Ajay Kumar Ph. D. Thesis Final 03.06 - Shodhganga : a...
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CHAPTER-III
Transcript of Ajay Kumar Ph. D. Thesis Final 03.06 - Shodhganga : a...
CHAPTER-III
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CHAPTER-III
WORLD AND INDIAN SCENARIO OF URANIUM
3.1. CLASSIFICATION OF URANIUM DEPOSITS
Various schemes of classification have been proposed for uranium deposits from time
to time. They are as follows:
3.1.1 I.A.E.A Classification (1989)
1. UNCONFORMITY – RELATED
Proterozoic unconformity-related Clay-bound Proterozoic unconformity Strata- bound Proterozoic unconformity Fracture-bound Proterozoic unconformity Phanerozoic unconformity-related
2. SANDSTONE HOSTED Roll type Detrital Carbon Extrinsic Sulfide Tabular Extrinsic Carbon Vanadium-uranium Basal-channel Precambrian sandstone
3. QUARTZ –PEBBLE CONGLOMERATES TYPES
4. VEINS Spatially related to granite
Intragranitic veins Perigranitic veins
In metamorphic or Sedimentary rocks
5. BRECCIA COMPLEX
6. INTRUSIVE
Alaskite Granite, Peralkaline Syenite Carbonatite Pegmatite
7. PHOSPHORITE 8. COLLAPSE BRECCIA PIPE 9. VOLCANIC
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10. SURFICIAL
Duricrust Peat and Bog Karst Cavern Surficial Pedogenic and structure fill
11. METASOMATITE 12. METAMORPHITE 13. LIGNITE 14. BLACK SHALE
3.1.2A. Classification of uranium deposits (Dahlkamp, 1993): The different types
of uranium deposits according to economic ranking, co-or by-product and future
production category area tabulated below (Table 3.1).
Table 3.1. Classification of uranium deposits (Dahlkamp, 1993):
A. Economic ranking In production Unconformity Sandstone Contact-Subconformity Epimetamorphic Vein Collapse breccia pipes Surficial (B) Co by-products Quartz pebble conglomerates
(QPC) Breccia complex Intrusive (Cu) Phosphorite
(C) Possible future production or past production
Volcanic
Metasomatite
Synmetamorphic Lignite Black Shale
3.1.3. Based on the Size and Ore (Dahlkamp, 1993): This classification is based
upon the grade and size of the uranium deposits. They have been divided into small,
medium and large size deposits based upon their tonnage and low, medium and large
grade based upon their grade of uranium (Table 3.2).
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Table 3.2: Classification of uranium deposits based on their size and ore grade (Dahlkamp,1993).
.
3.1.4. The International Atomic Energy Agency defines the following categories for uranium resources (IAEA, 2004):
Identified Resources (formerly Known Conventional Resources)
Reasonable Assured Resources (RAR)
Inferred Resources (formerly Estimated Additional Resources I) (EAR-I))
Undiscovered Resources
Prognosticated Resources (Estimated Additional Resources II (EAR-II))
Speculative Resources (SR)
3.1.5. The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA, 1996 and 2004): IAEA
has assigned the uranium deposits according to their geological settings to 15 main
categories of deposit types, arranged according to their approximate economic
significance.
1. Unconformity-related deposits, 2. Sandstone deposits, 3. Quartz-pebble
conglomerate deposits, 4. Vein deposits, 5. Breccia complex deposits, 6. Intrusive
deposits, 7. Phosphorite deposits, 8. Collapse breccia pipe deposits, 9.Volcanic
deposits, 10. Surficial deposits, 11. Metasomatite deposits, 12. Metamorphic
deposits, 13. Lignite, 14. Black shale deposits, 15. Other types of deposits.
3.1.6. Genetic Classification of Uranium Deposits (Cuney, 2009)
A classification of the different types of uranium deposits is presented according to
formation conditions throughout the geological cycle (Cuney, 2009)-
(I) Uranium deposits related to surface processes: These deposits correspond to
syn- to early epigenetic near surface uranium concentrations formed during
intercontinental sedimentation and weathering.
S. No. Deposit Size Grade 1. Small <5000t U3O8 Low <0.15% U3O8
2. Medium 5000-20,000t U3O8
Medium 0.15 – 0.5% U3O8
3. Large >20,000t U3O8 Large >0.5% U3O8
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(a) The paleoplacer uranium deposits are the first formed on earth- e.g.
Witwatersrand and Elliot Lake QPC hosted uranium deposits in South Africa and
Canada respectively.
(b) Uranium deposits associated with calcretes which formed from Tertiary to Present
time, by evapotranspiration processes in fluviatile to playa systems, in arid to
semiarid climatic conditions.eg. Calcrete deposit in Yeelirrie in Australia and Langer
Heinrich in Namibia, are hosted by highly immature, porous, fluviatile valley-fill
sediments.
(II) Synsedimentary uranium deposits :
The U-rich black shales and phosphorites belongs to this type of uranium deposits..
Morocco hosts three quarters of the world resources of this type, but most of the
historical uranium production (17,150 t U from 1954 to 1992) was extracted from
Miocene–Pliocene phosphorites of Florida (Cathcart, 1978 in Cuney, 2009).
Uraniferous black shales form in shallow marine environments, in which U is
syngenetically deposited, adsorbed onto organic material and clay minerals. The
largest deposits is associated with Cambro-Ordovician shale of Ranstad, Sweden,
with 254,000 t U at 170–250 ppm U, but the Silurian graptolitic shales of Ronneburg-
Gera, Germany, with a resource of 169,230 t U at 850–1,700 ppm U, are the only
ones to have been mined (Cuney, 2009).
(III) Uranium deposits related to hydrothermal processes :
They are typically epigenetic type and formed during fluid circulation through porous
and sometimes fractured fluvial, lacustrine, deltaic to near-shore siliciclastic
formations, sometimes in limestones, or in fractured granitic, volcanic, or
metamorphic rocks. Uranium can be transported by various fluids of meteoric,
diagenetic, and/or metamorphic origin.
Eg. Roll-front deposits are the best example of epigenetic uranium deposition at a
redox interface (front).
Unconformity-related deposits are the typical diagenetic-hydrothermal uranium
deposits. Uranium deposition generally takes place at the interface between a thick,
Paleo to Mesoproterozoic sandstone cover and an Archean to Paleoproterozoic
crystalline basement, where graphite-rich faults were reactivated.
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Synmetamorphic uranium deposits are formed during the circulation of metamorphic
fluids in association with folding, faulting, and/or thrusting of the rocks. The most
favorable conditions correspond to the lowest grade of metamorphism in sediments,
during which the most important release of fluids occurs, and which may expel both
oxidized brines from evaporitic layers efficient for uranium transport, and
hydrocarbons produced by black shales, efficient for precipitating uranium.
Metasomatic uranium deposits are mainly associated with Na-metasomatism. The
alteration may result from a large variety of processes from the interaction of
magmatic fluids evolved from peralkaline granite as at Bokan Mountain, Alaska.
Uranium-mineralized skarns are another type of deposit related to metasomatic
processes. The Mary Kathleen skarns are a typical example.
Vein type uranium deposits related to granites are best exemplified by the mid-
European Variscan uranium province, which extends over more than 2,000 km from
Spain to the Bohemian Massif. The uranium deposits are essentially related to late
Carboniferous peraluminous leucogranites. They are located either in the granites
(French Massif Central) or in their metamorphic host rocks (Erzgebirge).
(IV) Deposits related to partial melting :
Low-grade uraninite mineralization can occur disseminated in granitoids sheets and
small plutonic bodies. They typically form in sedimentary rocks (arkoses, quartzites,
black shales, marlstone and limestones) metamorphosed to upper amphibolite facies
with partial melting. The Rössing uranium deposit in Namibia is the largest deposit of
this type (Berning et al. 1976 in Cuney, 2009).
(V) Deposits related to crystal fractionation :
This type of uranium deposit is only known in peralkaline complexes. The high
solubility of U, Th, Zr, and REE in such melts leads to their enrichment during
magmatic fractionation, and finally to the crystallization of complex minerals that
incorporate uranium together with these elements. Consequently, mineralizations
associated with peralkaline rocks have rarely been mined because of the high cost of
U extraction from refractory minerals. Another consequence is that the U
mineralization is always associated with the most fractionated units of peralkaline
complexes, located at their apex or margin. The largest low grade uranium resource
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related to fractional crystallization of peralkaline magmas is the Kvanefjeld deposit at
Ilimaussaq, Greenland. U is mainly hosted by steenstrupine, a complex U–Th–REE
silicophosphate, disseminated in peralkaline syenites (Sørensen et al. 1974 in Cuney,
2009).
3.1.7. Uranium Deposit classification based on their economic importance (IAEA-TECDOC-No.1629, 2009):
Types Spatial Relation Sub-types Example A. Unconformity related deposits
associated with and occur immediately below and above an unconformable contact that separates a crystalline basement intensively altered from overlying clastic sediments of Proterozoic age
(i) (ii)
Fracture controlled: dominantly basement hosted Clay bounded, ore developed along and just above or immediately below the unconformity in the overlying cover sandstones
McArthur River, Rabbit Lake, Eagle Point, McClean Lake, Dominique-Peter in Canada; Jabiluka, Ranger, Nabarlek, Koongarra in Australia Cigar Lake, Key Lake, Collins Bay A, B and D zones, Midwest, McClean, Cluff Lake D in Canada
B. Sandstone deposits
medium to coarse-grained sandstones deposited in a continental fluvial or marginal marine sedimentary environment. Uranium is precipitated under reducing conditions caused by a variety of reducing agents within the sandstone, for example, carbonaceous material, sulfides (pyrite), hydrocarbons and ferro-magnesium minerals (chlorite), etc.
iv. v. vi. vii.
