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I. REVIEW OF AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM IN INDIA

A. Air Pollution Problem in India

In India, outdoor air pollution is restricted mostly to urban areas, where automobiles are the major contributors, and to a few other areas with a concentration of industries and thermal power plants. Apart from rapid industrialization, urbanization has resulted in the emergence of industrial centers without a corresponding growth in civic amenities and pollution control mechanisms. In most of the 23 Indian cities with a million-plus population, air pollution levels exceed World Health Organization’s (WHO) recommended health standards. In every city, the levels are getting worse because of rapid industrialization, growing number of vehicles, energy consumption, and burning of wastes. Several cities face severe air pollution problems, with annual average levels of total suspended particulates (TSP) at least three times as high as the WHO standards. A study conducted by the World Bank indicates premature deaths of people in Delhi owing to high levels of air pollution.

Air pollution in India is mainly caused by three sources, namely, vehicles, industrial and domestic sources. Air pollution is mainly concentrated in the following three areas: (i) Major cities: The problem of air pollution is in major cities where the prominent

sources of air pollution are vehicles and small- and medium-scale industries. These cities include Delhi, Kolkata, Mumbai, Chennai, Ahmedabad, Bangalore, Hyderabad, Pune, Kanpur, etc.

(ii) Critically polluted areas: 24 critically polluted areas have been identified in India where the problem of pollution exists. These areas are as follows:

Problem Areas in India

Problem Area Type of Industry 1 Singrauli Power Plants, Mining, Aluminium Industry 2 Korba Power Plants, Aluminium Industry, Mining 3 Vapi Chemical Industries 4 Ankaleshwar Chemical Industries 5 Greater Cochin

Oil Refineries, Chemical, Metallurgical Industries

6 Visakhapatnam

Oil Refinery, Chemical, Steel Plants

7 Howrah

Foundry, Rerolling Mills

8 Durgapur Chemical Industries, Power Plants, Steel Plants . 9 Manali Oil Refineries, Chemical Industry, Fertilizer Industry 10 Chembur Refineries, Power Plant, Fertilizer Industry 11 Mandi Gobindgarh Secondary Steel Industry 12 Dhanbad Mining, Coke Oven 13 Pali Cotton Textile, Dyeing 14 Nagafgarh Drain Basin Power Plants, Vehicles 15 Angul-Talcher Mining, Aluminum Plants, Thermal Power Plants 16 Bhadravati Iron and Steel, Paper Industry 17 Digboi Oil Refinery 18 Jodhpur Cotton Textile, Dye 19 Kala-Amb Paper, Electroplating

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Problem Area Type of Industry 20 Nagda-Ratlam Viscose Rayon, Caustic, Dyes, Distillery 21 North Arcot Tanneries 22 Parwanoo Food Processing Unit, Electroplating 23 Patancheru – Bollaram Organic Chemical, Paints Petrochemical Industry 24 Tarapur Chemical Industry

(iii) Rural areas: Indoor air pollution exists in rural areas where the main source of

air pollution is the domestic fuel used. In rural areas cow dung and wood sticks are used as fuel in household. Kitchens are without any proper ventilation, resulting in the buildup of air pollutants in the houses.

Reasons for High Air Pollution in India. The reasons for high air pollution in

India are as follows:

(i) Poor quality of fuel: Fuel of poor quality such as coal, diesel, petrol, fuel oil is used in India. Although during the past few years, various measures have been taken to improve the quality of fuel such as reduction of sulphur in diesel, unleaded petrol etc.

(ii) Old process technology: Old process technology is employed in many industries especially in small-scale industries resulting in high emission of air pollutants.

(iii) Wrong siting of industries: Wrong siting of industries especially close to residential areas results in people getting affected due to air pollution.

(iv) No pollution preventive steps taken in early stage of industrialization: No pollution preventive steps were taken during the early stage of industrialization, which resulted in high levels of air pollutants in many areas.

(v) Poor vehicle design: Poor vehicle design especially old 2-stroke 2-wheelers result in high emission of air pollutants.

(vi) Uncontrolled growth of vehicle population: Uncontrolled growth of vehicle population in all major cities/towns has resulted in high levels of air pollution.

(vii) No pollution prevention and control system in small- and medium-scale industries: No pollution prevention and control system in small-and medium-scale industry exists, resulting in high levels of air pollution.

Vehicular Pollution Problems in India. Vehicles are one of the major sources of

air pollution in major cities. Air pollution due to vehicles can be attributed to following:

(i) High vehicle density in Indian urban centers results in air pollution buildup near roadways and at traffic intersections.

(ii) Older vehicles are predominant in vehicle vintage. These older vehicles are grossly polluting though in cities like Delhi grossly polluting vehicles have been phased out.

(iii) Inadequate inspection and maintenance facilities result in high emission of air pollutants from vehicles. Emission can be reduced by proper and regular inspection and maintenance of vehicles.

(iv) There are large numbers of old 2-stroke 2/3-wheelers in most of the cities, which are a significant contributor of air pollution.

(v) Adulteration of fuel and fuel products also result in high emissions from vehicles. (vi) Improper traffic management system and road conditions also result in buildup of

air pollutants near the roadways as the emissions are higher when the vehicle is idling.

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(vii) Absence of an effective mass rapid transport system and intra-city railway networks have resulted in people using their own vehicles for commuting to work. This has resulted in uncontrolled growth of vehicles.

(viii) High population exodus to the urban centers has also resulted in increase in the number of vehicles, resulting in high levels of vehicular air pollution.

B. Scope and Power of Regulatory Authorities for Developing Air Quality

Management System With rapid advancement of science and technology and cropping up of new

problems, provisions of new regulatory measures for abatement of environmental pollution including air pollution came into existence. Some of the provisions were general laws like the Indian Penal Code, Criminal Procedure Code, Civil Procedure Code, Specific Relief Act and Police Act, where provisions to control pollution are of general nature. Some of the specific laws were the Oriental Gas Company Act 1857, Indian Boiler’s Act 1923, Motor Vehicle Act 1939, Factory Act 1948, and the Industries (Development and Regulation Act) 1951 which do not specifically deal with air pollution but some of their provisions do deal with problems of controlling the same.

The 1972 Stockholm Declaration clarifies that man has the fundamental right to freedom, equality, and adequate condition of life in an environment of quality that permits a life of dignity and well-being. In 1976, the Constitution (42nd Amendment Act) was passed for environmental protection and improvement in the form of a fundamental and directive principle of state by inserting Article 48-A and 51-A. Article 253 of the Constitution empowers the Parliament to make laws for implementing the international obligations of the country as well as any decision taken at an international conference, association or other body. Based on the authority vested in the Parliament under the provisions contained in Article 253, it has enacted the Air (Prevention and Control) Act 1981 and Environment (Protection) Act 1986 (CPCB 2001).

1. Air Act 1981

The Air (Prevention and Control) Act 1981 was enacted by the Parliament under Article 253 of the Constitution to take appropriate steps to prevent and control air pollution and fulfill the proclamation adopted by the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment held in Stockholm in June 1972.

The main functions of Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) as per the Air Act

are to improve the quality of air and to prevent, control or abate air pollution in the country.

a. Functions of Central Pollution Control Board

The following are the functions of CPCB: (i) Advise the Central Government on any other matter concerning prevention and

control of pollution and improvement of the quality of air; (ii) Plan and cause to be executed a nationwide program for the prevention, control

or abatement of air pollution; (iii) Coordinate the activities of states and resolve disputes among them;

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(iv) Provide technical assistance and guidance to State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs), carry out and sponsor investigations and research relating to problems of air pollution and prevention, control or abatement of air pollution;

(v) Plan and organize the training of persons engaged or to be engaged in programs for the prevention, control or abatement of air pollution;

(vi) Collect, compile and publish technical and statistical data relating to air pollution and measures devised for the effective prevention, control or abatement of air pollution and prepare manuals, codes or guides relating to prevention control or abatement of air pollution;

(vii) Lay down the standards for the quality of air; (viii) Collect and disseminate information and matters relating to air pollution; and (ix) Perform such other functions as may be prescribed.

b. Functions of State Pollution Control Boards (i) To plan a comprehensive program for the prevention, control or abatement of air

pollution and to secure the execution thereof; (ii) To advise the State government on any matter concerning prevention, control or

abatement of air pollution; (iii) To collaborate with CPCB in organizing training of persons, engaged or to be

engaged in a program relating to prevention control or abatement of air pollution and to organize mass-education programs relating thereto;

(iv) To inspect, at all reasonable times, any control equipment, industrial plant or manufacturing process and to give, by order, such direction to such persons as may considered necessary to take steps for the prevention, control or abatement of air pollution;

(v) To inspect air pollution control areas at such intervals as it may think necessary, assess the quality of air therein, and take steps for prevention control or abatement of air pollution in such areas;

(vi) To lay down, in consultation with CPCB and having regard to the standards for the quality of air it lays down, standards for emissions of air pollutants into the atmosphere from industrial plants and automobiles or for the discharge of any air pollutant into the atmosphere from any other source whatsoever not being a ship or an aircraft;

(vii) To advise the State government with respect to the suitability of any premises from time to time, entrusted to it by CPCB or the State government to do such other things and to perform such other acts as it may think necessary for the proper discharge of its functions and generally for the purpose of carrying into effect the purposes of the Act.

Covering Section 19-31-A, under Chapter IV, the Act makes several important

provisions in the field of prevention control or abatement of air pollution. Section 19 grants discretion to each State government in consultation with SPCBs to designate particular areas as “air pollution control areas”. State governments, in consultation with SPCBs, may impose certain conditions on such areas, by making a notification in the official gazette, to prohibit the use of any fuel or appliance other than approved ones or the burning of any material (other than fuel) such as garbage and other waste products which may cause or is likely to cause air pollution. The State government will give instructions to the authority concerned in charge of registration of motor vehicles under the Motor Vehicles Act, 1939 to ensure that the standards for emission of air pollutants from automobiles laid down by the SPCB are followed.

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It is further provided under Section 21 of the Act that a person has to get the

previous consent of a SPCB for establishing or operating any industrial plants in the air pollution control areas. Similarly, Section 22 prohibits a person from operating any industrial plant in any air pollution control area to discharge or cause or permit to be discharged the emission of air pollutants in excess of the standards laid down by the SPCB concerned.

2. The Environment (Protection) Act 1986

The Environment (Protection) Act 1986 was passed by the Parliament by virtue of the powers vested in it under Article 253 of the Constitution in the wake of the Bhopal tragedy and to further implement the decisions of the UN Conference on the Human Environment 1972, insofar as they relate to the appropriate steps to be taken for the protection and improvement of the human environment. This Act is an umbrella legislation enacted to provide a framework for the Central Government for coordinating the activities of various Central and state authorities established under the Water and Air Acts. According to its preamble the objective of the Environment Act 1986 is “to provide the protection and improvement of environment and for matters connected therewith”.

a. Power of the Central Government under Environment

(Protection) Act

The following are the measures that the Central Government is empowered to take under Section 3(2) of the Act:

(i) Coordination of action by the State government office, officers and other

authorities: under this Act, or the rules made thereunder; or under any other law for the time being enforced which is relatable to the objects of this Act;

(ii) Planning and execution of a nationwide program for the prevention, control and abatement of environmental pollution;

(iii) Laying down standards for the quality of environment in its various aspects; (iv) Laying down standards for emission or discharge of environmental pollutants

from various sources whatsoever, provided that different standards for emission or discharge may be laid down under this clause from different sources having regard to quality or composition of the emission or discharge of environmental pollutants from such sources;

(v) Restriction of areas in which any industry, operation or process or class of industries, operations or processes shall not be carried out or shall be carried out subject to certain safeguards;

(vi) Laying down procedures and safeguards for the prevention of accidents which may cause environmental pollution and remedial measures for such accidents;

(vii) Laying down procedures and safeguards for the handling of hazardous substances;

(viii) Examination of such manufacturing processes, materials and substances as are likely to cause environmental pollution;

(ix) Carrying out and sponsoring investigation and research relating to problems of environmental pollution;

(x) Inspection of any premises, plant, equipment, machinery, manufacturing or other processes, materials or substances and giving, by order, of such directions to

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such authorities, officers or persons as it may consider necessary to take steps for the prevention, control and abatement of environmental pollution;

(xi) Establishment or recognition of environmental laboratories and institutes to functions entrusted to such environmental laboratories and institutes under this Act;

(xii) Collection and dissemination of information in respect of matters relating to environmental pollution;

(xiii) Preparation of manuals, codes or guides relating to prevention, control and abatement of environmental pollution; and

(xiv) Such other matters as the Central Government deems necessary or expedient for the purpose of securing the effective implementation of the provisions of this Act.

Under Section 3(3) of this Act the Central Government is empowered to

constitute an authority or authorities with adequate powers to control pollution and protect the environment.

