailing each (all unsuccessful) After detailing each (all unsuccessful) at-bats, Shinjo’s average (in the mid-.3at-bats, Shinjo’s average (in the mid-.300s) is displayed.00s) is displayed.The implicit question asked of Shinjo The implicit question asked of Shinjo was whether this one pitcher (a Cy Yowas whether this one pitcher (a Cy Yound award winner, Greg Maddox) was und award winner, Greg Maddox) was simply too goodsimply too good

Shinjo’s response:

““We’re both the same Major We’re both the same Major Leaguers… (therefore) next time, Leaguers… (therefore) next time, absolutely… (I’ll get a hit)absolutely… (I’ll get a hit)

Nomo’s story

Finally, there is a story about Hideo Nomo receiving an award for pitching a no-run, no-hit game

Nomo’s story

After showing images of his two No-hitters, it is observed that Nomo is only one of four players to have pitched No-hitters in both baseball leagues in America

Nomo’s story

He is then depicted receiving the baseball “rubber” on the pitcher’s mound the day he pitched the no-hit game.

Nomo’s story

In a final exchange the anchor jokes with the sports caster: “I didn’t realize that that actual thing could be considered as an award…” (as in what a strange practice they have over there)

Next Up:The Japanese Game

The foreign players coverage complete, the news program The foreign players coverage complete, the news program now turns its attention to the domestic game.now turns its attention to the domestic game.

Not unlike the American highlights, there is a tease for the Not unlike the American highlights, there is a tease for the Japanese action, prior to breaking for commercial.Japanese action, prior to breaking for commercial.

Here, the tease centers on the premier star of Japanese baseball “Godzilla” Matsui

The Japanese Game: The Broadcast

But when it comes time to air the But when it comes time to air the domestic game highlights, a very domestic game highlights, a very different approach: the systematic different approach: the systematic unfolding of the game as a storylineunfolding of the game as a storyline

X. Analysis

Key Findings1. Prioritization: Global over Local2. Prioritization Japanese over Foreign3. Story Structure Telling Global and Lo

cal Differently4. Ideational Subtext5. Immediate Implications: “Sayonara

Gaijin Complex” 6. Longer-Range Implications: National

ism Redux?

1. Prioritization: Global over Local

In this news station (and numerous others) a main segment of sports reportage concerns Sports Exports

They are generally featured first or else spotlighted as a tease prior to commercial break.

They often are placed ahead of the domestic league games

2. Prioritization: Local in the Global

At the same time, the only foreign action shown are those games in which Japanese players appear

News from foreign leagues only occasionally is presented;

and then only highlights of foreign players if they have accomplished a major feat

Local in the Global:an example

In the recently completed “World Series” in America, the Anaheim Angels won the series in seven games.

However, the tease for the Japanese news broadcast that night was Shinjo swinging at a pitch.

After the ad, the news highlighting Shinjo’s 9th inning strikeout (and reminding us he was the first Japanese to play in the World Series).

The only interview segment was with Shinjo Not the MVP of the series Not the winning manager Not even Shinjo’s star teammate, Barry Bonds

3. Prioritization: Japanese over Foreign

Generally, the feats of foreign players will take a Generally, the feats of foreign players will take a back seat to those of Japanese players, even if back seat to those of Japanese players, even if those achievements are out of the ordinary those achievements are out of the ordinary

Prioritization: Japanese over Foreign – an example

For example, earlier this year a Dodger player hit 4 home runs in one game.

This tied a major league record; only a handful of players have ever achieved this feat

Yet, the only reason it made the Japanese news was because Kazuhisa Ishii happened to be pitching for the Dodgers. He was the frame around which the story was built. His strike-outs and moments in peril were shown

first. As was his ultimate victory reported on. Only then was it reported: “By the way, Ishii’s

teammate, Shawn Green, hit 4 home runs”

4. Story Structure: Telling Global and Local Differently

A clear difference between news reports about Japanese and American games featuring Japanese players is the structure of the story.

In the U.S. games, the action is decontextualized: each at-bat for the Japanse player is shown; the game scoring, key plays and ultimate result are often neglected That is, unless a Japanese player figures into the them

Japanese games, by contrast, are more traditional news stories They are stories, told with heroes and villains, Engaged in a systematic unfolding of linked action There is context, drama and often a message

5. Ideational Subtext The messages that Japanese media have taken

from their sports exports is one of success out in the world; of an ability to compete on an equal (if not greater) footing

In the newscast detailed above, we saw these themes in:

Ichiro’s benching and subsequent heroicsSasaki’s 5 saves in 7 seven gamesNomo’s award and discussion of his 2 no-hitt

ersShinjo’s confidence in his ability to succeed

6. Immediate Implications: “Sayonara” Gaijin Complex

At a time when Japan is down, and there is so much to hold in disdain about Japanese society, one thing that is transpiring is this: Japan’s age-old “gaijin complex” is being put

to rest by media reports of these sports-imports

“Gaijin Complex” is the term coined by Christopher (1984) to capture Japan’s centuries’-old sense of inferiority vis-à-vis the west

7. Longer-Range Implications: Nationalism Redux?

At mid-season the Dodger’s Ishii faced Barry Bonds – the third leading American home run hitter of all time, and struck him out twice

It not only made the headline of many of the daily sports newspapers

It was presented as part of the introduction to the nationally-televised variety show “Akko ni omakase!” hosted by Wada Akiko.