Roll-front deposits Tabular deposits Basal channel deposits Tectonic/lithologic deposits
C). Quartz- pebble conglomerate deposits:
Detrital uranium ores are found in quartz-pebble conglomerates deposited as basal units in fluvial to lacustrine braided stream systems older than 2.3–2.4 Ga. The conglomerate matrix is pyritiferous, and gold, other oxide and sulfide detrital minerals are present in minor amounts.
Witwatersrand Basin where uranium is mined as a by-product of gold. Uranium deposits Blind River, Elliot Lake area of Canada.
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D.Vein deposits (i) Granite related deposits fractures with highly variable thickness, and generally important extension along strike. The veins consist mainly of gangue material (e.g. carbonates, quartz) and ore material, mainly pitchblende.
Singhbhum Shear Zone (Rao and Rao,1983).
(ii) Intrusive deposits: associated with intrusive or anatectic rocks of different chemical composition (alaskite, granite, monzonite, peralkaline syenite, carbonatite and pegmatite
The Rossing and Trekkopje deposits (Namibia).
E.Volcanic and caldera related deposits:
Uranium deposits of this type are located within and nearby volcanic caldera filled by mafic to felsic volcanic complexes and intercalated clastic sediments. Uranium minerals are commonly associated with molybdenum, other sulfides, violet fluorine and quartz.
--- Russian Federation. Examples are known in China (Gan-Hang volcanic belt), Mongolia.
F.Metasomatite deposits:
related to near-fault alkali metasomatites, developed upon different basement rocks: granites, migmatites, gneisses and ferruginous quartzites with production of albitites, aegirinites, alkali-amphibolic and carbonaceous-ferruginous rocks. Ores are uraninite- brannerite by composition and belong to ordinary grade. The reserves are usually medium scale or large
----- Ukraine
G. Surficial deposits
Young (Tertiary to Recent) near–surface uranium concentrations in sediments and soils. The largest of the surficial uranium deposits are in calcrete (calcium and magnesium carbonates),
-------- Australia (Yeelirrie deposit), and Namibia (Langer Heinrich deposit) and Somalia.
H. Collapse breccia pipe deposits
Occur in circular, vertical pipes filled with down-dropped fragments. The uranium is concentrated as primary uranium ore, generally uraninite, in the permeable breccia matrix,
only known in the USA
I.Phosphorite deposits
Consist of marine phosphorite of continental shelf origin containing syn-sedimentary stratiform, disseminated uranium in fine-grained apatite. Phosphorite deposits constitute large uranium resources, but at a very low grade.
New Wales Florida (pebble phosphate) and Uncle Sam (USA), Gantour (Morocco
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3.1.8. ROCK TYPES WITH ELEVATED URANIUM CONTENTS (RED
BOOK, 2009) :
Elevated uranium contents have been observed in different rock types such as
pegmatite, granites and black shale. In the past no economic deposits have been
mined commercially in these types of rocks. Their grades are very low, and it is
unlikely that they will be economic in the foreseable future.
(a) Rare metal pegmatites: These pegmatites contain Sn, Ta, Nb and Li
mineralization. They have variable U, Th and rare earth elements contents. Examples
include Greenbushes and Wodgina pegmatites (Western Australia). The Greenbushes
pegmatites commonly have 6–20 ppm U and 3–25 ppm Th.
(b) Black Shale: Black shale related uranium mineralization consists of marine
organic-rich shale or coal-rich pyritic shale, containing syn-sedimentary disseminated
uranium adsorbed onto organic material. Examples include the uraniferous alum
shale in Sweden and Estonia, the Chatanooga shale (USA), the Chanziping deposit
(China), and the Gera-Ronneburg deposit (Germany).
10.Other deposits a)Metamorphic deposits b)Limestone and paleokarst deposits c)Uranium coal deposits
the uranium concentration directly results from metamorphic processes. The temperature and pressure conditions and age of the uranium deposition have to be similar to those of the metamorphism of the enclosing rocks. Uraninite occurs in intraformational folds and fractures as introduced mineralization. Elevated uranium contents occur in lignite/coal, and in clay and sandstone immediately adjacent to lignite. Uranium grades are very low and average less than 50 ppm U.
--------
--------
---------
Forstau deposit (Austria) and Mary Kathleen (Australia). Jurassic Todilto Limestone in the Grants district (USA) Serres Basin (Greece), in North and South Dakota (USA), Kazakhstan and Freital (Germany).
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3.2. World Uranium Scenario:
According to WNA, 2009 the main point of world uranium scenario are as follow:
About 60 percent of the world’s production of uranium are from Canada,
Australia and Kazakhstan.
An increasing proportion is produced by in situ leaching method.
After a decade of falling mine production to 1993, output has generally risen since
then and now meets 67% of demand for power generation.
Canada produces the largest share of uranium from mines (20.5% of world supply
from mines), followed by Kazakhstan (19.4%) and Australia (19.2%).
According to latest report, Kazakhstan is the world leading producer of uranium
(WNA in IAEA, Red Book, 2011). Two more countries have joined the list of those
reporting uranium production figures since the previous Red Book: Malawi, which
started uranium production in 2009, and Germany, where uranium production
resumed through uranium recovery from mine remediation work.
The global distribution of uranium deposits are given in Fig.3.1. As per Red book
(2009), world’s 31% uranium resources are located in Australia followed by 12% in
Kazakstan and 9% in Canada. South Africa and United states have 6% and 4% of
world’s uranium resources respectively. Only 2% of world uranium resources are
found in India.
Fig.3.1. Global distribution of identified uranium resources (<USD 130 $ /kgU), (Red book, 2009)
Canada 9%
United States
4%
Brazil 5%
Niger 5%
Namibia 5%
South Africa 6%
Jordan 2% India
2%
China 3%
Uzbekistan 2%
Kazakhstan 12%
Ukraine 2%
Russian Federation
2%
Australia 31%
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3.2.1. Uranium Resources of World
The largest resources of uranium are known in Australia, dominated by the huge
Olympic Dam deposit. The current world uranium resource (reasonably assured+
inferred resources) is estimated at 5.5 Mt U (Table 3.3). Among those, three types
contain more than three quarter of the worldwide uranium resources: unconformity-
related deposits, IOCG (iron oxide–copper–gold) deposits, and sandstone-hosted
deposits (Table 3.4). Important past or current U production also comes from a
variety of additional deposit types: quartz–pebble conglomerates, veins, volcanic-
related, intrusive and metasomatic. Other types present either smaller resources such
as the calcrete, breccia pipe, and metamorphic deposits, or very large, but low-grade
resources (unconventional resources of the IAEA) with more than 7.6 Mt U (IAEA,
2008), such as sedimentary phosphates and black shales. Uranium enrichment in coal
and lignite represents only potential resources (Cuney, 2009).
Total identified resources are 7,096,600 tU recoverable at costs of up to $260 per kg,
increase of about 12 % since 2009. The identified resources are sufficient for over
100 years of supply for the world's nuclear fleet (Red Book, 2011). So-called
undiscovered resources - resources expected to exist based on existing geological
knowledge but requiring significant exploration to confirm and define them -
currently stand at 10,400,500 tU.
The increase in the resource base is the result of concerted exploration and
development efforts. Some $2 billion was spent on uranium exploration and mine
development in 2010, a 22% increase on 2008 figures, with a focus on areas with the
potential for hosting in-situ leach (ISL) recovery operations.
The world uranium deposits have been divided into two broad categories namely,
conventional resources and unconventional resources.
3.2.2. Conventional Uranium Resources
Conventional resources are defined as resources from which uranium is recoverable
as a primary product, a co-product or an important by-product. Identified Resources
consist of Reasonably Assured Resources (RAR) and Inferred Resources (previously
EAR-I). As per Red Book (2009), uranium resources of world has been categorised
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into two groups, the total uranium resources as on 1st January, 2009 under these two
categories are as follow (Table 3.3). Reasonablly Assured Resources (RAR) of
different types (Table 3.4), country wise (Table 3.5) and the other under inferred
category (Table 3.6) and Figs.3.2 & 3.2 are given below (Red Book, 2009).
Table 3.3: Uranium Resources of World (Red Book, 2009)
Cost Range RAR Category Inferred Category
< USD 40/kg U 5,69,900 tonnes U 2,26,600 tonnes U
< USD 80/Kg U 25,16,100 tonnes U 12,25,800 tonnes U
< USD 130/Kg U 35,24,900 tonnes U 18,79,100 tonnes U
<USD 280 /Kg U 40,04,500 tonnes U 23,01,800 tonnes U
Table 3.4: Reasonably Assured Resources (RAR) by deposit type (tonnes U)
Deposit Type <USD 40/kgU
<USD 80/kgU
<USD 130/kgU
<USD 260/kgU
1. Unconformity Related
267 100 536 800 559 400 564 300
2. Sandstone 32 900 424 200 888 500 1 118 800 3. Hematite
Breccia complex 0 900 300 908 000 908 000
4. Quartz pebble conglomerate
61 100 82 100 108 800 108 800
5. Vein 0 7 400 64 600 129 100 6. Intrusive 1 000 5 000 97 100 100 100
7.Volcanic and caldera related
0 132 400 166 800 193 500
8. Metasomatites 88 800 147 600 246 700 314 300 9. Others
(Phosphorite, collapse breccia,
surficial
53 600 138 600 263 000 278 200
10. Unspecified 65 400 141 700 222 000 289 400 Total 569 900 2 516 100 3 524 900 4 004 500
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Table 3.5: Reasonably assured Uranium Resources in different countries of World with major resources in Tonnes U (Red Book, 2009).