Section 5 provides the power of the Central Government to give binding

directions to any person, officer or authority that can be used as effective weapons to fight environmental pollution and protection of environment. C. Institutional Mechanism

In democratic countries like India, the policy guidelines for every initiative and activity are provided by the political leadership through the mechanism of cabinet resolutions and the policy statements of the individual ministers. These political policy guidelines emanate from the broad national consensus on an issue, which is hammered out after long deliberations and discussions at different forums. Subsequently, these policy guidelines result into the formulation of the feasible administrative actions. However, any complete system of politico-administrative dimensions for prevention and control of air pollution includes four elements:

(i) Formulation of appropriate policies, (ii) Administration of the scheme of control, (iii) Enforcement of control and research, and (iv) Gathering of information necessary to any progressing system of control.

The responsibility for environmental protection and abatement of pollution is not

the duty of one department alone, nor is it the task of government alone. It is an obligation of all political leaders, government departments and agencies, authorities and NGOs, and community groups because environmental issues are cross sec-oral. CPCB, SPCBs and pollution Control Committees (PCCs), Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) and State Department of Environment, Ministry of Road Transport and Highways (MoRTH) and State Transport Department, Municipal Corporation, Development Authority, Police Department, etc. are all concerned with activities related to environmental protection (directly or indirectly). Some of the activities of these institutions are described in the coming section.

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1. Central Pollution Control Board, State Pollution Control Boards and

Pollution Control Committees CPCB, SPCBs, and PCCs were constituted in September 1974 under the

provision of the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1974. CPCB is under the administrative control of the Central Government. SPCBs and PCCs were also constituted under the same Act. CPCB coordinates the activities of SPCBs and PCCs, and also advises the Central Government on all matters concerning the prevention and control of environmental pollution. CPCB, SPCBs, and PCCs are responsible for implementing the legislation relating to prevention and control of environmental pollution. They also develop rules and regulations that prescribe the standards for emission and effluent of air and water pollutants and noise level. CPCB also provides technical services to MoEF for implementing the provisions of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. CPCB continued its activities in the assessment of pollution in different areas, strengthening monitoring mechanisms for assisting environmental quality, and taking steps for prevention and control of pollution from different services through coordinated programs with SPCBs and PCCs. In addition, CPCB also interacts with voluntary and nongovernment organizations for appropriate participation and wide dissemination of information to the public.

2. Ministry of Environment and Forests

The Department of Environment was constituted in 1980 and an integrated MoEF was established in 1985 to achieve the objectives of the various policies and programs related to environmental management. MoEF serves as the nodal agency in the country for the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and looks after the follow-ups of the Union Government for planning, promoting, coordinating, and overseeing the implementation of the various environmental and forestry programs. The Ministry has also been designated as the nodal agency in the country for the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), and the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED).

MoEF undertakes the following tasks: conservation and survey of flora, fauna, forest and wildlife; prevention and control of pollution; afforestation and regeneration of degraded area; and protection of environment through environmental impact assessments, eco–regeneration, assistance to organizations, implementation of environmental and forestry programs; and promotion of environmental and forestry research, extension, education and training to augment the requisite manpower for dissemination of environmental information, participation in international cooperation, and creation of environmental awareness among all sectors of the country’s population. These tasks are being fulfilled by the vast organizational structure of the Ministry.

3. Environment Pollution (Prevention and Control) Authority

The EPCA for the National Capital Region was constituted by the Central

Government vide notification no. S.O. 93 (E) dated 29 January 1988 for a period of 2 years with effect from the date of notification. Subsequently, its tenure was extended for

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2 years in January 2000. In January 2002, its tenure was further extended by another year. The Authority was constituted under the chairmanship of Shri Bhure Lal. The members of the Authority are Dr. N.R. Raje, Executive Director, IOC (Research and Development); Ms. Sunita Narayan, Director, Centre for Science and Environment; and Shri Jagdish Khattar, Automobile Manufacturers Association of India. Dr. V. Rajagopalan, Chairman, CPCB is the convener of EPCA .

Terms of Reference of EPCA. EPCA shall exercise the following powers and

perform functions for protecting and improving the quality of environment and prevention and control of environmental pollution:

(i) Exercise the powers under Section 5 of the Environment Protection Act, 1986 for

issuing directions in respect of complaints pertaining to violation of environmental standards, industrial location, pollution prevention and hazardous waste handling;

(ii) Take all necessary steps to ensure compliance of specified emission standards by vehicles;

(iii) Issue directions under Section 5 of the said Act, including banning or restricting an industry, process of operation emitting noise;

(iv) Deal with environmental issues pertaining to the National Capital Region; (v) Monitor the progress of the action plan for control of pollution drawn up by MoEF

as contained in the White Paper on Pollution in Delhi with Action Plan; and (vi) Exercise the power of entry, inspection, search and seizure under Section 10 of

the said Act. The above powers and functions of EPCA are subject to the supervision and

control of the Central Government. The Authority shall have its headquarters in the National Capital Region and shall furnish a progress report of its activities at least once in 2 months to the Central Government.

4. Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas MoP&NG is entrusted with the responsibility for exploration and production of oil

and natural gas; their refining, distribution and marketing; and import, export, and conservation of petroleum products and liquefied natural gas (LPG). It notifies motor gasoline, diesel, kerosene and solvent control orders on recommendation from various ministries or from interministerial committees. It directs oil refineries to produce fuel with desired specification.

5. Ministry of Road Transport and Highways

MoRTH, an apex organization under the central Government, is entrusted with

the task of formulating and administering, in consultation with other Central ministries/departments, State governments/Union Territory administrations, organizations and individuals policies for road transport, national highways, and transport research with a view to increasing the mobility and efficiency of the road transport system in the country. The issues relating to national highways in the country are dealt with by Roads Wing of MoRTH, while those pertaining to transport are dealt with by the Transport Wing.

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In the Road Transport Sector, MoRTH is responsible for motor vehicle legislation, administration of the Motor Vehicles Act, 1988 and taxation of motor vehicles, compulsory insurance of motor vehicles, administration of the road Transport Corporations Act 1950, and promotion of transport cooperatives in the field of motor transport. It also issues road safety standards in the form of a National Policy on Road Safety and by preparing and implementing the Annual Road Safety Plan.

MoRTH has constituted a standing committee on emission legislation under the

chairmanship of JS MoRTH with various members from CPCB, MoEF, MoP&NG, testing agencies, and manufacturers. The emissions norms along with the testing procedure are recommended for notification under motor vehicle rules by MoRTH.

6. Department of Industrial Policy and Promotion (under the Ministry of

Commerce and Industry)

DIPP is responsible for the formulation and administration of industrial policy and looks after the development of a number of specific industries. It reviews trends in industrial production and promotes industrial development through measures such as encouragement of infrastructure development, modernization and technology upgradation, improvement international competitiveness of Indian Industries, etc.

DIPP also formulates policies relating to foreign direct investment (FDI) and

approves the proposals received from foreign investors through the Foreign Investment Promotion Board. It promotes the FDI policy in India and abroad.

7. Planning Commission

The Planning Commission was set up to promote a rapid rise in the standard of

living of the people by efficient exploitation of the resources of the country, increasing production, and offering opportunities to all for employment in the service of the community. It is responsible for making an assessment of all the resources of the country, augmenting deficient resources, formulating plans for the most effective and balanced utilization of resources, and determining priorities. The Commission launched the first Five-Year Plan in 1951.

For the first eight Plans the emphasis was on a growing public sector with

massive investments in basic and heavy industries, but since the launch of the Ninth Plan in 1997, the emphasis on the public sector has become less pronounced and the current thinking on planning in the country, in general, is that it should increasingly be of an indicative nature. The Planning Commission has set up a committee on bio-diesel and submitted a report to Government of India in July 2003. The committee recommended a road map for the introduction of bio- diesel 5% and 20% in different five-year plans.

8. Gaps in Institutional Mechanism (i) Coordination within state and central departments for the AQM system is weak

and needs to be strengthened. (ii) The information flow in various components of the AQM system within the

institutional structure is poor.

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(iii) Proper manpower is not identified for the AQM system. (iv) The AQM system is not given much importance in state departments. (v) Adequate funds are not allocated for the AQM system.

9. Current Components of Air Quality Management System Existing in

the Country

The various components of the AQM systems existing in India includes Air Quality Monitoring including Meteorology, Air Quality Standards, Emission Inventory, Source Apportionment, Dispersion Modeling, Health Impact Study, Control Strategy, and AQM plan. These components have been reviewed and described briefly and various gaps have been identified.

D. Air Quality Monitoring

Air quality monitoring is the most important component in an AQM system. It

provides a technical basis for government policies aimed at improving air quality protecting public health and the environment.

Air Quality Monitoring Program in India. The air quality monitoring program in

India was started in 1967 by the National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI) (then named CPHERI, Central Public Health Engineering Research Institute). Monitoring was expanded to include regular monitoring at three stations in 1978. CPCB initiated the National Ambient Air Quality Monitoring (NAAQM) program in the year 1984 with seven stations at Agra and Anpara. Subsequently, the program was renamed as National Air Monitoring Programme (NAMP). The number of monitoring stations under the NAMP has increased, steadily, to 295 by 2000-2001 covering 99 cities/towns in 28 States and 4 Union Territories.

Pollutants Monitored, Monitoring Methods (including equipment details)

and Averaging periods. Under NAMP, four air pollutants, viz., sulphur dioxide (SO2), oxides of nitrogen as NO2 and suspended particulate matter (SPM) and respirable suspended particulate matter (RSPM/PM10), have been identified for regular monitoring at all the locations. Besides this, additional parameters such as respirable lead and other toxic trace metals, hydrogen sulphide (H2S), ammonia (NH3) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are also being monitored in seven metro-cities of the country. The monitoring of meteorological parameters such as wind speed and direction, relative humidity and temperature was also integrated with the monitoring of air quality.

Further, for real time data collection, automatic monitoring stations at few places

have also been established. Under the Male Declaration, 11 automatic monitoring stations are also planned at strategic locations to measure the transboundary movement of pollutants among the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation countries.

The national ambient air quality standards were based on 8 hours averaging time

up to the year 1994. During air quality standards revision, the standards were revised for 24 hours and annual averaging time during 1994. To determine 24 hours average for gaseous parameters, six 4-hourly observations of gaseous parameters are averaged to determine 24 hours average or daily average while three 8-hourly values are averaged to get 24 hours average value for SPM. The target frequency of air quality monitoring are twice a week, i.e., about 104 number of observation are expected during operation of

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each monitoring station, but practically due to various problems like power failure, instrumental failure, trained manpower availability, etc., the target frequency of number of observations could not be achieved at all the locations, and at some places these are reduced substantially.

Monitoring Agencies. The National Air Quality Monitoring Programme (NAMP)

being a nationwide network, several agencies are involved in monitoring activities. These are

(i) Central Pollution Control Board, Headquarters, Zonal and Regional Offices (ii) State Pollution Control Boards, in respective states (iii) Pollution Control Committees in respective Union Territories (iv) National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI), Nagpur in 10

metro cities (v) Visveshwarya Regional College of Engineering, Nagpur (vi) Pune University, Pune (vii) KTHM College, Nasik (viii) Walchand Institute of Technology, Solapur

Apart from the above monitoring network some of the large industries are maintaining their own monitoring stations. The data from these agencies are submitted to the respective SPCB. Some of the SPCBs maintain their own monitoring station apart from the NAMP station.

The Pollution Assessment Monitoring and Survey (PAMS) division of CPCB, Delhi coordinates with these agencies to ensure uniformity and consistency of air quality data. It also provides technical and financial support for operation of these units.

Ambient air quality monitoring is carried out manually using high volume samplers and respirable dust samplers with gaseous attachments. The site operators manually record the flow rates every hour and the time period of operation at the site, and note down such weather conditions as dust storm and rainfall in a specified format which in turn is passed on to the laboratory after the sampling. The samples are analyzed in the laboratory and sent to the PAMS division of CPCB. All the data recording and reporting are manual up to this point.

The data received by CPCB are checked, outliers are removed, and data are entered into a computer database. In case of any discrepancies, clarifications are sought from the monitoring agencies. The values maintained through monitoring for less than 16 hours a day are not considered for analysis. CPCB has software for data storage and management which compiles daily average, monthly average, annual average, standard deviation, percentage violation of National Ambient Air Quality Standards (24-hour average), number of observations, and assigning air quality to one of the four categories─low, moderate, high, and critical levels.

This method of data recording has been in existence for a number of years and there have been no major changes other than the data collection format becoming a little more detailed and introduction of the software. Weather data are obtained from the Indian Meteorological Department in most places.

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Data Quality Issues. In order to ensure that the quality of monitoring data obtained from the network is acceptable, regular plausibility control and evaluation of the monitoring data are undertaken. CPCB has been collecting data from ambient quality monitoring stations established under the NAMP. The quality and reliability of data vary from city to city and state to state as they are obtained from different monitoring agencies. In order to improve the reliability and precision of the data collected, quality assurance and quality control need to be introduced in the system.