Nationalism Redux?This is the kind that Stronach has referred to as “cultural” as opposed to “political” nationalism;The kind of “nationalism” McVeigh has labelled “soft nationalism” (2001)This is a potentially dangerous force because, as McVeigh writes: “Nationalism is implicated in the mundane practices of everyday life, and like other hegemonic ideologies, it garners its strength from its invisibility.”And gains power because it is widely re/produced in and transmitted by media

XI. Concluding Theorizations

1. The View from the Sociology of Culture: Raymond Williams

2. Social Re / Production: Berger and Luckmann

3. A Discourse on Identity: Stuart Hall4. Globalization: Harumi Befu, Arjun Appadurai,

Anthony Giddens

1. The View from 1. The View from Sociology of CultureSociology of Culture

Raymond WilliamsRaymond Williams (1981:33-5):

“Any adequate sociology of culture must… be an historical sociology…

It must recognize “on the one hand, the variable relations between ‘cultural producers’… and recognizable social institutionsinstitutions; on the other hand, the variable relations in which ‘cultural producers’ have been organized or have organized themselves, their formationsformations.

Applying Williams

The phenomenon outlined on these pages is generated in the first instance by the flow of capital (in terms of salaries) from cultural producers in exchange for a cultural good (athletes) who both represent and finalize the end product.

However, in the second instance, this phenomenon is the result of the organization of cultural producers and their products This comes in the form of news, entertainment

and advertising media

2. Social Re / Production

Berger and Luckmann (1967) observed that an institutional world tends to present society members with an objectified external reality.

This “objectivated social reality” is internalized in the course of socialization or encounters with influential information sources, such as media.

If the messages are persistent or forceful enough, they then can work to reproduce that very same social reality.

TV’s Social Reproduction TV’s Social Reproduction FunctionFunction

Television plays a major role in the internalization and reproduction (maintenance) processes

It contributes to, nurtures and replenishes a societal member’s “cultural stock of knowledge”

Ultimately it can be critical in attitude formation, as well as assisting in identity re/formation.

3. A discourse on Identity

Stuart Hall has written: Precisely because identities are constructed within, not outside, discourse, we need to understand them as produced in specific historical and institutional sites within specific discursive formations and practices by specific enunciative strategies

Applying Hall

Sports Exports are transpiring in a specific historical moment

connected with cultural, social and economic imperatives both inside and outside Japan

Applying Hall

The Media are institutional sites which:1. Operate within specific discursive formations

Often related (in critical media studies) to questions of economy and power

2. Themselves serve as a discursive formation Its routines serve to re/produce discourse

about contemporary Japanese identity

4. Harumi Befu:On Japan’s Globalization

We explored Befu’s 3 periods in Japan’s experience with globalization

So, too his 8 categories of diaspora

I have argued that this phenomenon of sport export is a new form of diaspora and constitutes a distinct era of globalization, or stage in Japan’s “globalization career”

Applying Befu

First of all, the attention to stages reminds us that every country has its own “global fingerprint” Every country has its own distinct global

career

Thus, Japan’s career will look not much like other country’s: whether that is measured in terms of economy,

polity, morality, social activity, or culture

Applying Befu

Secondly, this contemporary diasporic flow is having very direct, integrative effects “back home”

Rather than serving to fragment, this information-based return flow works to nurture and solidify national identity

In its two parts – export and re/import – we encounter a cohesive, binding phenomenon

Thanks in large part to media intervention

5. Giddens: On Globalization

Among the earliest formal theorists of globalization was Giddens (1991).

In his conception of globalization he identified two dynamic sources which we can associate with Japan’s sports exports:

1. The development of disembedding mechanisms

2. The reflexive appropriation of knowledge

a. The development of disembedding mechanisms:

Such mechanisms “lift out” social activity from localized contexts, reorganizing social relations across large time-space distances While Giddens did not have baseball or soccer in

mind, the phenomenon we discuss here applies: The global flow of athletes, brings activities from other sp

aces into our immediate context, normally removed from our consciousness and everyday experience

b. The reflexive appropriation of knowledge

The production of systematic knowledge about social life becomes integral to system reproduction, rolling social life away from the fixities of tradition

This is apparent in the sample newscast, above, where the anchor offers comments that implicitly compare the American practice of resting key players during a long season with the Japanese practice of daily play and endurance despite fatigue and injury

b. The Reflexivities of Global Modernity

Specifically, he said: “because the Japanese players are playing key roles in the majors (now) we are coming to know the details of the major league (system). Now I understand that it is a long and hard season, therefore main personnel has to be rested.”