Cost Range in
USD/kg U
<40 40-80 80-130 130-260
Australia - 11,63,00 11,76,00 11,79,000
Canada 2,67,100 3,36,800 3,61,100 3,87,400
Kazakhstan 14,600 2,33,900 3,36,200 4,14,200
United States - 39,000 2,07,400 4,72,100
South Africa 76,800 1,42,00 1,95,200 1,95,200
Russian
Federation
- 100400 1,81,400 1,81,400
Brazil 1,39,900 1,57,700 1,57,700 1,57,700
Uzbekistan - 55,200 76,000 76,000
Namibia - 2000 1,57,000 1,57,000
Ukraine 2500 38,700 76,000 1,42,400
China 52,000 100900 1,15,900 1,15,900
Niger 17,000 42,500 2,42,500 2,44,600
Table 3.6: Inferred Resources (RAR) by deposit type (tonnes U)
S.N0.
Type of the Deposit <USD 40/kgU
<USD 80/kgU
<USD 130/kgU
<USD 260/kg
1 Unconformity Related
99 700 163 600 165 500 169 400
2 Sandstone 32 200 396 000 480 500 528 700 3 Hematite Breccia
complex 0 339 900 347 500 347 500
4 Quartz pebble conglomerate
73 906 88 900 94 500 107 100
5 Vein 0 700 50 700 159 600 6 Intrusive 800 5 900 92 500 181 200 7 Volcanic and caldera
related 0 31 300 48 000 98 500
8 Metasomatites 3 200 28 000 335 900 413 300 9 Phosphorite, collapse
breccias and surficial 0 118 300 190 400 201 300
10 Unspecified 16 800 53 200 73 600 95 200 Total 226 600 1 225 800 1 879 100 2 301 800
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Fig. 3.3 Inferred Resources (RAR) by deposit type (tonnes U) (Red Book, 2009).
Fig.3.2. Reasonably assured Uranium Resources in different countries of World with major resources in Tonnes U (Red Book, 2009).
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The data suggest that in totality, Australia has got highest uranium resources in the
world followed by Canada, Kazakhstan and United states.
3.2.3. Unconventional Uranium Resources Unconventional resources are resources from which uranium is only recoverable as a
minor by-product, such as uranium associated with phosphate rocks, non-ferrous
ores, carbonatite, black schists, and lignite. Most of the unconventional uranium
resources reported to date are associated with uranium in phosphate rocks, but other
potential sources exist (e.g. seawater and black shale).
Unconventional uranium resources were reported occasionally by countries in Red
Books beginning in 1965. In 2009, only very few countries (Egypt, Finland, Peru and
South Africa) mentioned or reported such resources (Tables 3.7 & 3.8). But with the
price of uranium having generally increased since 2003, compared to the preceding
20 years, unconventional uranium resources, particularly those contained in
phosphate rocks, gained more attention.
In Brazil, development of the St. Quitéria Project is ongoing, with production of as
much as 1000 tU/yr from phosphoric acid produced from the Itataia
phosphate/uranium deposit expected to begin in 2012. Egypt has around 42 000 tU
contained in upper Cretaceous phosphate deposits, with U content ranging between
50-200 ppm. Peru has potential and estimated to contain as much as 16 000 tU at an
average grade of 60 ppm.
South Africa has shown interest in the long-term potential of uranium recovery from
phosphate deposits off its west coast with uranium grades as high as 430 ppm. Other
countries, such as Jordan, Morocco and Tunisia have also expressed an interest in
recovering uranium from phosphate rocks during fertiliser production (Red Book,
2009).
Besides rock phosphate, low-grade polymetallic (nickel, zinc, copper and cobalt)
sulfide ores in the Talvivaara black shales of Finland have been in commercial
production since October 2008 using bio-heap leaching. Although uranium recovery
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is not included in the extraction process at present, the uranium contained in ore
could be extracted under favourable market conditions.
Table 3.7 Unconventional Uranium Resources (1000 tU) reported in 1965–1993 Red Books (Red Book, 2009).
Countries Phosphate Rock Non-Ferrous rocks Carbonatite Black schist, Lignite
Brazil 28.0-70.0 2.0 13.0 - Chile 0.6-2.8 4.5-5.2 - -
Columbia 20.0-60.0 - - Egypt 35.0-100.0 - -
Finland 1.0 - 2.5 3.0-9.0 Greece 0.5 - - - India 1.7-2.5 6.6-22.9 - 4.0
Jordan 100.0-123.4 - - - Kazakhastan 58.0 - - -
Mexico 100.0-151.0 1.0 - - Morocco 6526.0 0.14-1.41 - -
Peru 20.0 - - - Sweden - - - 300.0
Syria 60.0-80.0 1.8 - - Thailand 0.5-1.5 - - -
USA 14.0-33.0 - - - Venezuela 42.0 - - - Vietnam - - - 0.5
Table 3.8: Unconventional Resources reported in 2009(tonnes U) (Red book, 2009)
S.No. Country Tonnes U Type of Deposits
1. Egypt 42 000 Phosphorite
2. Finland 5 500 Black shale and carbonatite deposits
3. Peru 21 600 Phosphorite and polymetallic (Cu, Pb, Zn, Ag, W, Ni) deposits
4. South Africa Not Reported Phosphorite and coal deposits
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3.2.3.1. Phosphorite: The total uranium reported in previous Red Books as
unconventional resources, dominated by phosphorite deposits in Morocco (>85%),
amounts to about 7.3–7.6 million tU. As noted above, this total does not include
significant deposits in other countries and is therefore a conservative estimate of the
existing unconventional uranium resource base.
Other estimates of uranium resources associated with marine and organic phosphorite
deposits point to the existence of almost 9 million tU in four countries alone: Jordan,
Mexico, Morocco and the United States. Others estimate the global total to amount to
22 million tU, as cited in the 2005 Red Book. Surveys of uranium content in
phosphate rocks, combined with estimates of the extent of such deposits, support
estimates of substantial amounts of uranium contained in phosphate rocks.
3.2.3.2. Economic Quantity of Uranium Tailings in South Africa: Efforts to
recover uranium from tailings deposits in South Africa have also been advanced
recently. Harmony Gold has been investigating the potential of recovering uranium
from 11 tailings dumps southwest of Johannesburg, where the Cooke dump near
Doornkop alone contains an estimated 9 500 tU, as well as gold. Gold Fields is also
investigating the potential of tailings dumps and a gold – uranium quartz – pebble
conglomerate at the Beatrix mine near Welkom, containing an estimated 24 600 tU
and 75 t Au and First Uranium is working toward uranium production from 14 old
tailings dams included in the Mine Waste Solutions (MWS) tailings reclamation
project.
3.2.3.3. Coal Ash: Canadian based Sparton Resources has been actively developing
the technology for the recovery of uranium from coal ash, focussing efforts on a
Chinese coal-fired power station, but is also exploring other potentially suitable ash
disposal sites in China, South Africa and Eastern Europe. Although the process has
been conducted on a limited scale in the past, as with other unconventional sources of
uranium, strong uranium prices will be necessary for such extraction technologies to
be commercially viable. Although uranium recovery from tailings and coal ash would
be a welcome addition, these projects, as currently outlined, would contribute
annually only small amounts of material, on the order of a few hundred tonnes U/year
from each operation. UraMin Inc. (now AREVA Resources South Africa) had been
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investigating uranium recovery from the Springbok Flats coal field, estimated to
contain 77 000 tU at grades of 0.06 – 0.1% U. However, developing a cost effective,
environmentally acceptable means of uranium extraction from this potential source
remains a challenge.
3.2.3.4. Seawater: Sea water has long been regarded as a possible source of
uranium. Uranium concentration of seawater is only about 3 parts per billion, which
is about 3 milligrams of uranium per cubic meter. The total volume of the oceans is
about 1.37 billion cubic kilometers, so there is a total of about 4.5 billion tons of
uranium in seawater which almost inexhaustible nature (Ferguson, 2012).
Nonetheless, with the exception of its high recovery cost, there is no intrinsic reason
why at least some of these significant resources could not be extracted from various
coast lines at a total rate of a few hundred of tonnes annually. Research on uranium
recovery from seawater was carried out in Germany, Italy, Japan, the United
Kingdom and the United States of America in the 1970s and 1980s, but is now only
known to be continuing in Japan. Japanese researchers continued trials of a recovery
system, based on polymer braids, directly moored to the ocean floor, which recovered
about 2.0 gU per kg absorbent over the test period.
The annual recovery factor of large scale systems was estimated in 2006 to be about
1200 tU/year at a recovery cost of over USD 700/kgU. Research is in progress
through pilot plant scale in Japan. Use of this type of technology would eliminate the
need to process large quantities of seawater. Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute
scientists have designed a fabric absorbent to extract uranium from seawater in 2002
(Seko et al., 2003 reported in Ferguson, 2012).