CPCB with the assistance of its German counterpart has developed a Calibration Laboratory with in-house facilities to produce the primary and secondary standards. The facilities are being utilized to impart training to SPCB officials for quality control and quality assurance. They are also being used to ensure uniformity in the analytical procedure and standardization of the procedure. The present available facility is not adequate enough to meet the requirements in the entire country. Considering the importance of quality control, a proposal for developing facilities for quality control in ring tests at more places has been formulated.

CPCB has set up a dynamic dilution system (Ring Test Facility) to produce gas mixtures of any desired concentration and composition. The primary objective of developing this system is to conduct a quality assurance program for participating laboratories as well as to calibrate continuous monitoring analyzers. Participation in the quality assurance program helps the laboratory in achieving compatibility of results and helps validate the method being adopted for the measurement. CPCB has been conducting the quality assurance program for SPCBs since 1999.

In March 2000, officials from seven SPCBs took part in an analytical quality control program for measuring sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide using the wet chemical method. Upon analysis of the results, it was observed that the performance of 90% of the participating laboratories was satisfactory.

The frequency of calibration varies between agencies. CPCB carries out calibration once every year or 2 years for ambient air quality stations in Delhi. However, for monitoring at traffic intersections, calibration is carried out every 6 months. CPCB recommends that SPCBs undertake calibration at least once a year. The frequency of calibration reported by NEERI is once in 2-3 months. Calibration is conducted using top loading calibrator and the recording of calibration data is not uniform across the different agencies. CPCB engaged a consultant in 1996 to carry out service, repair, and calibration of all high volume samplers throughout the country. A similar exercise is being undertaken at present.

Recently, CPCB compiled a report titled “Guidelines for Ambient Air Quality

Monitoring,” which includes monitoring methods, guidelines for locating stations, and quality control and quality assurance in air quality monitoring.

Interlaboratory Comparison of Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Methods.

Interlaboratory comparison is an effective tool for quality assurance in ambient air quality monitoring. CPCB has been conducting interlaboratory comparison workshops since 1999. So far, five rounds of interlaboratory comparisons have been carried out for measuring sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide. Measurements were mainly done by manual monitoring techniques except on one occasion when continuous monitoring

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techniques were also employed for measuring sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide. In the interlaboratory comparison conducted during December 2001, 15 teams including officials from SPCBs, NGOs, public sector undertakings, and industries participated. The performance of the participating laboratories for measurement of nitrogen dioxide was poor as the number of outliers for different reference concentrations ranged between 27% and 40%. On the other hand, the performance of the participants in the measurement of sulphur dioxide was satisfactory. There was only 1 outlier out of 15 participants in the reference concentration of 100 µg/m3. It is proposed to carry more interlaboratory comparisons workshops for parameters such as carbon monoxide and ozone.

Data Acquisition and Management Procedures. The monitoring data is

submitted to CPCB by agencies responsible for operation of the National Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Programme (NAMP) stations every month. The raw data is collated, compiled, interpreted and analyzed at CPCB. The analyzed data is compiled in the form of a report on Ambient Air Quality Status and Statistics and published every year.

The monthly air quality data for Delhi is compiled and made available on the

Internet. Air quality reports on the monitoring data in Delhi are published regularly. Yearly data of the stations under the NAMP are also provided on the Internet. The data is made available to all users whenever asked for.

Gaps in Air Quality Monitoring

(i) The generation of data regarding air quality through air quality monitoring networks involves a large number of monitoring agencies, personnel, and equipment for sampling, chemical analysis, data reporting, etc. The involvement of several agencies increases the probability of variations and personal biases reflecting in the data. Therefore, the air quality data statistics are recognized as more of indicative rather than absolute and perfect.

(ii) Out of 290 sanctioned stations only 196 stations were working as of March 2004.The closure of stations is mostly due to shortage of skilled manpower and adequate funds for maintaining the stations. CPCB is interacting with the SPCBs concerned for restoration of the closed stations.

(iii) The target air quality sampling for 24 hours in a day could not be fulfilled at all locations due to various reasons such as power failure, no backup facility for power, rainfall, and machine breakdown. The values monitored for more than 16 hours are considered as representative value for assessing air quality.

(iv) In most of the cases the target frequency of monitoring twice a week or 104 days a year could not be met at some locations due to reasons already mentioned. In such cases 50 days of monitoring in a year is considered adequate for data gathering for the purpose of analyzing the air quality status.

(v) There is no systematic estimation of uncertainty or error in the data. Given that there has been a gradual improvement in data collection over the years errors in the past were most probably greater.

(vi) There is inadequate financing for maintenance and operation of the instrument. There is inadequate infrastructure for supporting analytical work and very serious shortage of skilled technical staff.

(vii) Some of the air quality laboratories maintained by SPCBs are not recognized under the Environment Protection Act. Only the CPCB air laboratory at Delhi is

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accredited by the National Accreditation Board for Testing and Calibration Laboratories.

(viii) Some SPCBs maintain their own monitoring stations but their data are not accessible to CPCB for analysis and comparison of NAMP and SAAQM data. Similarly, some of the large industries maintain their own station as required under environmental impact assessment (EIA) studies. They submit their data to SPCB only. QA/QC strategies for these stations are not known. There is no compilation of these data at one place.

(ix) The present available calibration facility in CPCB is not adequate enough to meet the requirements in the entire country. Considering the importance of quality control, a proposal for developing facilities for quality control in ring tests at more places needs to be formulated. The calibration of instruments in all NAMP stations was conducted in 1996 only. The frequency of calibration needs to be increased to improve data quality.

(x) The air quality data is compiled and published by CPCB but availability of compiled data to data users is delayed. Data interpretation and impact analysis of various interventions on air quality are also not being carried out in detail. There need to be a dedicated division in CPCB with adequate manpower and infrastructure for coordinating NAMP network.

(xi) There is need to review the location and number of stations in each city as some of the locations are not representative.

(xii) Adequate funds for monitoring are not allocated. (xiii) There is a shortage of skilled manpower and infrastructure for monitoring.

1. Meteorological Data

CPCB and SPCB collect meteorological data from the Indian Meteorological Department (IMD), although some meteorological stations are established along with continuous monitoring stations. The data is made available from IMD on a payment basis. IMD through its 558 observatories throughout India records the meteorological data.

A sonic detection and ranging system (SODAR) system was installed at Parivesh Bhawan in March 1992 in collaboration with the National Physical Laboratory (NPL), Delhi. The system employs the acoustic waves of 2.2 KHz frequencies for accurate sensing of thermal and wind structure of the lower atmosphere up to 700 meters vertical height. The system has unique application for real time measurement of atmospheric condition, thermal and wind structure of lower atmosphere, mean wind velocity, component wind velocity and echo-intensity, which are useful in air pollution dispersion and modeling studies. The SODAR system installed at Parivesh Bhawan, CPCB is used to generate the mixing height data. CPCB publishes a report annually on Spatial Distribution of Hourly Mixing Depth. IMD's present upper air observational network comprises 35 radiosonde and 62 pilot balloon observatories spread all over the country.

Gaps in meteorological data:

(i) Meteorological data is not easily accessible from IMD. Data are accessed only on a payment basis, which takes longer due to official procedures. The data is received in handwritten form.

(ii) Meteorological data from CPCB and SPCB stations are not fully utilized.

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(iii) There is no compilation of meteorological data by CPCB during the monitoring period.

(iv) Cloud cover, atmospheric stability, and visibility data along with upper air data are not collected on a routine basis.

(v) Analysis and interpretation of air quality data are not done on the basis of meteorological data. 2. Air Quality Standards The primary aim of the air quality standards is to provide a basis for protecting

public health from the adverse effects of air pollution and for eliminating, or reducing to a minimum, those air contaminants that are known or likely to be hazardous to human health and well-being.

In India ambient air quality standards were first adopted on 11 November 1982 in

exercise of its jurisdiction under Section 16 (2) (h) of the Air (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act, 1981. The air quality standards have been revised (Annexure 1 by CPCB Delhi on 11 April 1994. CPCB consulted experts in the field of air quality and health effects of air pollution to formulate the air quality standards. Subsequent to the deliberations of experts and the consensus reached, CPCB has formulated the ambient air quality standards for most commonly found pollutants. Different standards have been laid down for industrial, residential, and sensitive areas to protect human health and natural resources from the effects of air pollution. The rationale and important features of the standards are as follows:

(i) While the standards are evolving, air quality levels with an adequate margin of

safety are considered to protect public health, vegetation, and property. (ii) Long-term standards are designed to protect the population from regular

exposure to high levels of pollution, while short-term standards are prescribed to control acute effects, which result when very high levels of pollution persist for short periods.

(iii) Annual average and 24-hourly average standards are fixed for sulphur dioxide (SO2), oxides of nitrogen (NOx), suspended particulate matter (SPM), respirable suspended particulate matter (RSPM), Lead (Pb) and ammonia. One- and 8-hourly standards are fixed for carbon monoxide.

(iv) Different sets of standards are prescribed based on the land use pattern. (v) For annual average, the annual arithmetic mean of minimum 104 measurements

in a year taken twice a week 24-hourly, at uniform intervals is to be considered. (vi) 24/8-hourly values should be met 98% of the time in a year and they should not

exceed on 2 consecutive days.

The air quality standards have evolved differently in different countries depending on the exposure condition, socio-economic situation and importance of other health related problem. Therefore, the actual concentration chosen for standards are different for various air pollutants in different countries. Ambient air quality standards for different country are given in Annexure II.

Gaps in ambient air quality standards:

(i) Ideally air quality standards should represent concentrations of chemical

compounds in air that would not pose any health problem to the human

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population; however, the realistic assessment of human health hazards necessitates a distinction between absolute safety and acceptable risk. To aim at achieving absolutely safety, one would need a detailed knowledge of dose-response relationships in individuals in relation to all sources of exposure, the type of toxic effects elicited by specific pollutants or their mixture, and existing health status of the n population. However, such comprehensive and conclusive data on environmental contaminants are not available in India.

(ii) It is difficult to demarcate the areas like industrial, residential and mixed used and sensitive. No other country has such type of categorization.

(iii) CO standards are very stringent as compared to other countries. (iv) Standards for ozone are not included in the NAAQM standards. (v) The number of 104 measurements is not met at any monitoring station due to

various reasons. The number of measurements needs to be reduced to some optimum figure.

3. Emission Inventories

Emission inventories are a key component of an integrated air quality

management system. They are used for (i) Identifying sources and their general emission levels so as to assist in developing

cost-effective control plans, (ii) Monitoring trends in emission over time and evaluating the effectiveness of

control plans, (iii) Providing data for the development of dispersion models, (iv) Determining source compliance with emission standards, (v) Providing information for public health and environmental impact assessment,

and (vi) Providing information for siting ambient air quality monitors.

a. Emission Inventory Studies Carried Out So Far in India (i) TERI has carried out emission inventory studies of different polluting sources.

Annual emissions of four major pollutants, SO2, CO, SPM and NOx, have been estimated for 1988-1989 by analyzing sector-wise fuel consumption statistics and assumed emission factors (Ranjan Bose 1990).

(ii) A UNEP-WHO study conducted during 1992 outlines the emission load of three Indian cities, viz., Delhi, Mumbai, and Kolkata apart from 17 mega cities of the world. The emission loads of CO, SPM, and NOx were estimated and projected for the years 1970,1980, 1990, and 2000 in three different sectors, i.e., transport, industry, and domestic (WHO-UNEP1992).

(iii) A comprehensive emission inventory was done for Mumbai as a part of the Urban Air Quality Management Strategy (URBAIR) Project of the World Bank. The total emissions from each source category have been distributed within the square kilometer (km). For each distribution an average emission rate was calculated for each grid square kilograms per hour (kg/hr). It was found that TSP exposure was mainly due to resuspension from roads caused by vehicles (40%), emission from diesel and gasoline vehicles (14%), domestic wood and refuse burning (31%), and others (15%) (World Bank 1997).

(iv) CPCB has carried out emission inventory and modeling exercise for Delhi during 1994 for four source categories—industrial point source, small industry, traffic,

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and domestic coal consumption. The emission inventory comprises consumption data of fossil fuels for the source types. In addition, traffic counting has been used to estimate the traffic emission for the area (CPCB 1994).

(v) NEERI during the year 1997 has also estimated emissions of CO, SO2, NOx, hydrochloride (HC), and particulate matter (PM) for Delhi for the years 1992 and 1995 from the industrial, power, transportation, and domestic sectors (NEERI 1998).