Sportscaster: “yes it seems so… like McGuire (was rested last year).”

After the newscast the anchor said of Ichiro: “he’s been working hard. I thought that he wouldn’t play today and then he came out as a pinch hitter and he still played a key role.”

6. Appadurai:On Globalization

The push and pull between hetero- and homogenization creates “disjunctures” best assaying in terms of a set of “scapes”:

Ethnoscapes Technoscapes Mediascapes Financescapes Ideoscapes

Appadurai Applied 1:Appadurai Applied 1:EthnoEthnoscapescape

Sports players (and the media and fans who follow them) are part of the “landscape of persons who constitute the shifting world in which we live: tourists, immigrants, refugees, exiles and guestworkers…” (Appadurai, 1990:297).

These groups change the cultural landscape with the traditions they signify, the values they bring with them, the activities they influence elsewhere, or else transmit back “home”.

Appadurai Applied 2:Appadurai Applied 2: Technoscape

“Technology… both mechanical and Informational, now moves at high speeds across various kinds of previosly impervious boundaries.” (Appadurai, 1990: 299).

For instance, the technical capability of broadcasting games from America and Europe live, or to send taped highlights back “overseas” for nightly reportage are important features of the import dimension

They serve not to homogenize, but to extend local reach and integrate Japanese from afar into the indigenous domain

Appadurai Applied 3:Appadurai Applied 3:Financescape

This scape concerns the global flow of capital.It involves currency markets, stock exchanges and also c

ommodity speculation (this latter element is what “sport exports” are).

An example of how this speculation works is that when certain Japanese soccer players were first signed in England, it was alleged that a major reason was increased trade in goods: sales of replica jerseys and team items which would find an avid market in Japan.

This hidden financial dimension of the sport export phenomenon would be assisted by the active domestic mediascape.

Appadurai Applied 4:Appadurai Applied 4:Mediascape

Mediascapes “refer both to the distribution of the electronic capabilities tp produce and disseminate information (newspapers, magazines, television stations…)… and to the images of the world created by these media.” (Appadurai, 1990:299)This is the phenomenon at the heart of Media R

e-Import (in TV news, in particular, but also Morning and Afternoon “Wide Shows”, newspapers and weekly magazines)

Appadurai Applied 4:Appadurai Applied 4:Mediascape

Mediascapes “tend to be image-centered, narrative-based accounts of strips of reality…” (Appadurai, 1990:ibid.) Which we have seen in the treatment of Sports Exports b

y the news media

They engage “complex sets of metaphors by which people live… as they help to constitute narratives of the ‘other’…” (Appadurai, 1990:ibid.) The entire “discourse of national efficacy” is lived through

the metaphor of Japanese sport exports toiling (and succeeding) in foreign climes.

Appadurai Applied 5:Appadurai Applied 5:Ideoscape

Appadurai means here “concatenations of images… that are often directly political and frequently have to do with the ideologies of states…” (1990:299).

However, the ideology that is transmitted by “sport exports/media exports” is the implicit nationalism that comes less from the state than from information producers operating ought of inbred national affection or unconscious bias

The brand of “soft” or “cultural nationalism” discussed above

X. Final Thoughts

Global and Local

Work like Appadurai’s turns our attention to thWork like Appadurai’s turns our attention to the local impacts of global phenomena.e local impacts of global phenomena.

Japan is in another – new incarnation or perioJapan is in another – new incarnation or period of -- globalization moment.d of -- globalization moment.

It is a moment where internationally staged actIt is a moment where internationally staged activities have local ramificationsivities have local ramifications

Domestic Media,Global Content,

Local Effects

In this moment -- whether intentionally or not – In this moment -- whether intentionally or not – Japanese media appear to be serving as a filtJapanese media appear to be serving as a filter, conveying and centering these many episer, conveying and centering these many episodes of Japan’s global involvement.odes of Japan’s global involvement.

Stated more strongly: BECAUSE of media, this Stated more strongly: BECAUSE of media, this reflexive process of globalized identity discoreflexive process of globalized identity discourse is transpiringurse is transpiring

In the words of Shinjo…

Whether this is a good thing or not is less clear.Whether this is a good thing or not is less clear.

But the local response seems perfectly consistent with But the local response seems perfectly consistent with other local responses throughout Japanese history: other local responses throughout Japanese history: the age-old questions of how Japan measures up withe age-old questions of how Japan measures up with the world are still there.th the world are still there.

The new twist on this historical discourse appears to bThe new twist on this historical discourse appears to be the resounding response: “we’re okay.”e the resounding response: “we’re okay.”

In the words of Shinjo: “we’re both the same: major leIn the words of Shinjo: “we’re both the same: major leaguers. (I’ll get him) next time…”aguers. (I’ll get him) next time…”

In the Globalizing World of Sports Exports / Media Imports…

We will have many opportunities to test We will have many opportunities to test whether this is truewhether this is true