Japanese research suggests the lowest possible cost to extract uranium is 25,000 Yen
per kilogram of uranium (Tamada, et al 2006 in Ferguson, 2012). At the current
exchange rates that equates to about 300 USD per kilogram of uranium (March 2012,
1USD ~ 81 JPY). This is about 3 times more than the current price of uranium, and it
is expected that the actual recovery price would be about 10 times the current price of
uranium (Lane et al., 1999 in Ferguson, 2012).
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3.3. Uranium Production in Different Countries:
Uranium production in different countries of the world is given in fig.3.4a and 3.4b.
Till 2008, Canada was the leading producer of uranium in world followed by
Kazakhstan and Australia. According to Red Book (2009), the uranium production
world over increased from 39,617 t U in 2006 to 41,244tU in 2007 to 43,880 in 2008,
thereby recorded an increase of about 6 % from 2007 to 2008.
In 2009, production of uranium is expected to increase by 16 % to over 51,000 t U. In
2008, Canada (21%), Kazakstan (20%), Australia (19%), Namibia (10%), Russian
Federation (8%), Niger (7%), Uzbekistan (5%) and the United States (3%) accounted
for about 93% of world production of uranium. India produced 230tU in 2006, 250
tU in 2007, 250 tU in 2008 and expected to produce 250 tU in 2009. Till 2008, India
has produced a total of 9153 tonnes U (Red Book, 2009).
India produced 290 tonnes U in 2009 and 400tU in 2010 and 2011(WNA, 2012).
Thus, till 2011, India produced a total of 10,243tonnes of U. Kazakhstan is the world
leading producer of uranium. Global production has increased by over 25% since
2008, standing at 54,670 tU in 2010 (WNA in IAEA, Red Book, 2011).
Fig.3.4a. Worldwide Uranium production in 2008 (Red Book, 2009)
56
3.3.1. Production of Uranium from Different Mines of the World
From Table.3.9a, it is clear that Canada was the leading producer of uranium from its
mine world over from 2002 to 2008. In 2008, Canada produced 9000 tonnes of U
followed by Kazakstan 8521 tU and Australia 8430 tU. India produced only 271 tU
in 2008. The total demand for uranium also increased from 63% in the year 2006 to
68% in 2008.
Table 3.9a: Production of uranium from different mines of the world (tonnes U) (Red Book,2009)
Country 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 Canada 11604 10457 11597 11628 9862 9476 9000
Kazakhstan 2800 3300 3719 4357 5279 6637 8521 Australia 6854 7572 8982 9516 7593 8611 8430 Namibia 2333 2036 3038 3147 3067 2879 4366
Russia (est) 2900 3150 3200 3431 3262 3413 3521 Niger 3075 3143 3282 3093 3434 3153 3032
Uzbekistan 1860 1598 2016 2300 2260 2320 2338 USA 919 779 878 1039 1672 1654 1654
Ukraine (est) 800 800 800 800 800 846 800 China (est) 730 750 750 750 750 712 769
South Africa 824 758 755 674 534 539 566 Brazil 270 310 300 110 190 290 330
India (est) 230 230 230 230 177 270 271
Fig.3.4b. World wide Uranium production in 2011 (WNA, 2012)
57
Table 3.9b: Production of uranium from different mines of the world (tonnes U) 2004 to 2008 (Red Book, 2009); and 2009 to 2011 (WNA, 2012)
According to WNA, 2012, Malawi has also contributed in uranium production from 2009
to 2011 of the tune of 104tU, 670tU and 846 tU respectively. Kazakhstan produces the
largest share of uranium from mines (36% of world supply from mines), followed by
Czech Repub. 465 452 412 408 359 306 263 Romania(est) 90 90 90 90 90 77 77
Germany 221 104 77 94 65 41 0 Pakistan (est) 38 45 45 45 45 45 45
France 20 0 7 7 5 4 5 Total world 36 072 35 574 40 178 41 719 39 444 41 282 43 764
U3O8 (tonnes) 42 529 41 944 47 382 49 199 46 516 48 683 51 611 % world demand
- - - 65% 63% 64% 68%
Country 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 Canada 11597 11628 9862 9476 9000 10173 9783 9145
Kazakhstan 3719 4357 5279 6637 8521 14020 17803 19451 Australia 8982 9516 7593 8611 8430 7982 5900 5983 Namibia 3038 3147 3067 2879 4366 4626 4496 3258
Russia (est) 3200 3431 3262 3413 3521 3564 3562 2993 Niger 3282 3093 3434 3153 3032 3243 4198 4351
Uzbekistan 2016 2300 2260 2320 2283 2657 2874 3000 USA 878 1039 1672 1654 1430 1453 1660 1537
Ukraine (est) 800 800 800 846 800 840 850 890 China (est) 750 750 750 712 769 1200 1350 1500
South Africa 755 674 534 539 566 563 583 582 Brazil 300 110 190 290 330 345 148 265
India (est) 230 230 177 270 271 290 400 400 CzechRepub. 412 408 359 306 263 258 254 229 Romania(est) 90 90 90 77 77 75 77 77
Germany 77 94 65 41 0 0 0 52 Pakistan (est) 45 45 45 45 45 50 45 45
France 7 7 5 4 5 8 7 6 Malawi - - - - - 104 670 846
Total world 40 178
41 719 39 444 41 282 43 798 51450 54660 54 610
U3O8 (tonnes) 47 382
49 199 46 516 48 683 51651 60675 64461 64402
% world demand
- 65% 63% 64% 68% 78% 78% 85%
58
Canada (17%) and Australia (11%) (Table.3.8b). WNA expects 2012 production to be
52,221tU. UxC predicts about 63,600 tU in 2012.
According to World Uranium Mining report (August, 2012):
About 64 percent of the world's production of uranium from mines is
from Kazakhstan, Canada and Australia.
An increasing proportion of uranium, now 45%, is produced by in situ leaching.
After a decade of falling mine production to 1993, output of uranium has generally
risen since then and now meets 85% of demand for power generation.
3.3.2. Percentage Distribution of World Uranium Production by Different Production Methods In 1990, 55% of world production of uranium came from underground mines, but this
shrunk dramatically to 33% in 1999. From 2000, the new Canadian mines increase it
again, and with Olympic Dam it is now around half. In situ leach (ISL, or ISR)
mining has been steadily increasing its share of the total. From Table 3.9b, it is clear
that underground mining method is the main method of uranium mining worldwide
which contributed about 39.4 % in 2005 and 32% in 2008, but overall it shows a
decreasing trend from 2005 to 2008.
Application of ISL method shows increasing trend for uranium mining right from
2005 (20%) to 2008(29.5%) and expected to increase 36.3% in 2009 as compared to
28.9% by underground method.
Table 3.9c: Percentage distribution of world uranium production by different production methods (Red Book, 2009).
Production method 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 (expected) Open –pit 28.1 24.2 24.4 27.3 25.0
Underground 39.4 39.8 36.5 32.0 28.9 In Situ Leaching (ISL) 20.0 25.0 27.2 29.5 36.3 Co-product/by-product 10.3 8.6 9.5 8.9 7.8
Heap Leaching 1.9 2.2 2.3 2.3 1.9 Other method(Mine water treatment etc)
0.3 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1
59
Table 3.9d: Percent contribution of uranium production by different methods in 2011(WNA, 2012)
S.
No Methods U production
(Tonnes) Percent
(%) 1. In-situ Leaching(ISL) 25296 46 2. Conventional
underground (Except Olympic Dam)
16059 30
3. Conventional open -pit 9268 17 4 Co-product/by-product 3987 7
Globally, ISL is now the dominant mining method, accounting for 39% of 2010
production due to significant ISL production increase in Kazakhstan. Underground
mining's share stood at 32%, open pit mining 23% and co-product and by-product
recovery from gold and copper mining operations making up 6% (Red Book, 2011).
From Table 3.9d, it can be seen that in 2011, ISL method was the dominant method
of uranium production which contributed about 46% while conventional underground
method contributed 30%. 17 % production of uranium was from conventional open-
pit and only 7% by co-product or as by-product (WNA, 2012).
3.3.3. World Uranium Mine Production by Different Companies:
There are number of company involved in uranium mining and production. The
contributions by major companies of world are given in Table 3.10a. From Table
3.10a, it is clear that the major player in uranium production in the world are M/S
Rio Tinto followed by Cameco and Areva whose share was 18%, 15% and 14% and
they produced about 7975 t, 6659 and 6318 tonnes of uranium respectively. In 2011,
only eight companies marketed 85% of the world's uranium mine production (WNA,
2012) (Table 3.10b).
60
Table 3.10a: World Uranium Mine Production by different companies in 2008 (Red Book, 2009).
Table 3.10b: World Uranium Mine Production by different companies in 2011 (WNA, 2012).
Table 3.11: List of uranium mine, their owner, production and percent of world share (Uranium, 2007).