(vi) The Indian Institute of Management (IIM), National Physical Laboratory, and Space Application Center conducted an emission inventory study for the entire India. The sectors considered were energy, transport, industry, agriculture, and residential. The study was carried out using as base years 1990 and 1995. It studied the subregional and sector level distribution of SO2 and NOx for India. The basic methodology used is in line with the International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) methodology (1996). The sectoral SO2 emission factor has been indianized depending upon the sulphur content of different fuels and NO2 emission coefficient is also as per the IPCC guidelines (A. Garg et al. 2001).

(vii) CPCB has also carried out an estimation of vehicular emission load in Delhi for years 2000, 2005 and 2010 under different scenarios. The concept of proportional model is utilized to represent the estimated load of different pollutants into ambient air quality (CPCB 2000) .

(viii) The Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Mumbai has estimated black carbon emission from fossil fuel combustion from India for 1996-97. Diesel oil and coal accounted for 59% and 40% of emission, respectively (Chandra Venkataraman 2004).

(ix) The Central Road Research Institute (CRRI), NEERI, and IIP carried out vehicular emission inventory studies for Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Bangalore, Hyderabad, Kanpur and Agra during 2002. The pollutants considered were CO, HC, NOX and PM (Autofuel Policy 2002).

(x) The Pune Regional Emission Inventory Study was (PREIS) carried out in March 2004 by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) and the California Resource Board where several Indian governmental and educational institutions took part. The majority of the work was carried out over an intensive 7-day period and resulted in a well-documented inventory of PM10 emissions in Pune region. Emissions were estimated from over 50 distinct source categories (Pune University website).

(xi) The USEPA group also conducted a vehicular emission inventory study in Pune during March 2003 using the International Vehicle Emissions Model (University of Pune website).

b. Gaps in Emission Inventory

(i) The above studies are merely indicative and are mostly based on secondary data

where more assumptions have been taken into consideration. (ii) Inventory of only few categories of pollutants has been studied. (iii) A good database for different types of polluting sources is not available. (iv) Emission factor has not been developed for different categories of polluting

sources. Most of the studies have used the WHO emission factor. (v) Fund requirement for emission inventory study is high and also requires huge

manpower. (vi) Further studies on estimation of emission needs to be done in a holistic manner

involving all the agencies concerned.

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(vii) For vehicle emission inventory, data on actual vehicles plying on road, vehicle usage data, and fuel usage data are not available or well documented.

(viii) The method used for estimating emission inventory is not uniform. (ix) Training for comprehensive emission inventory estimation is also not adequate. (x) No separate funds are allocated for emission inventory.

4. Source Apportionment Studies

Source apportionment is a process that aims to determine the relative

contribution of various source categories to ambient concentration of a pollutant. A source appointment study can provide valuable information for the development of air quality improvement plans, especially when used in conjunction with emission inventories and dispersions model. Source apportionment techniques are typically applied to source contribution to ambient PM10, PM2.5 and VOC.

a. Studies on Source Apportionment Carried Out So Far in India (i) The Bhaba Atomic Research Center (BARC) Mumbai and IIT Mumbai have

carried out source apportionment studies for SPM at two traffic intersections at Mumbai for the year 1991-92.Factor analysis-multiple regression (FA-MR), a receptor modeling technique, has been used for the source apportionment studies. Due to limitation in source marker elements analyzed about 16% of the remaining SPM at these two traffic junctions could not be apportioned to any possible sources by this technique (A. Vinod Kumar et al. 2001).

(ii) Jawaharlal Nehru University Delhi conducted a study on particle size distribution of PM10 and its elemental composition in the ambient air of Delhi from February to May 1998. The principal component analysis (PCA) was used to identify possible sources of PM10. The PCA was done using the rotated factor matrix method in SPSS. A total of three principal components which explains 90% of the variance in the data set were extracted, namely, vehicular, industrial and commercial suspension (personal communication).

(iii) NEERI conducted a study on source apportionment of PM10 in Kanpur during May 2002 using the Varimax rotated factor analysis based on principal components. Separate analyses for each of the different activity zones like industrial, commercial, residential and kerb side were conducted. The outcome of the factor analysis was considered along with activities around monitoring sites to infer about the sources of respirable particulates. The source distribution of PM10 in different areas were identified as auto exhaust, diesel generating sets, resuspended dust, secondary aerosol formation, earth crust, small-scale industries and other sources which include domestic fuel combustion, garbage burning, construction activities and wind-blown dust (NEERI 2002).

(iv) A study by Mayol et al. found that total carbon accounted for approximately one third of PM10 .The ratio of elemental carbon to total carbon was comparable to those found in the Indian Ocean Experiment (INDOEX).

(v) A source apportionment study by the Georgia institute of technology along with several Indian institutes employed a chemical mass balance receptor model for source apportionment study of PM2.5 in Delhi, Mumbai, and Chandigarh during 2000-01 using organic tracers as molecular markers for several key primary sources. After extensive analysis, five primary source profiles were retained in the work: gasoline, diesel, road dust, coal and biomass (ESMAP 2002).

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b. Gaps in Source Apportionment Studies (i) Source apportionment studies are not carried out regularly and or used for

developing AQM plans. (ii) There are no uniform guidelines existing for carrying out source apportionment

studies. (iii) Institutions capable of carrying out source apportionment studies are very few in

number. This may be due to the large infrastructure required for chemical analysis.

(iv) Source profiles of different sources required for the chemical mass balance model do not exist for Indian conditions. There is need to develop source profiles.

(v) Source apportionment studies so far carried out in India are restricted to PM and periods of study are for less number of days and mostly do not cover all the seasons.

(vi) Training for such type of study is not adequate and also not familiarized with different types of models required for source apportionment study.

(vii) Separate funds are not allocated for such studies.

5. Dispersion Modeling

Dispersion models have two important functions in urban air quality management: (i) models predict air quality in regions where it is not possible to carry out air sampling, and (ii) calculated concentrations using emissions from different groups of sources are used by policy makers when assessing different emission control strategies.

The Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) notification of 4 May 1994 of the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF), Government of India, makes it mandatory to carry out an EIA study before certain categories of industries are sited, or an existing industry is expanded. Attainment of satisfactory air quality is generally predicted through dispersion modelling. The present practice for ambient air quality predictions is through application of the Gaussian Plume Model and its available variations. A study has been initiated by CPCB to provide scientific means for validation and adoption of air quality models suitable for Indian conditions and for formulating appropriate guidelines. An exhaustive data set including emissions, plume characteristics, measured concentrations of pollutants, and meteorological parameters have been generated for the chosen site and software based on Gaussian Plume Model has been developed. The software is being refined and further evaluation work of model parameters has been undertaken.

In India various Gaussian-based point source models ISCT3 and PAL2 are used. Line source models like CALINE 3 and 4, GM and HIWAY 2 are sometimes used to predict the impact of vehicular pollution along the roads/highways.

Some of the key Institutions that have used dispersion models study are NEERI, TERI, IITs, JNU, IMD, and CPCB.

Gaps in dispersion model: (i) The experience so far, has shown that, at times, the model has been used

incorrectly, and the values of various parameters, required for modeling, are

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adopted from other countries without understanding their applicability in the Indian context.

(ii) Dispersion model is not routinely carried out for predicting air quality trends, source apportionment, evaluation of control option, or assessment of a new source of emission.

(iii) Key input data like location, height of release, temperature of release, emission rate, atmospheric stability, mixing height, surface roughness, etc. are not easily available.

(iv) Demonstration training for carrying out a dispersion model is not adequate. (v) Separate funds are not allocated for carrying out a dispersion model.

6. Air Pollution Impacts Study

Health-related studies with respect to air pollution have been carried out in Delhi, Mumbai ,Hyderabad, Bangalore, Kolkata, Ahmedabad, Chennai, and Cochin by various organizations. Following are some of the organizations involved:

a. All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Delhi (i) A survey was conducted by AIIMS Delhi, on 200 school children in residential

and commercial areas of Delhi during 1997. It was observed that blood lead levels among 56% of school going children in residential areas and 72% in commercial areas had elevated blood lead levels more than 10 micrograms per deciliter (µg/dL). In another survey it was found that IQ levels of children with low blood lead levels was higher than those with high blood lead levels (Parivesh 2001).

(ii) CPCB and AIIMS conducted a health survey during 1997 and 1998 on individuals residing in areas of Delhi. About 1,321 residents were surveyed for medical symptoms and subjected to a lung function test. It was observed that FEV1, FVC and PEF values were lower due to higher levels of air pollution (Parivesh 2001).

(iii) AIIMS has also studied the correlation of outdoor air pollution and emergency visits during 1997-98. Emergency visits of asthma, chronic obstructive airways disease, and acute coronary events increased by 21.3%, 24.9% and 24.3%, respectively, on account of higher acceptable level of air pollutants (Parivesh 2001).

(iv) AIIMS is also studying the air pollution in Laxminagar (the vicinity of Indraprastha Thermal Power Station) and in Harinagar (low pollution area) where 4,000 number of subjects were assessed for general health, respiratory health, and eye and skin health by means of a questionnaire (MoEF 2000).

b. Environmental Pollution Research Center, KEM Hospital,

Mumbai (World Bank 1997)

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(i) In 1978 EPRC conducted a study on 1,008 subjects from a residential community in Parel near a coal gas factory and many textile mills with main arterial roads. The incidence of respiratory diseases was observed to be higher in this area. In 1988 a cross-sectional study in four localities, Tolaram Nagar, Telecom Township, Parel and Dadar examined symptoms of the disease pattern. It was observed that coughs and dyspnea were higher in Tolaram Nagar and Parel as compared to the other two localities.

(ii) In 1978 EPRC also conducted a study in Chembur where 586 males and 536 females living near a fertilizer and chemical factory and a thermal power station were examined. To check for the effect of increased pollution, a cross-sectional study was conducted in 1990 on 409 subjects of a community near a fertilizer factory─342 subjects of a community about 2 km away from the factory and 341 subjects in another community devoid of industrial pollution. The results showed that the incidence of respiratory symptoms like cough and dyspnea increased by 8-13% among the people of communities near the factory.

(iii) From 1986 to 1988, EPRC conducted 3-year prospective studies in two high-density traffic areas of Mumbai (King Circle and Peddar Road) with 383 subjects from King Circle and 473 subjects from Peddar Road. Observed mean levels of CO were 9-118 ppm, contributing to the high incidence of coughs, bronchitis and cardio respiratory disorder. A significant correlation was also observed between SPM levels, frequency of colds, attacks of breathlessness, and NO2 and SPM levels. The prevalence of cardiac diseases had increased in this locality.

(iv) During 1988-1991, EPRC studied 507 subjects who lived near the Amboli quarry and 587 subjects near the Kandivilli quarry. It was observed that people living near these two quarries were more affected than quarry workers.

(v) In 1992, EPRC examined the effects of CO gas on carboxy-haemoglobin in 211 subjects in Dahisar and 98 subjects in BPH employees, 45 traffic policemen and 75 vendors working at traffic junctions in Mumbai were examined. The mean carboxyhaemoglobin (CO-Hb) level of nonsmokers at the Dahisar and BPH check posts was 1.7% and that of traffic police was 2.3%. The traffic junction study showed a significant correlation between ambient CO levels and blood CO-Hb levels.

(vi) From 1995 to 1998, EPRC conducted a community health study in Ghatkopar, Chembur, Parel and Boriveli.

c. Lakeside Medical Center and Hospital, Bangalore

A study conducted by the Lakeside Medical Center during 2001 observed that

children and policemen are most susceptible to air pollution. The school children living near heavy traffic regions with low-income status showed higher a percentage of asthma as compared to children living in low traffic regions. Traffic police showed a higher percentage of asthma than non-traffic police (Action Plan 2003 for Bangalore City).

d. Center for Environment Planning and Technology,

Ahmedabad

CEPT Ahmedabad has undertaken a comparative health risk assessment at Ahmedabad, sponsored by the Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation in 1996. The study revealed that air pollution has contributed to increased levels of asthma, bronchitis and cough (Action Plan 2003 for Ahmedabad City).

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e. Chittaranjan National Cancer Institute, Kolkata

To investigate the impacts of air pollutants on the Kolkata population, CNCI Kolkata, University of Calcutta, and Department of Environment of the West Bengal government jointly conducted a study during 1996-2001. In this study 1,310 adult individuals from all over the Kolkata metropolitan area and 200 individuals from rural areas were examined for respiratory symptoms, impairment in lung function, alveolar macrophages count, abnormal sputum cytology, activation of excretory function of alveolar macrophages, abundance of iron laden alveolar macrophages, alveolar macrophages apoptosis, genotoxic effect, hematological changes, metabolic disorders, and behavioral and hormonal changes.