SN Company tonnes U % 1 Rio Tinto 7975 18 2 Cameco 6659 15 3 Areva 6318 14 4 KazAtomProm 5328 12 5 ARMZ 3688 8 6. BHP Billiton 3344 8 7. Navoi 2338 5 8. Uranium One 1107 3 9. Paladin 917 2 10. GA/ Heathgate 636 1 11. Other 5620 13 12. Total 43,930 100%
SN Company tonnes U % 1 KazAtomProm 8884 17 2 Areva 8790 16 3 Cameco 8630 16 4 ARMZ - Uranium One 7088 13 5 Rio Tinto 4061 8 6. BHP Billiton 3353 6 7. Navoi 3000 5 8. Paladin 2282 4 9. Other 8521 15
10. Total 54610 100
Mine Country Mine Owner Type Production (tU)
% of world
McArthur River Canada Cameco Underground 6383 15 Ranger Australia ERA(Rio Tinto
68%) Open pit 4527 10
Rossing Namibia Rio Tinto (69%) Open pit 3449 8 Olympic Dam Australia BHP Billiton By-product/
underground 3344 8
Kraznokamensk Russia ARMZ Underground 3050 7 Arlit Niger Areva/Onarem Open pit 1743 4 Rabbit Lake Canada Cameco Underground 1368 3 Akouta Niger Areva/Onarem Underground 1289 3 McClean Lake Canada Areva Open pit 1249 3 Akdala Kazakhstan Uranium One ISL 1034 2 Top 10 Total 27,436 62%
61
Out of top ten producing uranium mines of world, % share in production was highest
from McArthur River, Canada followed by Ranger mines of Australia and Rossing
from Namibia respectively (Table. 3.11).
440 commercial nuclear power reactors were in operation around the world at the end
of 2010, representing 375 GWe of capacity and cumulatively requiring 63,875 tU per
year. By 2035, the report found, this can be expected to grow to between 540 GWe of
capacity requiring 97,645 tU and 746 GWe needing 136,385 tU. The scenarios take
into account the effects of policies introduced by some countries following the March
2011 Fukushima accident (Red Book, 2011).World uranium production and demand
is given in Fig.3.5.
Fig. 3.5. World uranium production and demand (WNA,2012)
3.4. New Mines of world (Red Book, 2009)
3.4.1. Canada has two major new mines likely to come into production in 2011.
Cameco's Cigar Lake underground mine is being developed for 2011 start-up. It will
truck ore for treatment at McClean Lake and Rabbit Lake mills, 70 km away,
eventually to produce 7000 tU/yr. With this and the now-delayed Midwest mine
operating, Canadian output could be substantially be concentrated at two mills:
McClean Lake producing about 7600 tU and Key Lake 7000 tU per year, with about
3400 t/yr coming from Rabbit Lake.
62
3.4.2. In Australia there are plans progressively to increase the uranium output of
Olympic Dam, to about 16,000 tonnes U per year and two smaller ISL mines are due
to start production by about 2010.
3.4.3. In Kazakhstan a number of ISL mines are due to start over the next few years,
taking Kazakh uranium production to about 15,000 tU per year by 2010.
With the recovery of uranium prices since about 2003, there is a lot of activity in
preparing to open new mines in many countries. The WNA reference scenario
projects world uranium demand as about 74,000 tU in 2015, and most of this will
need to come directly from mines (in 2007, 36% came from secondary sources).
3.5. Scenario of Uranium Industry in India
Uranium industry in India developed as a part of ambitious programme of the
Department of Atomic Energy, Government of India to make India self sufficient in
the field of uranium exploration, uranium mining and production of nuclear power.
Atomic Minerals Directorate for Exploration and Research (AMD), an R & D unit
under department of Atomic Energy, Government of India, is involved in survey and
exploration for Atomic Minerals including uranium in different parts of the country.
Uranium exploration in India dates back to early 1950 with the first discovery of
Jaduguda uranium deposit in East Singhbhum district of Jharkhand.
Uranium Corporation of India (UCIL), an undertaking of the Department of Atomic
Energy is responsible for mining of uranium ore discovered by AMD. AMD since its
inception in the year 1949 has established economically viable and technologically
feasible uranium deposits in various parts of the country. These important uranium
deposits include (Gupta, 2006):
3.5.1. Structural controlled Vein- type uranium in Singhbhum shear zone,
Jharkhand. This type of deposits have been located at Jaduguda, NarwaPahar,
Bhatin, Turamdih, Bandhuhurang, Bagjata, Mohuldih etc. in Singhbhum shear zone,
East Singhbhum district of Jharkhand.
63
3.5.2. Sandstone hosted Uranium deposit
Sandstone hosted uranium deposits have been established in Cretaceous Mahadek
sandstones in West Khasi Hills district of Meghalaya at Domiasiat and Wahkyn and
smaller deposits associated with Siwalik sandstone in the state of Himachal Pradesh.
3.5.3. Unconformity Related Uranium Deposits
The only deposits of this category have been discovered near Lambapur in Nalgonda
district of Andhra Pradesh.
3.5.4. Dolostone hosted Uranium deposit
This type of uranium deposit has been located at Tumallapalle in Cuddapah basin
of Andhra Pradesh.
3.5.5. Carbon-Phyllite hosted uranium at Rohil- Ghateshwar, Sikar district,
Rajasthan.
3.5.6. Limestone hosted in Gogi area, Bhima Basin, Karnataka.
3.5.7. QPC type at Walkunji and Arbail, Kannara district, Karnataka.
Uranium occurrences also located in QPC of Koira and Daiteri IOG basins of Orissa
and Dhanjori conglomerates of Singhbhum in Sighbhum-Orissa craton in Eastern
India. In India, uranium deposits have been located in different parts of the country.
The main deposit so far explored is in the famous 180 km long arcuate Singhbhum
shear zone in the state of Jharkhand in Eastern India. The deposits include Jaduguda,
Bhatin, NarwaPahar, Turamdih, Bagjata, Kanyaluka, Mohuldih in East Singhbhum
district of Jharkhand (Figs.3.6, 3.7 and 3.8).
(a) Jaduguda: Located in East Singhbhum district of Jharkhand. This is the first
place where exploration followed by exploratory mining was undertaken. Soon after,
exploitation was undertaken by UCIL in 1967 mining is still in progress and
mineralization has been found to continue beyond 900 meters vertical depth. Here the
mineralization is associated with conglomerate and chlorite schist of Singhbhum
group of Proterozoic age.
64
(b) Bhatin: It lies 2 km west of Jaduguda along the Singhbhum shear zone.
Mineralization is associated with brecciated quartzite and biotite chlorite schist,
which are highly sheared. Mining is in progress.
(c) Narwapahar: It lies 10 km west of Jaduguda along the Singhbhum shear zone.
The host rock for uranium mineralization is chlorite-quartz schist and the
mineralization is spread over 2000 meters strike length. Currently this deposit is
under exploitation by UCIL.
(d) Turamdih: A cluster of deposits (Turamdih-East, Turamdih-South, Turamdih-
West, and Keruadurgri) occur in proximity to each other at Turamdih located nearly
20 kms west of Jaduguda. Uranium mineralization is associated with chlorite quartz
schist. Mining of Turamdih east deposit is in progress by UCIL.
(e) Mohuldih: It is located 5 km west of Turamdih. The host rock is tourmaline
bearing quartz schist, quartzite and chlorite quartz schist. Mineralization is
established over 1 km strike length and within a vertical depth of 250 m.
(f) Bagjata: It is located nearly 25 km South East of Jaduguda. Uranium
mineralization is hosted by quartz chlorite biotite schist. The mineralization is spread
over 450 m strike length with a vertical persistence of 260m.
3.6. Uranium Resources of India: A Review
Most of the uranium deposits of India are located in Singhbhum shear zone of
Jharkhand, Meghalaya plateau in north-east India, Cuddapah basin in Andhra Pradesh
and Gogi in Bhima basin in the state of Karnataka in South India and in parts of
Chhattisgarh basin in Central India.
As per Red Book (IAEA, 2009), India’s identified conventional uranium resources
(RAR and Inferred) are estimated to amount to 105900tU and hosted by following
type of deposits (Table.3.14). According to recent estimate, India's uranium resources
are moderate with 73,000 tonnes U as reasonably assured resources (RAR) and
33,000 tonnes as inferred resources in situ (to $130/kg U) as on January 2009
(WNA, 2011).
65
As per Red Book (2009), vein type constitutes the highest amount of uranium
resource in India followed by sandstone hosted, unconformity type and metasomatite.
QPC hosted uranium resource shares only 0.33 %. Other represents 22.94% (Table.
3.12 and Fig.3.9a).
As per latest report, the total uranium resource of India has been estimated to be 1,
84,446 t U3O8 (Parihar, 2012) (Table. 3.13). Among all the states, Andhra Pradesh
tops in uranium resources in India followed by Jharkhand and Meghalaya. As far as
categorywise distribution of uranium resources are concerned, Stratabound type
constitutes the highest amount (39.15%) followed by Vein type (37.06), Sandstone
type (11.60%), Unconformity Type (11.55%) and Metasomatite (0.42%). QPC share
is only 0.22% of total uranium resources in India (Parihar, 2012) (Table.3.14)
(Fig.3.9b).