The observation and inference of the study clearly indicate that the lungs of the

Kolkata population are highly burdened with respirable particulate matter with suggestive indication of inflammatory and allergic lung response and microscopic hemorrhage of lung. The study demonstrated a direct relationship between status of air pollution and, alveolar macrophage response (Lahiri et al. 2000).

f. National Institute of Occupational Health, Ahmedabad

NIOH Ahmedabad conducted a study of 2,031 children and adults in five mega

cities. Out of 1,852 children tested for blood lead level, 51.4% had blood lead above 10 µg /dL. The percentage of children having 10 µg /dl or higher blood lead level ranged from 39.9% in Bangalore to 61.8% in Mumbai. In adults 40.2% showed blood lead level above 10 µg /dL (MoEF 2000).

g. Andhra Pradesh Pollution Control Board

In 1997 APPCB conducted a health-related study on 600 traffic policemen for

respiratory symptoms and biochemical abnormalities (Action Plan for Hyderabad city).

h. Ministry of Environment and Forests

MoEF has initiated environmental epidemiological studies in seven critically polluted areas, viz., Vapi (Gujarat), Angul-Talcher (Orissa), Chembur (Mumbai), Cochin (Kerala), Kanpur (UP), Mandi-Govindgarh (Punjab), Najafgarh drain basin Delhi, and also Pune. Initial feedbacks from the studies indicate that the incidence of symptomatic morbidity (eye irritation, respiratory problem, and skin lesion/irritation) is high in areas of industrial activity. However, no conclusive data on morbidity and mortality rates could be established having direct correlation with the environmental pollution (MoEF 2000).

i. Monetary Valuation of Health Impact Studies

(i) Brandon and Hommann in 1995 extrapolated dose-response functions from

developed countries to estimate mortality and morbidity due to ambient air quality exceeding WHO guidelines in 36 countries, including Delhi. The pollutants considered were PM, SO2, NOX and lead. They estimated that over 40,000 premature deaths would be avoided if pollutant levels in these cities were reduced to the WHO annual average standard. According to them Delhi alone accounts for 7,500 or almost a fifth of premature deaths. They also monetized estimates of premature deaths and sickness by using value-of-life and medical

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cost figures from United States (adjusted to income levels). Thus, health costs of air pollution are estimated to be in the range of $0.5−2 billion, with PM10 and SO2 accounting for over 95 % of the total. Using a similar approach TERI in 1998 in their study arrived at higher estimates (Brandon E. and Hommann K. (1995).

(ii) Cropper et al. in 1997 in their study have used the human capital approach in order to get a rough approximation of the value of life years saved by reducing particulates in Delhi to meet the WHO air quality criteria (AQC) levels. The study estimates that approximately 2,712 deaths would be avoided if TSP were reduced to meet the WHO Air Quality Guidelines (AQG).

Gaps in health impact study:

(i) There are no plans to establish or strengthen national and local epidemiological

monitoring programs that record morbidity and mortality cases associated with air pollution on a regular basis and use environment and health indicators following regional guidelines where they exist. In the absence of epidemiological studies, results from epidemiological literature from industrialized countries are used.

(ii) There is no regular collection of hospital data on air pollution-related data conditions including respiratory, cardio cerebrovascular, congestive heart failure, emergency room visits for respiratory illness, new cases of chronic bronchitis, deaths from cardiovascular, cardiopulmonary, lung cancer, respiratory illnesses, etc. There is no centralized system for collection of health-related data with respect to air pollution.

(iii) Studies to estimate public exposure to potential health impacts from air pollution are restricted to few cities.

(iv) Health-related data in a particular city are not taken into consideration before making any policy decision.

(v) There is no study available in India on dose-response functions that relate ambient levels of pollutants to impacts on specific assets or certain aspects of health, marginal physical impact per unit of pollution, monetary values per unit of physical impact, and monetary value of benefits/damage due to changes in air pollution.

7. Strategies to Control Air Pollution in India

Various strategies for control of air pollution in non-attainment cities and problem

areas have been adopted. Some of strategies for controlling air pollution from industries and vehicles are described below:

a. Industrial Pollution Control

(i) Identification of problem areas: Compliance with respective air standards has been continuously ascertained in 17 categories of highly polluting medium- and large-scale industries as their emissions are regularly monitored. Actions against defaulters are contemplated from time to time.

(ii) Emission standards evolved and notified under Environment (Protection) Act, 1986: Emission standards have been notified for a large number of industries while several others are under finalization.

(iii) Minimal National Standards: These standards have been prepared for highly polluting industries under The Air (Prevention and Control of pollution) Act, 1981 and Environmental (Protection) Act, 1986.

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(iv) National Ambient Air Quality Standards: CPCB had first adopted NAAQS on 11 November 1982. They were revised on 1 April 1994. The NAAQS are being used as guidelines to ensure ambient air quality in various parts of the country in respective land use areas.

(v) Environmental auditing: The process of environment auditing has been initiated in highly polluting industries. The methodology has been standardized and finalized for respective industries.

(vi) Fuel quality specification: Recommendation of improvement of fuel quality and beneficiation of coal at pitheads has been notified and implemented.

(vii) Development of pollution prevention technologies: Industries are encouraged to use cleaner technologies and low waste or zero waste technologies to reduce waste generation and emissions of pollutants. Some of these are: technologies for removal of SO2 from flue gas; NOx removal technologies; characterization of fabric filter dust collector; evaluation of technologies of different types of fluidized bed combustion boilers; evaluation of clean coal technologies; and optimization of combustion efficiency and control of emissions from small boilers.

(viii) Hazardous waste management: Development of guidelines for treatment and disposal of hazardous waste for minimum contaminants before disposal and environmental impact assessment has been undertaken in various states of the country.

(ix) Zoning/siting industries: Under an Indo-German bilateral program, methodology has been developed for zoning, mapping and siting of industries.

b. Vehicular Pollution Control

i. Vehicular Emission Norms: (i) During 1990-91 India for the first time notified mass emission norms for vehicles

at the manufacturing stage as well as for in-use vehicles. These norms were notified under Environment Protection Act, Motor Vehicles Rules and Air Act.

(ii) Emission norms introduced in 1996 have been important in controlling vehicular pollution because of the stringency of emission norms along with fuel quality in 1996. For the first time crankcase emission norms and evaporative emission norms were introduced.

(iii) From April 1995 passenger cars were allowed to register only if they are fitted with a catalytic converter in four metros (Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai). Emission norms for such vehicles were notified under the Motor Vehicle Rules during January 1998. These norms were stricter by 50% compared to 1996 norms.

(iv) The testing method for passenger car norms were changed from hot start to cold start, which is also a stringent measure, compared to the earlier one.

(v) More stringent norms were introduced for the year 2000. These norms were notified under the Motor Vehicle Rules during 1997. Automobile manufacturers have to undergo major modification to meet these norms.

(vi) As per Honorable Supreme Court's directions only private vehicles conforming to at least Euro-I norms are being registered in NCR for June 1999 and from April 2000 only private vehicles conforming to Euro-II equivalent, i.e., Bharat Stage-II norms were registered. In Mumbai Euro-II norms for private vehicles (4-wheelers) were applicable from 2001. In Kolkata, India-2000 norms (Euro-I) have been made applicable from November 1999.

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(vii) From 1 October 1999, emission norms for agricultural tractors were introduced throughout the country. Bharat Stage-II and Bharat Stage-III emission norms for tractors will be implemented from 2003 and 2005, respectively.

(viii) Bharat Stage-II norms for new 4-wheeler private noncommercial vehicles were introduced in Mumbai from January 2001, Kolkata and Chennai from July 2001 to 24 October 2001.

(ix) Only those taxies that meet Bharat Stage-II norms are being registered in Delhi. (x) Bharat Stage-II norms for Diesel 4-wheeler transport vehicles were introduced in

NCT from 24 October 2001, in Greater Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai from 31 October 2001.

(xi) The expert committee on Auto Fuel Policy was constituted during September 2001.The final report of the committee was submitted to Government during September 2002 and approved by the Cabinet during October 2003.The committee recommended a road map for control of vehicular pollution up to year 2010. Bharat Stage-II and Bharat Stage III emission norms for all categories of 4-wheelers will be made applicable throughout the country from April 2005 and April 2010, respectively. Bharat Stage-III and Bharat Stage-IV will be introduced in 11 metro cities from April 2005 and April 2010, respectively.

(xii) New emission norms for in-use vehicles notified and will be implemented from October 2004 all over the country.

(xiii) From 1 April 2003 only Bharat Stage-II emission norms compliant all new vehicles except 2- and 3-wheelers were registered in Hyderabad, Secunderabad, Bangalore, Ahmedabad, Kanpur, Agra and Surat.

(xiv) From 1 June 2003 only Bharat (Trem) Stage-II emission compliant new agriculture tractors and construction vehicles were registered throughout the country.

(xv) Bharat Stage-II norms for 2- and 3-wheelers were notified during September 2003 for implementation from 1 April 2005.

(xvi) Emission norms for implementation of Bharat Stage II emission norms for all categories of vehicles except 2- and 3-wheelers to be effective from 1 March 2004 for all categories of vehicles in Sholapur and Lucknow were also notified during December 2003.

(xvii) Emission norms for implementation of Bharat Stage-II emission norms for all categories of vehicles except 2- and 3-wheelers to be effective from 1 April 2005 throughout the country have been notified during December 2003.

ii. Fuel Quality Specifications

For the first time diesel and gasoline fuel quality with respect to environment

related parameters has been notified under the EPA during April 1996.

Gasoline Lead Phase-out Program

Phase Date of Introduction Lead Content Areas Covered Phase-I June 1994 Low leaded (0.15 g/l) NCT, Delhi, Mumbai,

Kolkata and Chennai Phase-II 1 April 1995 Unleaded (0.013 g/l) + low

lead NCT, Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai

Phase-III 1 September 1998 Ban on leaded gasoline; unleaded only

NCT

Phase-IV 1 September 1999 Unleaded only NCR 1 February 2000 Unleaded only Entire country

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Diesel Sulphur Reduction Program

Phase Date of Introduction Sulphur Content Area Covered Phase-I April 1996 Low sulphur (0.5%) Four metros and Taj

Trapezium Phase-II August 1997 Low sulphur (0.25%) Delhi and Taj Trapezium Phase-III April 1998 Low sulphur (%25) Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai,

Kolkata Phase-IV April 2000 Low sulphur (0.05%) NCR-Private Vehicles March 2001 Low sulphur (0.05%) NCT-all diesel vehicles June 2001 Low sulphur (0.05%) NCR-all diesel vehicles Phase-V October 2001 Low sulphur (0.05%) Chennai, Mumbai and

Kolkata 2003 Low sulphur (0.05%) Ahmedabad, Bangalore

and Hyderabad 2005 Low sulphur (0.05%) All over country

Gasoline Benzene Reduction Program

Date of Introduction

Benzene Content Area Covered

Before 1966 No specification for Benzene Entire Country April 2000 3% Benzene Metro Cities November 2000 1% Benzene NCT and Mumbai 2005 1% Benzene Entire country

iii. Lubricants Quality

(i) Specifications of 2T oil for 2-stroke engine with respect to smoke have been

notified under EPA during September 1998 for implementation from 1 April 1999 throughout the country.

(ii) Pre-mix 2T oil dispenser has been installed at all petrol filling stations in Delhi so

that excessive oil is not being used by the vehicle owners. Sale of loose 2T oil has been banned from December 1998 in Delhi.

iv. Alternative Fuels

(i) All government vehicles were required to compulsorily fit compressed natural gas

(CNG) kit or catalytic converter by December 1996. (ii) Emission norms for CNG/liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) vehicles notified. (iii) Emission norms for diesel vehicles fitted with LPG engine notified and made

effective from 1 May 2003. (iv) So far more than 122 CNG filling stations for CNG driven vehicles have been

installed in Delhi and about 22 CNG stations in Mumbai. (v) More than 85,000 CNG vehicles (including autos, taxies and buses) are plying in

Delhi. Only CNG buses are plying in Delhi from November 2002. (vi) Customs duty on CNG kit has been exempted for promotion of CNG vehicles. (vii) Emission norms for CNG vehicles have been notified under Motor Vehicles Rules

vide GSR 853 (E) dated 19 November 2001.

27

(viii) LPG is now being used as alternate fuel for motor vehicles after making amendments in CMVR. Emission norms for LPG vehicles have been notified vide GSR 284 (E) dated 24 April 2001.

(ix) Battery-driven vehicles have been introduced in a few corridors in Delhi. (x) Gasoline with 5 % ethanol to be supplied in sugar producing states of

Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and Union Territories of Daman and Diu, Dadar and Nagar Haweli, Chandigarh, and Pondicherry from January 2003.

(xi) Bio-diesel specifications have been finalized. Some trial runs on bio-diesel have been completed.

v. Restriction of Grossly Polluting Vehicles

(i) Registration of new auto rickshaws with a conventional engine has been

banned from May 1996 and Defense Service and government-auctioned vehicles from April 1998 in Delhi.

(ii) 20-year old commercial vehicles were phased out from October 1998, 17-year old commercial vehicles from November 1998 and 5- year old commercial vehicles from December 1998 in Delhi.