3940
28 21
34
JadugudaBhatin
NarwapaharTuramdih (E)
BandhuhurangMohuldih
Tatanagar
Bagjata534
6
26
25
27
33101112
7
1314
24
123
KhejurderiDhantuppaPurandungri
45
KanyalukaBagjata
6 Pathargora7 Jaduguda8 Tirukocha9 Bhatin
10 Nimdih11 Rajdah12 Narwapahar131415161718
GaradihTuramdih (S)Turamdih(E)Turamdih(W)KeruadungriMohuldih
192021222324
RajgaonNandupShankadihDuarpuramLotapaharButgora
252627
JawardihBaraasthiChaidah
282930313233343536
AstakoliSimulberaBangurdihUkampaharDudraGaludihBagjata- DalmakochaUkriNilmohanpur
373839404142
Turamdih(E)RangamaliaTantidungriBakrakochaGurulpadaDugridih
22
23
21
3041
42 3536 29 38
1932
18 1631
20
1715 37
98
Alluvium
OMGSoda granite & Granophyre
MetabasicsConglomerate/ Quartzite
Schist and QuartziteMayurbhanj Granite/SinghbhumGranite
Trans- Dhanjori Sector
Syn- Dhanjori sector
Copper deposit: I. Roam-rakha; II. Surda;III. Mosabani; IV. BadiaUranium deposit and occurrences
I
IIIII
0 5 10 Km
IV
86°45'22°15'
86°45' 23°00'
85°30'23°00'
URANIUM AND COPPER DEPOSITS/ OCCURRENCES
Fig.3.6. Geological map of Singhbhum shear zone (Jharkhand) showing important uranium occurrences and uranium mines (Geology after Dunn and Dey, 1942; modified by Sarkar et al., 1969 and Uranium occurrences after AMD in Rao and Rao, 1983).
66
Fig. 3.7. Singhbhum Thrust Belt. Simplified geological map with locations of U deposits and Cu deposits with by-product U. Mine symbol indicate mines active in 2006 (Dahlkamp, 2009).
Fig. 3.8. Uranium mines in India (after WNA, 2011)
67
The different types of uranium deposits/occurrences in India along with their
examples are tabulated below (Table.3.14). The locations of different uranium
occurrences, uranium mines and planned production centres are given in fig. 3.7(after
Awati and Grover, 2005 in Dahlkamp, 2009).
Table.3.12: Category-wise distribution of uranium resource in India (Red book, 2009)
Table.3.13: Category-wise distribution of uranium resource in India (Parihar, 2012)
S.No. Category Resources (%)
1. Vein type 49.06
2. Sandstone type 14.57
3. Unconformity type 12.92
4. Metasomatite 0.63
5. QPC 0.33
6. Others(Limestone, Phosphorite, Dolostone)
22.49
S.No. Category Resources (%)
1. (Others) Stratabound 39.15
2. Vein type 37.06
3. Sandstone 11.60
4. Unconformity 11.55
5. Metasomatite 0.42
6. QPC 0.22
Fig.3.9a.Category- wise distribution of uranium resource in India (Red book, 2009).
68
Fig.3.9b. Category- wise distribution of uranium resource in India (Parihar, 2012).
Fig.3.10. Location of uranium Regions of India,, active uranium mines and planned production centres (after Awati and Grover,2005).AP: Andhra Pradesh, ARP: Arunachal Pradesh, AS: Assam,DE: Delhi, GJ: Gujarat, HP: Himachal Pradesh, JK: Jharkhand(Formerly Bihar),J & K: Jammu and Kashmir, KE: Kerala, KT: Karnataka, ME: Meghalaya, MH: Maharashtra, MP: Madhya Pradesh,OR: Orissa, RJ: Rajasthan, TN: TamilNadu, UP: Uttar Pradesh, WB: West Bengal (In Dahlkamp,2009).
69
Table 3.14. Examples of the types of Uranium deposits and/or occurrence in India (Pandit, 2002; Das et al., 1988; Rao and Rao,1983; Parihar,2012; Kaul and Verma;
Krishnamurthy,2006; Senthil Kumar and Srinivasan,2002; Sunil kumar et al., 1990, Varma et al., 1988)
Sl.No. Classification Area ( * Deposits) 1. Quartz-Pebble
Conglomerate and Arenites
Walkunji*, Yelakki, Dhanjori Conglomerates Badampahar, Arbail.
2. Vein Type (Structure and / or Lithology Controlled)
Singhbhum shear Zone (Jaduguda*, Narwapahar*, Bhatin, Turamdih*, Bandhuhurang*, Mohuldih*, Bagjata*, Garadih*), Bodal*, Jajawala*, Umra- Udaisagar, lesser Himalayan occurences.
3. Stratabound (with Dolostones)
Tumallapalle-Rachkuntapalle along south-and SW margin of Cuddapah basin, AndhraPradesh
4. Sandstone Mahadek Sandstone, Gomaghat*, Domiasiat*, Satpura Gondwanas, Siwaliks (Astotha*).
5. Limestone hosted( in fractured limestone)
Gogi in Bhima basin, Karnataka.
6. Phosphorite Mussorie, Mardeora, 7. Magmatic
Disseminated Palamau, Diara Granites, Dhanota-Dhancholi, Gundapuri, Mylliem Granites.
8. Unconformity-related Lambapur, Chitrial in Cuddapah basin, Andhra Pradesh, target areas such as Darba, Bijawars of Uttar Pradesh, Cuddapah Basin and Indravati Basin have been indentified.
9. Surficial Not yet located, target areas such as Bikaner and Barmer have been identified.
3.7. Uranium Provinces of India: Exploration work for uranium in India has
established three main uranium provinces in India (Fig. 3.11). In addition other
uranium rich areas have also been identified. They are as follows (Chaki, 2010):
3.7.1. Singhbhum Uranium Province: It is a 160km long arcuate zone of Cu-U belt
located in the state of Jharkhand in Eastern India is known as Singhbhum uranium
province. This uranium province host number of low grade and low to medium
tonnage uranium deposits. The exploration for uranium in India began in this belt in
the year 1950-51 where a total of 17 uranium deposits have been located at Jaduguda,
NarwaPahar, Bhatin, Nimdih, Keruadungri, Nandup, Rajgaon, Kanyaluka, Garadih,
Turamdih, Bandhuhurang and Mohuldih and 48,809 tonnes of U3O8 were established
70
in quartz-chlorite schist named here as granular rock. This is only area from where
uranium mining is being carried out at present. The deposits have been grouped under
structurally- controlled hydrothermal type uranium mineralization. The main uranium
mineral phases are uraninite, brannerite, pitchblende and secondary uranyl minerals
associated with chalcopyrite, pyrite, molybdenite and minerals of Ni and Co.
3.7.2. Cuddapah Uranium Province: This uranium province is located in South
India within the Cuddapah basin. It occupies about 44,500 sq.km. area having 12km
thickness of volcano-sedimentary sequence of mid-upper Proterozoic age.Here three
types of uranium mineralization have been established- (i) Dolostone hosted
stratiform mineralization (ii)litho-structural controlled vein-type U-mineralization in
southern Cuddapah basin and (iii) Unconformity Related U in northern part of the
basin.Exploration efforts in Srisailam and Palnad sub-basin in Cuddapah resulted in
the discovery of low-low tonnage unconformity-related uranium deposits at
Lambabur- Peddagattu- Chitrial and Koppunuru in parts of Andhra Pradesh. Uranium
mineralization is confined to basement granite and partly in overlying
basalpebbly/gritty quartzite of Srisailam Formation at Lambapur village. In
Koppunuru, which is located SE of Lambapur-Peddagattu, uranium mineralization
occurs at the unconformity contact between the basement granite and overlying
Banganpalle quartzite.
The dolostone hosted uranium mineralization is located SW of Cuddapah basin in
Vempalle Formation of Cuddapah SuperGroup. A 160km. Long belt of Vempalle
dolostone having dip of 120 towards the basin host low grade mineralization.The ore
horizon is 1.0 to 7.0m thick and occurs between two limestone beds. Uranium occurs
as ultrafine pitchblende with pyrite, molybdenite, covellite and chalcopyrite. It is a
tabular, stratabound and homogenous deposits. The province hold potential for 5,
00,000 tonnes of low-grade uranium deposits(Subramanian,2011).
3.7.3. Mahadek Uranium Province: This uranium province has been established
only during the period 1990-2000. It is located in the Meghalaya plateau of NE India.
This U-province extends for a 180 km in length with a width of 10km over an area of
1800 sq.km. Uranium mineralization is confined to only in upper Cretaceous Lower
Mahadek sediments which are exposed only in 470 sq.km. area and rest are covered
71
below tertiary sediments. The host rock is coarse to very coarse-grained, poorly
sorted, immature feldspathic arenite with lots of organic matter and pyrites.Urano-
organic comples with pitchblende is main uranium phase followed by coffinite.
Granite and gneisses with 8 to 59 ppm intrinsic uranium is the provenance for
Mahadek Formation and uranium mineralization.V, As, Co, Mo and Se are the trace
elements noted in mineralised mahadek sediments. The ore body is essentially tabular
to lensoidal with 50-100 dip with grade ranging from 0.01 to 0.10 % U3O8 and
thickness ranging from 1.0m to 30m. The main deposit of 9500 tonnes of U3O8 is
located at Domiasiat in West Khasi Hills district and other smaller deposits but of
slightly higher grade than of Domiasiat is located south of it near Wahkyn (Sunil
kumar et al., 1990; Kaul and Verma, 1990).