(iii) Registration of altered vehicles (by replacing petrol engine) with diesel has been banned from 1 April 1998 in Delhi.

vi. Traffic Management

(i) Restriction has been imposed on goods vehicles during daytime from August

1999 in Delhi. (ii) Left lane has been made exclusive to buses and other heavy motor vehicles in

Delhi. (iii) Time clocks have been installed in important red lights to enable drivers to

switch off their vehicles depending on the time left in the time clocks. (iv) Construction of more flyovers and subways and closing of T-junctions for better

traffic flow.

vii. Public Transport System (i) Number of buses has been increased to discourage the use of individual vehicles

to allow vehicles from the private sector vehicles to operate. (ii) Metro Rail Project for Shahdara-Rithala Section in Delhi has been completed and

commissioned from December 2003.

viii. Technology (i) Fitment of catalytic converter for new petrol passenger cars has been made

compulsory from 1 April 1995 in four metros and 45 cities from 1 September1998.

(ii) Two-wheeler scooters with 4-stroke engines are being introduced in the market from October 1998.

(iii) Registration of only rear engine auto rickshaws is being allowed from May 1996 onwards.

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ix. Mass Awareness (i) Messages/articles related to vehicular emissions are disseminated through

newsletters, pamphlets, newspapers, magazines, television, radio, Internet, workshops and summer exhibitions.

(ii) Display of ambient air quality data through display system near ITO, newspapers, daily news and Internet.

(iii) NGOs working on vehicular pollution control are being encouraged for mass awareness campaigns.

c. General Pollution Abatement

(i) Prohibit open incineration/combustion (ii) Use LPG/clean fuels for domestic consumption: Increasing

awareness is being created to use clean fuels for domestic consumption instead of wood, steam coal, cow dung and other highly polluting combustible materials.

(iii) Increase green cover: As a control measure to reduce air pollution, massive afforestation and greenery program, and developing green barriers and green buffers having multi-species plants are being promoted.

(iv) Intensify mass awareness: Massive thrust is provided for mass awareness campaigns regarding air pollution involving community-level organizations such as resident associations, student organizations, senior citizens, voluntary bodies local action groups and NGOs to look for innovative ways to solve health, transport, housing and environmental problems and devise strategic plans for their implementation.

d. Future Strategies

i. Industrial Pollution Control

(i) Thrust for cleaner technologies: Cleaner technologies of production is the new dimension emerging rapidly for cleaner production and to increase production efficiency, while at the same time eliminating at least minimizing emissions.

(ii) Strengthening emission standards: In order to promote resource conservation by industries, emission standards for various categories of major and medium categories of industries will be strengthened.

(iii) Promotion of Industrial waste utilization: The thrust will have to be made for proper disposal and reutilization of industrial waste like fly ash, slags, red-mud etc.

(iv) Appropriate siting of high pollution potential industries/projects (v) Incentives for environmentally benign substitute, technologies and energy

conservation. (vi) Fiscal measures: Economic instruments will have to be utilized to encourage

shift from curative to preventive measures.

ii. Vehicular Pollution control

(i) Emission standards: Road map for controlling vehicular emissions is presented in Annexure III.

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(ii) Fuel quality specifications proposed for 2005: Work is in progress to finalize fuel quality specifications and motor vehicles norms for year 2005 through auto oil program.

(iii) Increased use of cleaner fuel-CNG/LPG/propane: Expansion of CNG dispensing facilities and fiscal incentives on CNG kits and dispensing equipment

(iv) Provision of particulate filter to reduce particulates from diesel-driven vehicles

(v) Curbing fuel adulteration: Fuel adulteration leads to excessive smoke and other toxic pollutants, besides causing fuel diseconomics and damage to vehicle engine. State of the art testing facilities and deterrent actions are proposed to be undertaken nationwide.

(vi) Emission performance warranty of vehicles by manufacturers (vii) Introduction of inspection and maintenance (I&M) system: An I&M system

for inspection, maintenance and certification of commercial and noncommercial vehicles will be implemented. It will include testing of various elements of safety, roadworthiness and compliance with pollution norms.

(viii) Promotion of mass rapid transport system (ix) Augmentation of public transport (x) Traffic planning and management: Traffic management system needs to be

upgraded in the country, and the network of synchronized road signals should be expanded. There is urgent need for construction of express highways joining major urban areas.

d. Strategies to Control Air Pollution Adopted in Megacities

The strategies adopted in mega cities are given in Annexure IV.

e. Gaps in Air Quality Control Strategies

(i) Strategies to reduce emissions are often short term in nature which fails to adequately address the problem.

(ii) More stress has been given to end- of-pipe treatment and best available technology solutions rather than implementing solutions that prevent pollution such as traffic demand management and economic restructuring.

(iii) The various strategies recommended and implemented were not based on a systematic emission inventory and source apportionment studies.

(iv) The synergy between different measures is not fully exploited. (v) There are no studies conducted on cost-benefit analysis before implementation

of strategies. (vi) There are very few studies carried out to see the impacts on air pollution after

implementation of various interventions. (vii) Most of the strategies are being replicated in various cities in spite of different

local air quality problems. (viii) There is no generation of separate funds for implementation of strategies through

use of economic instruments.

8. Air Quality Management Plan

a. Supreme Court’s Order Regarding Preparation of Action Plans for Control of Air Pollution in Nonattainment Cities

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With the objective of controlling the rapidly burgeoning air pollution problems in our country, the Honorable Supreme Court of India, in the matter of CWP No. 13029 of 1995, passed orders on 5 April 2001 regarding formulation and implementation of action plans for control of pollution in selected cities. The Honorable Court stressed the need for such initiatives relating to vehicular pollution in Delhi and directed that an action plan for pollution control in the cities/towns that do not meet the ambient air quality standards should be prepared. The court order, among other things, stated as under:

“We may here note that there are as per CPCB data at least nine other polluted cities in India where the air quality is critical. These cities are Agra, Lucknow, Jharia, Kanpur, Varanasi, Faridabad, Patna, Jodhpur and Pune. But there appears to be no effective action plan to address the problems of the cities] ----. If no immediate action is taken then it may become necessary for some orders being passed so as to bring relief to the residents of these cities.”

Further, the court ordered the Union of India and all other governmental authorities as under:

“Prepare a scheme containing a time schedule for supply of CNG to other polluted cities of India and furnish the same to this court by 9th May, 2002. ”

The Honorable Court considered the matter on 09 May 2002 and among other things, issued following direction:

“Union of India will give a scheme with regard to compulsory switchover of all the two–wheelers, three-wheelers and motor vehicles to LPG/CNG in cities other than Delhi which are equally or more polluted.”

On 14 August 2003, the Honorable Supreme Court passed the following direction:

“CPCB’s report shows that the Respirable Particulate Matter (in short “RSPM”) levels in Ahmedabad, Kanpur, Sholapur, Lucknow, Bangalore, Chennai, Hyderabad, Mumbai and Kolkata are alarming.”

“Issue notices to the States of Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. In the meantime, we direct that the Union of India and the respective States shall draw a plan for lowering the rate of RSPM level in the aforesaid cities. After the plan is drawn, the same would be placed before EPCA. This may be done within a period of two months. We are excluding Mumbai and Kolkata where the respective High Courts are stated to be monitoring the RSPM levels in those cities. EPCA after examining the matter shall submit a report to this Court within a period of four weeks thereafter.”

b. Actions taken by CPCB

Based on the air quality data (1995-2001), CPCB identified following 53 Non-attainment cities & towns.

1. AGRA 2. AHMEDABAD

3. BANGALORE 4. BHOPAL

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5. CHENNAI 6. DELHI 7. DHANBAD 8. FARIDABAD 9. HYDERABAD 10. INDORE 11. JABALPUR 12. JAIPUR 13. KANPUR 14. KOCHI 15. KOLKATA 16. LUCKNOW 17. LUDHIANA 18. MADURAI 19. MUMBAI 20. NAGPUR 21. NASHIK 22. PATNA 23. PUNE 24. SURAT 25. VADODARA 26. VARANASI 27. VISAKHAPATNAM 28. ALWAR 29. ANGUL

30. ANKLESWR 31. BHILAI 32. CHANDIGARH 33. CHANDRAPUR 34. DAMTAL 35. DEHRADUN 36. GAJRAULA 37. GOBINDGARH 38. HOWRAH 39. JALANDHAR 40. JHARIA 41. JODHPUR 42. KORBA 43. KOTA 44. NAGDA 45. PARWANOO 46. RAIPUR 47. RAJKOT 48. ROURKELA 49. SATNA 50. SHIMLA 51. SHOLAPUR 52. UDAIPUR 53. VAPI

CPCB circulated formats (Annexure V) and guidelines and requested all

concerned SPCBs to: (i) identify the air polluting sources; (ii) assess the pollution load; (iii) prepare a city-wise action plan for control of air pollution from various sources; and (iv) set up inter-agency task force for formulation and implementation of action plan.

The following guidelines were issued by CPCB for preparing an Action Plan for Control of Air Pollution in Cities: (ii) Air Quality Target: Mention the air quality standards, and their significance, and

whether the standards are made stricter than the national standards. (iii) Air Quality Monitoring Program: Describe the monitoring program giving the

number of stations, locations, monitoring agency, pollutants monitored, data processing system and dissemination.

(iv) Inventory of emission load: Some estimates on inventory of emission load from vehicles, industries, domestic sources, etc. may be given. If not done, a proposal for such study may be provided.

(v) Proportion contribution of various sources like vehicles, industry, domestic, etc. are to be estimated through modeling. If not done a proposal for such study may be given.

(vi) Steps taken so far for control of air pollution: various steps taken so far to control air pollution and their impacts on the air quality may be described.

(vii) Roadmap for controlling vehicular pollution: The roadmap as proposed by the Central Government (Auto-Fuel Policy) may be mentioned.

(viii) Roadmap for controlling air pollution from other sources may also be mentioned.

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CPCB and MoEF identified the following four cities (Kolkota, Pune, Kanpur, and Ahmedabad) based on the air quality data of 2002 with respect to SO2, NO2, and RSPM.

CPCB and MoEF organized a conference of State Secretaries of Environment and chairpersons of SPCBs to discuss formulation and implementation of Action Plans for Control of Air Pollution in selected cities.

A workshop was organized by CPCB to discuss and finalize the format for taking an inventory of various polluting sources. Another workshop at Pune was organized in collaboration with the US Environmental Protection Authority (USEPA) and United States Environment Programme (USEP), for monitoring and inventory of air pollution.

CPCB reviewed the action plans and submitted comments to the concerned SPCBs for further improvement.

MoEF, EPCA, and CPCB held several meetings with the SPCBs concerned to review the action plans for air quality improvement of identified polluted cities.

The action plans submitted by the State governments were discussed in the 50th conference of chairmen/member secretaries of pollution control boards/committees.

c. Action Taken by Environment Pollution (Prevention and Control) Authority

EPCA monitored the progress and status of the action plans of seven critically

polluted cities, organized discussions with the state governments, visited the cities concerned, and submitted the final report on particulate pollution reduction strategy in the seven cities to the Supreme Court.

EPCA recommended that the seven city action plans need to follow common overarching goals in the following areas of interventions: (i) Advancement of vehicle technology and fuel quality standards to achieve

significantly cleaner emission levels; (ii) Introduction and expansion of gaseous fuel programs to leap-frog and achieve

drastic reduction in particulate emissions; (iii) Implementation of appropriate policies to check the rapid dieselization of small

and medium car segments that ate the growing source of particulate emission in cities;

(iv) Regulation of emissions from on-road vehicles with improved inspection and maintenance program, more representative test procedures, and greater manufacturers’ accountability (emissions warranty);

(v) Augmentation of public transportation and transport demand management to restrict growth of number of private vehicles;

(vi) Effective strategy to prevent fuel adulteration; (vii) Introduction of petrol with 1% of benzene; (viii) Strengthening air quality planning in cities; and (ix) Concerned state governments and Union MoEF to undertake their own source

apportionment studies and pollution source inventories for future planning and monitoring.

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Summary of action plans for 16 cities submitted by the state governments/state boards is given in Annexure IV. The progress of work for achievement of compliance in (9 +4+9) polluted cities as identified by the Honorable Supreme Court, along with action plans for control of air pollution in nonattainment cities identified by CPCB, is given in Annexure VI.

d. Gaps in Action Plans Submitted by State Governments/State Boards

(vii) Most of the air quality strategies/plans submitted by the state governments/state

boards are not adequate and integrated. All polluting sources are not adequately mentioned.

(viii) Inter-agency and center–state coordination is weak. Some of the state governments of the cities concerned have not constituted an interagency task force for preparing and implementing their action plans.

(ix) No separate AQM cell has been established with dedicated manpower and infrastructure in SPCBs for developing and implementing their action plans for controlling air pollution.