3.7.4. North Delhi Fold Belt: 320km long “Albitite Line” trending NNE-SSW in the
Aravalli range of Rajasthan has been also recognised as one of the important uranium
province of India. The exploration in this zone resulted into discovery of low-grade,
low tonnage fracture-controlled vein type uranium mineralization associated with
sulfide rich Na-metasomatites in Rohil village in Sikar district of Rajasthan in north-
western part of India. This belt has a potential to give additional uranium resources. 3.7.5. Bhima basin: It is a Neo-Proterozoic basin covering an area of about 5,200 sq.
km. in parts of Gulbarga district of northern Karnataka and Mehboobnagar and
Ranga Reddy districts of western Andhra Pradesh in south India. The sedimentary
sequence lies unconformably over crystalline basement. The sediment sequence
(300m thick) starts with conglomerate and arenite at the base which are overlain by
limestone and shale. A small but medium grade uranium deposits have been located
along E-W trending Gogi-Kurlagere fault near Gogi town in Bhima basin. Coffinite
and pitchblende are the main uranium minerals. The work is under progress to locate
uranium mineralization along several faults identified in the basin (Senthil Kumar
and Srinivasan, 2002).
3.7.6. Kaladgi basin: It is also a Meso to Neoproterozoic basin located along north-
western fringe of western Dharwar craton over an area of 8000sq.km. It is found in
parts of Karnataka, Maharashtra and states of Goa. Several outliers of Kaladgi Super
72
Group occur along southern and south-eastern margin of the basin. Exploration by
radiometric survey have identified several uranium occurrences in the Kaladgi Super
Group and its environs, the most important bein the Deshnur Uranium Occurrence.
The uranium mineralization is associated with quartz-arenites of Badami sediments
near the unconformity contact of basement Chitradurga metasediments and overlying
flat Badami sediments. Drilling has revealed uranium mineralization associated with
sulfide rich basal conglomerate and arenites having 0.13 % U3O8 of 63.20m above
unconformity. Pitchblende, uraninite, coffinite and brannerite are the primary
uranium minerals identified in the sediments. The basin has a great potential to hold
sizeable uranium deposits.
Fig.3.11. Map of India showing important uranium provinces (redrawn from Chaki, 2010).
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3.8. Uranium Mining in India
Uranium Corporation of India (UCIL), a public sector enterprise under the control of
Department of Atomic Energy formed in the year 1967 is engaged in mining and
processing of uranium ore in the country (Figs. 3.8 &,3.10) with its headquarter at
Jaduguda in East Singhbhum district of Jharkhand.
Present Status: Presently, UCIL is operating four underground uranium mines in
East Singhbhum district of Jharkhand in Singhbhum Shear Zone. Two uranium
mines- one underground and one opencast and one processing plant are under
construction in this area. The details are as under (Gupta, 2006):
Uranium Mines under Operation within Singhbhum Shear Zone (SSZ): Uranium
mines under operation are located in the Singhbhum shear zone of Jharkhand (Map
showing U mines of SSZ). They are briefly described below:
3.8.1. Jaduguda Mine: This is the first underground uranium mine of the country
which was commissioned in 1967, first developed upto a depth of 315m and later
upto 640m. Further deepening of this mine upto a depth of 905m was done by sinking
a vertical shaft from a depth of 555m to 905 in the year 2002.
3.8.2. Bhatin Mine: It is a small uranium mine located 3 km west of Jaduguda in a
similar geological domain. The mine is now 185m deep and further deepening of this
upto 230m depth has been taken up.
3.8.3. Narwapahar Mine: It was commissioned in 1995 and is located 12 km west
of Jaduguda. Mine entry is through both decline (70) and vertical shaft. Large
machinery enter through decline and move underground whereas hoisiting of ore
from deeper level is done through vertical shaft sunk upto a depth of 355m.This is
the most modern trackless mine in the country.
3.8.4. Turamdih Mine: It is located about 24 km west of Jaduguda and 3km south of
Tatanagar Railway station was commissioned in 2003. Mine entry is through 80
declines. The ore body has been accessed from the decline at a depth of 70m which
74
has been later extended upto a depth of 110m. Sunking of vertical shaft having 5m
diameter upto a depth of 250m is in progress.
3.8.5. Bandhuhurang Mine: The first open cast uranium mine in the country. The
grade is very low. It is located nearby Turamdih Uranium mine.
3.8.6. Bagjata Mine: Recently another new uranium mine has been opened at
Bagjata which is about 30-40km east of Jaduguda U-mine. It is also underground
mine with both incline and shaft for entry inside the mine.
3.9. Planned New Uranium Mines of India (Gupta, 2006)
New uranium mines under plan in India includes Tummalapalle uranium deposit in
carbonate rocks in parts of Cuddapah district of Andhra Pradesh. Construction of
underground mine at a depth of 300m is under construction and uranium mills based
on Alkali leaching have been planned.
Three underground mine and one open pit mine has been planned by UCIL for
exploitation of uranium reserves near Lambapur- Peddagattu area in Nalgonda
district of Andhra Pradesh. A uranium proceesing mill is also planned near Seripally,
52 km away from mine site.
UCIL has also planned to construct open cast mining of uranium near Killung and
Rangam area in west khasi hill district of Meghalaya where moderate grade (0.104
%) uranium deposit has been discovered in Cretaceous sandstones.
A uranium processing mill is also planned at Mawthabah. Infrastructure
development has already been started in the area. Similarly, exploratory mining has
been taken up by UCIL at Gogi to exploit uranium deposits in fractured limestone of
Gogi in Karnataka. UCIL is also planning same activity near Rohil in Rajasthan. List
of uranium mines and mills existing and announced in India are tabulated in
Table.3.15 (WNA, 2011).
75
Table 3.15. India's uranium mines and mills - existing and announced (WNA, 2011).
State, district Mine Mill Operating from tU per year
Jharkhand East Singhhbum dist.
Jaduguda Jaduguda 1967 (mine) 1968 (mill)
175 total from mill
Bhatin Jaduguda 1967 Narwapahar Jaduguda 1995
Bagjata Jaduguda 2009 Turamdih Turamdih 2003 (mine)
2008 (mill) 190 total from mill
Banduhurang Turamdih 2007 Mohuldih Turamdih 2011
Meghalaya Kylleng-Pyndeng-Shahiong(Domiasiat), Mawthabah and Wakhyn
Mawthabah 2012 340
Andhra Pradesh, Nalgonda district
Lambapur-Peddagattu
Seripally /Mallapuram
2012 2012
Andhra Pradesh, Cuddapah district
Tummalapalle Tummalapalle 2011-12 220
Karnataka, Gulbarga district
Gogi Diggi 2012(Expected) NA
3.10. Quality of Raw Materials
The overall grade of uranium in India is low to medium range (Chaki et al, 2010).
Grade of uranium deposits vary from deposit to deposit. At Jaduguda, the average
grade of uranium deposit is 0.067 % U3O8 whereas at NarwaPahar, the grade is about
0.04%. Similarly, the grade of uranium at Turamdih mine is 0.03 % while the grade
of Bandhuhurang mine is only 0.027 % U3O8. Above data shows that the grade of
uranium along Singhbhum shear zone is low which varies from 0.027 to 0.067% but
they also contain economic grade Cu, Ni, Co, Mo and rare Au.
The grade recorded from Lambapur uranium deposit in Nalgonda district of Andhra
Pradesh in Cuddapah basin is 0.06 %. The Domiasiat uranium deposit associated with
Upper Cretaceous sandstone in West Khasi Hills of Meghalaya plateau in north- east
India is slightly better with 0.104 % U3O8 having abundant organic material and lots
of pyrite (Sengupta et al.,1991).
76
The uranium veins in fractured limestones of Gogi area in Bhima basin of
Karnataka also indicated>0.1 % U3O8(Dolostone hosted uranium deposit at
Tummalapalli in Cuddapah basin in Andhra Pradesh is about 0.045 % U3O8 grade
(Vasudeva Rao et al., 1989).
The other smaller deposits like QPC-hosted uranium at Walkunji in Dharwar Craton
has grade equal to 0.05 %. Similar type of uranium deposits in younger pyrite rich
arenite at Arbail has 0.047 % grade of uranium where 760 tonnes of uranium deposit
has been proved (Pandit, 2002).
Overall, Indian uranium deposits are of low to medium grade and low to medium
tonnage category (Chaki et al., 2010). Recently discovered sandstone hosted deposits
at Domiasiat and Wahkyn in Meghalaya plateau and fractured limestone hosted
deposits at Gogi in Bhima basin of Karnataka have shown indications of slightly
better grade of uranium > 0.10 % U3O8.
The classical Unconformity related uranium deposits which generally are of very
high grade > 1% to average of 12% occur mainly in Canada and Australia are yet to
be discovered in India. The efforts in this direction are in progress.
3.11. Beneficiation Practices
Beneficiation practices being used for leaching of uranium in India is summarised
below:
Uranium ore from Jaduguda, NarwaPahar and Bhatin mines are processed at
centralized mill located near Jaduguda in East Singhbhum district of Jharkhand in
Eastern India. Uranium is extracted from ore by hydrometallurgical process. The ore
from different mines (upto 200 mm sizes) are crushed in two stages, primary jaw
crusher and secondary cone crusher. The fine ore is wet ground in grinding mills in
two stages for further size reduction. This ground ore in the form of slurry is
thickened and leached in leaching pachucas (tank with sulphuric acid) for preferential
solubilization of the uranium from solids under controlled pH and temperature
conditions. The leached liquor is then filtered in which uranyl ions get absorbed in
77
the resin. This is further eluted and treated with magnesia to get magnesium di-
uranate or yellow cake. The magnesium di-uranate is then filtered in belt filter to
remove soluble impurities, dried in a spray drier and finally packed in drums for
onward dispatch for further processing(Gupta,2006)..