(x) Separate funds for developing and implementing action plans are not allocated in the SPCB budget.

(xi) The use of air quality monitoring data for policy making is not optimal. There is need to improve the assessment of health, environmental and economic impacts of air quality and to establish the benefits of implementation of an action plan.

(xii) Inventory of various polluting sources like industry vehicles, natural sources, domestic sources, DG sets, biomass burning, etc. has not been carried out prior to recommendation of an action plan. For some of the few cities a preliminary inventory has been attempted.

(xiii) Similarly, source apportionment study with chemical characterization and modeling to identify the sources of pollution responsible for the deterioration in air quality has not been conducted before recommendation of an action plan.

(xiv) The action plans are weak on public transport and not focused on clean and efficient public transport system to restrict the growth rate of numbers and usage of private vehicles in the city. Plans for mass rapid transit systems (bus or rail) are also not addressed.

(xv) Some of the action plans did not even include a time target. (xvi) Most of the proposed action plans for vehicular pollution control are command-

and-control measures stressing improvement in vehicle technology and fuel quality. Financial or economic instruments like parking fee restructuring, emission taxes, incentives, etc. may be considered in the plans.

(xvii) Generating public awareness is a prerequisite to see through the success of any action plan. Steps like mass awareness campaigns, roadside inspection and maintenance camps, interactive seminars and training, display of air quality data, etc. are not included in the action plans.

(xviii) The action plans do not propose any initiative for better traffic management and infrastructure augmentation, which go a long way in minimizing road congestion problems.

(xix) Inputs like land utilization pattern along with a map are not included. (xx) Cost-benefit analysis study is not included for recommending the various policy

interventions..

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(xxi) Strategies are short term in nature, which fail to adequately address the overall problem.

(xxii) Periodic review of action plans is not being undertaken to determine the effectiveness of an action plan and the desirability and feasibility to broaden its scope and refine its implementation procedure. 9. Indoor Air Pollution

In the developed world, indoor air pollution has been usually associated with

occupations exposed to high concentrations of air pollutants mainly through the combustion of biomass fuels. Health problems due to indoor air pollutants particularly in developing countries including India are more severe and widespread than those caused by the outdoor air pollutants for the following reasons: (i) The exposed persons are in close proximity to the source of indoor air pollutants. (ii) A recent report of World Health Organization asserts “the rule of 1,000,” which

states that a pollutant released indoor is one thousand times more likely to reach people’s lungs than a pollutant released outdoors (WHO, 1997).

(iii) It has been estimated that about 589,000 Indians die due to indoor air pollution every year. This is the largest figure in the world for a single country. The estimated annual deaths due to ambient air pollution are 84,000 (Schwela, 1996).

(iv) Women and children, particularly those of the rural sector of the developing nations, spend far more time indoor than outdoor.

(v) In developing nations, particularly in rural areas, indoor air pollution is responsible for much greater mortality than ambient air pollution (Table 1).

There are four principal sources of pollutants of indoor air, viz: (i) combustion, (ii)

building material, (iii) the ground under the building, and (iv) biological agents. The most important among these is the combustion and this chapter is limited to it.

Table 1: Annual Deaths due to Air Pollution in Urban and Rural Areas of Developing and Developed Nations

Urban Outdoors Urban Indoors Rural Indoors Total

Developed countries

14 (0.5)

252 (8.4)

28 (0.9)

294 (9.8)

Developing countries

186 (6.2)

644 (21.5)

1876 (62.5)

2,706 (90.2)

Total 200 (6.7)

896 (29.9)

1904 (63.5)

3,000 (100.0)

Evolution of combustion devices in human history has been described as: Animal Dung Crop Residues Wood Coke Coal Kerosene Gas Electricity

35

E. Evolution of Combustion Device in Human History

The poor people in the developing nations use unprocessed fuels in their houses. It has been estimated that more than half of the world’s households cook their food on unprocessed solid fuels that typically release at least 50 times more noxious pollutants than gas. The stoves or chullah used as cooking stove are not energy efficient and the fuels are not burned completely. The products of incomplete combustion of biomass include carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, suspended particulate matter, etc. The biomass may contain intrinsic contaminants such as sulphur, trace metals, etc.

In the Table 2 the levels of certain air pollutants in the houses at Ahmedabad using

different types of fuels is compared. It is seen from the table that the levels of all the pollutants are in descending order in houses using as fuel cattle dung, wood, coal, kerosene and cooking gas (LPG). High levels of a number of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were found in the smoke extract of various fuels (Table 3.) The levels of these PAHs were in the same order as those of other pollutants.

Table 2: Levels of Air Pollutants in the Houses during Cooking

Fuel TSP (mg/m3)

CO (mg/m3)

HCHO (ug/m3)

NO2 (ug/m3)

SO2 (ug/m3)

Cattle dung 2.75** 144** 670** 319** 159** Wood 1.98** 156** 652** 325** 155* Coal 1.10* 94* 109* 147 185

Kerosene 0.46 108* 112* 133 87* LPG 0.46 14 68 124 51

Notes: 1. Levels of pollutants are compared with those LPG using houses as control. 2. * P< 0.05, ** P< 0.01.

Table 3: Indoor Levels of PAHs in the Houses Using Different Types of Fuels (mean values, ug/m3)

Concentration of PAHs in the Houses Using PAH Compound

Cattle Dung Wood Coal Kerosene LPG Outdoor Floranthene 237 54 22 13 6 4

Pyrene 359 114 72 49 32 11 Benz(a) anthracene 108 50 16 9 5 6

Chrysene 225 68 24 14 10 7 Benzo(b) fluoranthene 138 80 21 14 5 13 Benzo (k) fluoranthene 133 82 19 12 8 8

Benzo(a) Pyrene 289 210 38 60 17 13 Dibenz(ah) anthracene 181 134 42 38 11 23

Benzo(ghi)perylene 157 109 30 37 9 18 Indeno pyrene 120 115 29 29 7 16

Total 1,958 1,216 312 273 109 119

1. Health Effects of Indoor Air Pollutants

The effects of air pollutants in general would depend on the composition of the air that is inhaled which will depend on the type of fuel used and the conditions of combustion and ventilation and duration for which the inhalation occurs. The most commonly reported and obvious health effect of indoor air pollutants is the increase in

36

the incidence of respiratory morbidity. The increased incidence of respiratory symptoms such as cough, expectoration, dyspnea and abnormal lung function). NIOH carried out a health survey making a comparison of prevalence of respiratory symptoms in women using traditional fuels (biomass) and LPG. In the study care was taken to match the subject as regard to the economic status and age (Table 4). The study result indicated that the prevalence of various respiratory symptoms like cough, sputum and shortness of breath (dyspnea) were significantly higher among the women using traditional fuels.

Mutagenic Activity of the Smoke Particulate Extract: Microbial tests are

widely used as a screening tool for assessing mutagenic potential of chemical substances. The particulate matter in the smoke generated as a result of incomplete combustion of biomass fuels contains number of polycyclic organic matter (POM). To evaluate their carcinogenic potential, it is necessary to screen their mutagenicity through simple and rapid microbial assay as a first step. The National Institute of Occupational Health (NIOH) evaluated the mutagenic potential of extract of the smoke particulate generated from combustion of wood and cattle dung. The mutagenicity assay was carried out by standard plate incorporation method (Maron and Ames198328). The results of the study suggested the presence of both direct and indirect acting frame shift mutagens in organic residues of smoke particles of both the fuels tested.

Table 4: Comparison of Prevalence of Respiratory Symptoms

in Exposed and Control Subjects

Exposed Subjects No. of Subjects with Complaints

Control Subjects No. of Subjects with Complaints

Age Group (year) No. of

Subjects Cough Cough

with Exp.

Dyspne

a

No. of Subjects

Cough Cough with Exp.

Dyspnea

12-19 33 (21.2%) (9.1%) (9.1%) 16 (6.2%) - - 20-29 49 (24.5%) (10.2%) (6.1%) 28 (14.3%) (3.6%) (3.6%) 30-39 50 (22.0%) (14.0%) (12.0%) 32 (3.1%) (3.1%) - 40-49 29 (20.7%) (10.3%) (6.9%) 15 (6.7%) (6.7%) (6.7%) 50-59 14 (28.6%) (21.4%) (14.3%) 8 - - - Total 175 99 Age

adjusted rate

22.9.% 12.1% 9.3% - 7.1% 3.0% 2.0%

Relative risk (RR)

3.2 4.0 4.6

95% C.I. for RR

(1.57-6.70)

(1.30-12.37)

(1.16-18.15)

Age adjusted rate has been calculated by taking control age as standard.

2. Goals for Indoor Air Quality

Australia’s National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) have recommended interim national indoor air quality goals for a number of common indoor air pollutants. In additional, various international bodies have recommended indoor air quality goal concentrations for specific pollutants, generally on a health related basis.

37

Table 5 summarizes these and compares them with the goals determined by NHMRC and Table 6 compares the indoor air quality guideline pollutant concentrations.

Table 5: Interim National Indoor Air Quality Goals Recommended by NHMRC

Goal – Maximum

Permissible Level of Pollutants in Aira

Pollutant

Ug/m3 ppm

Measurement Criteriab Comments

Carbon monoxide (CO) 10,000 9 8- hour average not to be exceeded more than once a

year

This is not a threshold limit value

Formaldehyde 120 0.1 Not to be exceeded For dwellings and schools

Lead 1.5 - 3- month average 210 0.10 Maximum hourly average

not to be exceeded more than once a year

Ozone 170 0.08 4- hour average Radon 200 Bq/m3 - Annual mean Action level

Sulfates 15 - Annual mean -

Sulfur dioxide (SO2) 700 570 60

0.25 0.20 0.02

10-minute average Hourly mean Annual mean

Levels may not be low enough to

protect the most sensitive individuals

Particles 90 - Annual mean - Total volatile organic

compounds

500 - Hourly average A single compound

shall not contribute more than 50% of

the total Source: National Health and Medical Research Council (1996). a At 0oC and 101.3 kPa. b Final NHMRC goals. - = no goals set in those units; Bq/m3 = Becquerel per cubic meter.

Table 6: Comparison of Indoor Air Quality Guideline Concentrations for Pollutants

NHMRC (1993)

(indoor) Goal Concentration (ug/m3 unless

specified) WHO (1987)

(indoor)c Indoor Air Pollutant

Health and Welfare Canada

(1987/residential)

Norwegian Health Directorate

(1990a/indoor)

Asbestos - - Source control Carcinogen Synthetic

mineral fibers - - No free fibers -

Radon 200 Bq/m3 (ly)d 800 Bq/m 3 (1 year)

200-800 Bq/m3 Carcinogen

Environmental tobacco smoke

- - Prohibited -

Respirable suspended

particles

TSP90 (1 year) PM100 (1 hour) 40 (8 hours) 100

Legionella - 2.5 - - House dust

mite - - 1-g/g Der p 1c -

Microbes No pathogen or odor Formaldehyde 120 (ceiling)d 60-120 100 60

38

NHMRC (1993) (indoor)

Goal Concentration (ug/m3 unless specified)

WHO (1987) (indoor)c

Indoor Air Pollutant

Health and Welfare Canada

(1987/residential)

Norwegian Health Directorate

(1990a/indoor)

VOC TVOCs 500 (1 hour)d VOC 250

(1 hour)d

- Irritants, TVOCs 400 Some VOCsc

Pesticides Nitrogen dioxide

- Review

480 (1 hour)

- 200 (1 hour)

- 400 (1 hour)

Carbon

monoxide Carbon dioxide

9 ppm (8 hours)

11 ppm (8h) 3,500 ppm

9 ppm (8 hours) 1,000 ppm (max)

9 ppm 1,000 ppm

Ozone 240 (1 hour) 240 (1h) - 150 (1 hour) Sulfur dioxide 700 (1 hour) 1,000 (5 min) - -

Lead 1.5 (3 months) - - 0.5-1.0 Mercury - - - 1.0 (1 year) Relative

humidity (%) - 3,080 - -

a Values averaged over 24 hours unless specified. b Short-term exposure averages. c Der p 1 is the allergen specific to Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus. d Final goals for radon and formaldehyde; level of concern for volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and total VOCs (TVOCs); other goals are interim goals using ambient air goals. Bq= becquerel; PM 100= particulate matter (less than 100 micrometers in diameter).

F. Gaps in Air Pollution in India

Indoor air pollution is responsible for much greater morbidity and mortality in

India. Considerable attention has been paid to the problem of ambient air pollution; however, the indoor air pollution particularly one arising from the use of traditional fuels has gained very little attention. Available data indicate that indoor air pollution is responsible for a large number of cases of respiratory and cardiovascular diseases including cancers. There is a need for drawing up a national policy to mitigate the occurrence of preventable pollution-related diseases through measures such as public awareness for the use of safer fuels, use of stoves which decrease pollution, increase in fuel efficiency, and use of ventilation during cooking.