Table 3.16: Uranium Mines/Deposits/Occurrences of India and their grade (Sunil kumar et al., 1990; Kaul and Verma, 1990; Pandit, 2002; Senthil Kumar and Srinivasan, 2002; Krishnamurthy, 2006; Red Book, 2009; Chaki, 2010; Parihar, 2012).
Sl No.
Uranium Mines/ Deposits Host Rock Grade(in% U3O8)
A Singhbhum Shear Zone, Jharkhand
Jaduguda, NarwaPahar, Bhatin, Bagjata, Turamdih, Mohuldih, Banduhurang, Bangurdih, Banadungri-Singridungri, Kanyaluka, Garadih, Rajgaon, Nimdih
Granular rock(Chlorite-biotite- sericite- tourmaline quartz schist), sheared conglomerates, Magnetite bearing, chloritic quartzite chlorite quartz schist Magnetite bearing, chloritic quartzite chlorite quartz schist
0.027-0.067
B. Meghalaya Plateau 0.035-0.104 Domiasiat, Wahkyn,
Wahkyn, Tyrnai, Phlandiloin, Lostoin
Feldspathic sandstone
C. AndhraPradesh Tumalapalle, Lambapur-
Pedagattu, Chitrial Dolostone, Mostly in Granite, partly in quartzite
0.041-0.069
D. Karnataka Gogi, Fractured Limestone and basement
granite 0.081-0.275
Walkunji Quartz pebble Conglomerate 0.050 Arbail Phyllite 0.047 E. Rajasthan Rohil 0.066 Umra Carbon-Phyllite 0.054 F. Chhattisgarh Jajawal, Bodal, Dumhat Amphibolite schist as veins,
Pegmatoid leucosome in migmatite 0.037- 0.053
78
3.12. New Uranium Beneficiation Plants (Gupta and Sarangi, 2005)
3.12.1. Turamdih: A new plant at Turamdih is being set-up to treat the ore planned
to be produced from Turamdih and Banduhurang mines. The flowsheet of this plant
is similar to that of Jaduguda. It has also been planned to encompass a very high
degree of instrumentation minimizing human interference. PLC based control system
shall be based on Man Machine Interface (MMI) with remote input-output and shall
have facility to monitor process parameters, status of drives, control of relevant
process variables and operate any equipment from plant graphics. Expansion of
Turamdih plant to the higher level of processing capacity will be taken up with the
progress of mine construction work at Mohuldih.
3.12.2. Seripalli: This plant has been planned in Andhra Pradesh to treat the ore of
Lambapur-Peddagattu mines (Gupta and Sarangi, 2005). The plant site is about 54
km away from Lambapur area as there are some environmentally sensitive places
around the mine site. The design philosophy of this plant is similar to the processing
practices proposed at Turamidh plant. Latest equipment and degree of
instrumentation similar to the ones proposed at Turamdih will also be adopted in
Seripalli plant. However, the sizing of these equipment and provisions of flexibility
to allow alternate processing technology to accommodate unexpected ore
characteristics will be the vital aspects for Seripalli plant.
3.12.3. Domiasiat: This plant near the mine site at Domiasiat in Meghalaya will be
constructed with some modified process technology because of different ore
characteristics. The host rock at Domiasiat is moderately friable sandstone, which
will be crushed at the pit-head. Followed by conventional grinding in the plant, the
thickened slurry of sandstone will undergo two stages of leaching – weak acid
(WAL) and strong acid (SAL) leaching. Resulting filtrate will be clarified,
concentrated in ion-exchange and precipitated along with magnesia as magnesium di-
uranate or with hydrogen peroxide as uranium peroxide. The plant will also have
PLC based central control system, on-line monitoring and XRF based on-line
analysers etc.
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3.13. Prospective Plant
3.12.1. Tummalapalle: As the host rock of Tummalapalle uranium deposit is
siliceous-dolomitic phosphatic limestone, alkali leaching technology is being
proposed to treat this ore. The ore produced during exploratory mining are being
utilised for several laboratory and pilot plant studies in order to finalise the process
flow-sheet and other parameters. The uranium values are found to be present as very
fine to ultra-fine disseminations predominantly in carbonate matrix. In such case,
pressure leaching with oxygen as oxidant has been found to be more attractive than
conventional leaching with chemical and gaseous oxidants. The proposed flowsheet
involves reagent regeneration and includes very fewer number of process steps from
grinding to sodium di-uranate precipitation. The alkali-leaching plant at
Tummalapalle, after construction, will be the first of its kind in the country (Gupta
and Sarangi, 2005).
3.14. Future of Uranium Mining in India
With the increasing need of energy for the accelerated agricultural and industrial
growth, the Atomic Energy Programme of our country has gained considerable
momentum. The Government is committed to appreciable increase in contribution of
nuclear power to the total power generation capacity and it has been felt that a
balance mix of hydel, coal and nuclear power is a must for meeting the long-term
power requirement.
The Department of Atomic Energy accordingly, has very strategically designed the
nuclear power programme of our country and an immediate goal has been set to
produce 20,000 MWe of nuclear power by 2020 AD. Self-reliance in basic raw
materials is the dominant paradigm of nuclear power programme of India. Therefore,
the growth of uranium industry has shown an extraordinary up-trend during last one
decade.
The industry is expected to expand further matching with the phenomenal growth of
nuclear power generation in the coming years. Apart from supplying the raw material
for nuclear fuel, the uranium mining industry in India has a great potential to
80
contribute towards development of infrastructure, mining technology and generate
employment opportunity in the nation.
3.15. Value Addition: Separation of Cu, Magnetite, Ni, gold etc from uranium
mining from Jaduguda, Narwapahar and Bhatin have added values to uranium mining
in this belt. Ni and Mo are obtained from Bhatin uranium mine as by-product.
3.16. Current and Future Programmes of Uranium Exploration in India
Efforts are underway to augment the uranium resource base of the country by
expediting exploration inputs in following geological domains (AMD website, 2011).
3.16.1. Proterozoic Basins
Nearly 33% of world uranium resources are found in the Proterozoic rocks.
Particularly the unconformity contact zones between the Lower Proterozoic rocks
with those of Meso-Neo Proterozoic ages have been the prime locales for the
Uranium mineralization. In India, a number of Proterozoic basins such as (i)
Cuddapah basin, Andhra Pradesh (ii) Aravalli-Delhi fold belt, Rajasthan (iii)
Gwalior-Vindhyan basin, Madhya Pradesh (iv) Bhima basin, Karnataka (v)
Chhattisgarh basin in Chhattisgarh & Orissa exist where multidisciplinary
investigations have been taken up in search of unconformity related uranium
deposits.
3.16.2. Phanerozoic Basins:
Similarly nearly 18% of world uranium resources are associated with Phanerozoic
sandstones. In India too, the Phanerozoic sandstones, particularly the Cretaceous
basin of Meghalaya has been one of the main targets for uranium exploration. One
deposit has already been established and the entire basin has been considered as one
of the thrust areas for uranium investigation. Other Phanerozoic basins considered
potential are (i) Siwalik basin of the Himalayas, (ii) Gondwana basins of Central
India.
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3.16.3. Fe-oxide Breccia Type Deposits:
Particularly after the discovery of the Olympic Dam deposit in Australia which alone
constitutes 31% of world uranium resources (RAR+EAR under <US $40/Kg U
category - as per WNA publication), attention has been given worldwide to look for
uranium mineralization elsewhere in similar geological environment. In Indian
scenario, such environments exist in parts of Madhya Pradesh, Jharkand and
Meghalaya where investigations have been initiated with this objective.
3.16.4. Quartz- Pebble Conglomerate (QPC Type) Deposits:
Known Quartz-pebble conglomerate (QPC) type of U-deposits constitute 13% of
total world uranium resources. They occur as basal Lower Proterozoic beds
unconformably lying above Archaean basement rocks. In India such environments
are observed at a number of places like Walkunji in South Kanara District and Arbail
in North Kanara district in the Western Ghat Belt, Karnataka, Dhanjori and Iron
basins of Jharkand and Orissa. Based on the number of anomalies located in these
areas survey has been intensified for locating QPC type of deposits.
Detailed works including drilling have been proposed in different IOG equivalent
basins of Orissa. Few boreholes in Mahagiri hills drilled by AMD indicated
persistence of uraniferous QPC upto a depth of 280m. Rounded uraninite and pyrite
are noted in the core samples of QPC (Mishra et al., 2008 and Kumar et al., 2011a).
Surface grab samples from Mankarhachuan basin located north of Palahara Gneiss
also indicated the presence of detrital uraninite and pyrite grains in QPC matrix
(Chakrabarti et al., 2011).
3.16.5. Vein and Metasomatic Type Deposits:
In recent past, Metasomatic/ vein type mineralization associated with albitite type of
rocks emplaced in tectonised domains have been located in many parts of globe
particularly in Russia and Kazakhastan. They owe their origin to both magmatic and
metasomatic processes. Such geological set up also exists in India particularly in
parts of Rajasthan (Aravallis) and Andhra Pradesh. Extensive efforts are being
pursued for locating such deposits.