Indoor air pollution is not being brought under the Air (Prevention and Control)

Act 1981 or Environment (Protection) Act 1986, although there is provision for including it under these acts. No regulation or codes have been specifically developed for indoor air pollution except in the workplace environment which falls within the regulation occupation health and safety regulations. Regulating indoor air pollution in the workplace is difficult because: (i) The public would regard government control of private indoor environments as

unacceptable interference; (ii) Regulations on air quality within homes would be impossible to enforce; and (iii) Internal air quality reflects a complex set of factors, including the effects of

building and ventilation system design, construction, operation and maintenance; outdoor climate and pollutant sources; a range and mixture of pollutants and their sources; diverse health effects; and protection of a wide range of people and their sensitivities.

(iv) Data generation in indoor air quality in metro cities is poor.

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REFERENCES

1. Action Plan for controlling air pollution in Ahmedabad city submitted by Gujarat State Department of Environment. 2003.

2. Action Plan for controlling air pollution in Bangalore city submitted by Karnataka State Department of Environment. 2003.

3. Action Plan for controlling air pollution in Hyderabad city submitted by AP State Department of Environment. 2003.

4. Action Plan for controlling air pollution in non-attainment city submitted by various states, Department of Environment. 2003/2004.

5. Brandon, E. and K. Hommann. 1995. The cost of inaction: Valuing the economy-wide cost of environmental degradation in India. Conference on the Sustainable Future of the Global System. United Nations University, Tokyo.

6. Central Pollution Control Board. 1994. Modeling and surveillance of Dispersion and Movement of Pollutants in Delhi.

7. _______. 2000. Transport Fuel Quality for year 2005. 8. CSE Report. 2000. Working Model of Vehicular Pollution of Delhi for 1999-2015. 9. Chittaranjan National Cancer Institute, Kolkata. 10. Chandravenkataraman, et al. 2004. Uncertainties in black carbon emission and

model prediction: A South Asian perspective. Presented at Black Carbon Emission and Climate Change, a technical Workshop. San Diego,USA, 13-15 October 2004.

11. Energy Sector Management Assistance Programme (ESMAP). 2004.Toward Cleaner Urban Air in South Asia: Tackling Transport Pollution, Understanding Sources Report 281/04. March.

12. Garg, A.,et al. 2001. Sub-region (district) and sector level SO2 and NOX emissions for India: Assessment of inventories and mitigation flexibility, Atmospheric Environment; 35-703-713.

13. West Bengal Pollution Control Board. 2001. Governance Newsletter. Vol.1 (III), December. Kolkata.

14. MARCIUNEP/WHO. 1996. Air Quality Management and Assessment Capabilities in 20 Major Cities, UNEPIDEIA!AR.96.2/WHO/EOS.95.7 United Nations Environment Programme, Nairobi, Kenya, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland.

15. MoEF. 2000. Report of the Committee on Environment and Health. May. 16. National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI). 1998. Carrying

capacity-based air quality management in NCT-Delhi, NEERI. Paper presented at the workshop on Integrated Approach to Vehicular Pollution Control in Delhi, 16-18 April.

17. ________. 2002. Ambient Air Quality and Source Apportionment of PM-10 at Kanpur City Auto Fuel Policy Study Reports, Vol. II. Government of India, August.

18. Parivesh. 2001. Air Pollution and Human Health, CPCB Publication. September. 19. Ranjan Bose. 1990. Environmental Implications of energy use in the city of Delhi.

Ecology, 5(6),1-9. 20. Schwela, D. and H. Gopalan. 2002. Ambient Air Pollution and Emerging Issues in

Megacities in Hag, G., W. Han, and E. Kim (eds.). Urban Air Pollution Management and Practice in Major and Mega Cities of Asia. Korea Environment Institute, Republic of Korea.

40

21. Vinod Kumar, A. et al. 2001. Source apportionment of suspended particulate matter at two traffic junctions in Mumbai, India. Atmospheric Environment; 35; 4245-4251.

22. World Bank. 1997. Technical Paper No. 381 on Urban air quality management strategy in Asia, Greater Mumbai Report.

23. WHO-UNEP. 1992. Urban air quality in mega cities of the world. 24. World Bank. 1997. Urban Air Quality Management Strategy in Asia Greater

Mumbai, World Bank Technical Paper No.381.

41

Annexure I

NATIONAL AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS (NAAQS)

Concentration in Ambient Air

Pollutant

Time Weighted Average

Industrial Area Residential, Rural and other Areas

Sensitive Area

Method of Measurement

Annual Average* 80 µg/m3 60 µg/m3 15 µg/m3 Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) 24 Hours Average**

120 µg/m3 80 µg/m3 30 µg/m3 1. Improved West and Gaeke Method 2. Ultraviolet Fluorescence

Annual Average* 80 µg/m3 60 µg/m3 15 µg/m3 Oxides of Nitrogen as NO2

24 Hours Average**

120 µg/m3 80 µg/m3 30 µg/m3

1. Jacob & Hochheiser modified (NaOH-NaAsO2) Method 2. Gas Phase Chemiluminiscence

Annual Average* 360 µg/m3 140 µg/m3 70 µg/m3 Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM) 24 Hours

Average** 500 µg/m3 200 µg/m3 100 µg/m3

High Volume Sampling (Average flow rate not less than 1.1 m3/minute)

Annual Average* 120 µg/m3 60 µg/m3 50 µg/m3 Respirable Particulate Matter (Size less than 10 µm) (RPM) 24 Hours

Average** 150 µg/m3 100 µg/m3 75 µg/m3

Respirable Particulate Matter Sampler

Annual Average* 1.0 µg/m3 0.75 µg/m3 0.50 µg/m3 Lead (Pb) 24 Hour

Average** 1.5 µg/m3 1.0 µg/m3 0.75 µg/m3

AAS Method after sampling using EPM 2000 or equivalent filter paper

8 Hours Average**

5.0 mg/m3 2.0 mg/m3 1.0 mg/m3 Carbon Monoxide (CO)

1 Hour Average 10.0mg/m3 4.0 mg/m3 2.0 mg/m3

Non-dispersive infrared Spectroscopy

Annual Average* 0.1 mg/m3 Ammonia (NH3)

24 Hours Average**

0.4 mg/m3

-

* Annual arithmetic mean of minimum 104 measurements in a year twice a week 24 hourly at uniform interval.

** 24-hourly/8-hourly values should be met 98% of the time in a year. However, 2% of the time, it may exceed but not on two consecutive days. Notes:

1. National Ambient Air Quality Standards: The levels of air quality necessary with an adequate margin of safety, to protect the public health, vegetation and property. 2. Whenever and wherever two consecutive values exceed the limit specified above for the respective category, it would be considered adequate reason to institute regular/continuous monitoring and further investigations. 3. The State Government/State Board shall notify the sensitive and other areas in the respective states within a period of six months from the date of notification of National Ambient Air Quality Standards.

42

Annexure II AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS IN INDIA, WHO AND OTHER COUNTRIES

(µg/m3)

India, 19942 Air Pollutants Time Weighted Average

WHO, 19991 Industrial Residential Sensitive

USEPA, 19973 UK, 1997 4 Japan5

Oxides of Nitrogen (NO2)

Annual Average 24 hrs 1 hr

40 -

200

80 120

-

60 80 -

15 30 -

100 - -

21 PPB -

150 PPB

- 75-113

- Sulphur dioxide (SO2) Annual Average

24 hrs 3 hrs 1 hr 10 min

50 125

- -

500

80 120

- - -

60 80 - - -

15 30 - - -

80 365 1300

- -

- - -

100PPB ( 15 MIN)

- - -

286 -

Carbon monoxide (CO)

8 hrs 1 hrs 30 min 15 min

10,000 30,000 60,000

100,000

5000 10000

- -

2000 4000

- -

1000 2000

- -

10,000 40,000

- -

10 PPM - - -

- 22900

- -

Lead (Pb) Annual Average 24 hrs

0.5 -

1.0 1.5

0.75 1.0

0.50 0.75

1.5 -

0.5 -

- -

PM10 Annual Average 24 hrs

- -

120. 150

60 100

50 75

50 150

- 50

- 100

SPM Annual Average 24 hrs

* *

360 500

140 200

70 100

- -

- -

- -

PM 2.5 Annual Average 24 hrs

- -

- -

- -

- -

15 65

- -

- -

Ozone (O3) 8 hrs 1 hrs

- -

- -

- -

- -

157 235

50 PPB -

120

Ammonia # Annual Average 24 hrs

- -

- -

100 400

- -

- -

- -

- -

* No definite guidelines mentioned. References: 1. World Health Organization. 2. Euro. 1999 (in preparation). WHO< air quality guidelines for Europe, 2nd edition, WHO European Series, WHO regional office for Europe, Copenhagen. 3. CPCB. 1994. Air quality standards 1994, Notified Gazette of India, Extra–ordinary, Part-II Section 3, Sub- section (ii) dated 20 May. # Notified - The Gazette of India S.O 935 (E) dated

14h October 1998. 4. USEPA. 1997. EPA Office of Air Quality Planning & Standards, USEPA, Triangle Park, USA. July. 5. United Kingdom National Air Strategy. 1997. Department of Environment, The Scottish Office. March. 6. Basic Law for Environmental Pollution Control. 1969. In Morley, L. (Ed.) 1991, Clean Air Around the World (2nd Ed.). International Union of Air Pollution Prevention Association, Brighten.

43

Annexure III

ROADMAP FOR VEHICULAR EMISSION NORMS FOR NEW VEHICLES (EXCEPT 2- AND 3-WHEELERS)

Entire Country

• Bharat State II emission norms From 1.4.2005

• Euro III equivalent emission norms From 1.4.2010

FOR CITIES OF DELHI/NCR, MUMBAI, KOLKATA, CHENNAI, BANGALORE, HYDERABAD, AHMEDABAD, PUNE, SURAT, KANPUR & AGRA

• Bharat State II emission norms Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata & Chennai

Already introduced in the years 2000 and 2001.

Bangalore, Hyderabad & Ahmedabad, Pune Surat, Kanpur & Agra From 1.4.2003.

• Euro III equivalent emission norms for all private vehicles, city public service vehicles and city commercial vehicles. From 1.4.2005.

• Euro IV equivalent emission norms for all private vehicles, city public service vehicles and city commercial vehicles From 1.4.2010.

New 2- and 3-Wheelers Road Map for Vehicular Emission Norms

• Bharat Stage II norms

From 1.4.2005 • Bharat Stage III norms

Preferably from 1.4.2008, but not later than 1.4.2010

Emission norms for 2- and 3-wheelers to be the same in the entire country

Road Map for In-use / Old Vehicles for the Entire Country

New PUC Checking System for all categories of vehicles

• To be put in place by 1.4.2005.

44

Inspection & Maintenance (I&M) System for all categories of vehicles • To be put in place by 1.4.2010.

Performance checking system of catalytic converters and conversion kits already installed in vehicles

• To be put in place by 1.4.2007.

Augmentation of city public transport system

• Finalization of plans by the State Governments/local authorities: Not later than 1 April 2005.

Road Map for In-use / Old Vehicles

for the National Capital Territory of Delhi

New PUC Checking System for all categories of vehicles • To be put in place by 1.10.2003.

Inspection & Maintenance (I&M) System for all categories of vehicles

• To be put in place by 1.4.2005. Performance checking system of catalytic converters and conversion kits already installed in vehicles

• To be put in place by 1.10.2004. Augmentation of city public transport system

• To be undertaken by the State Government after reviewing the start-up schedules and estimated impact of metro rail system.

Emission norms for city public service vehicles

• For City Buses, Taxis & 3-Wheelers, emission norms have already been set under the directions of the Supreme Court.

Emission norms for all inter-state buses from/to Delhi All interstate buses originating or culminating at Delhi should conform to the following norms:

• Minimum India 2000 ( Bharat Stage I) emission norms : Not later than 1 April 2007 • Minimum Bharat Stage II emission norms : Not later than 1 April 2011

Emission norms for inter-state trucks loading/unloading goods from/ at Delhi All inter-state trucks originating or culminating at Delhi should conform to the following norms:

45

• Minimum India 2000 ( Bharat Stage I) emission norms : Not later than 1 April 2007 • Minimum Bharat Stage II emission norms : Not later than 1 April 2011

Road Map for In-use / Old Vehicles

For the cities of Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Bangalore, Hyderabad, Ahmedabad, Pune, Surat, Kanpur & Agra

New PUC Checking System for all categories of vehicles

• To be put in place by 1.10.2004. Inspection & Maintenance (I&M) System for all categories of vehicles

• To be put in place by 1.4.2006. Performance checking system of catalytic converters and conversion kits already installed in vehicles

• To be put in place by 1.4.2005. Augmentation of city public transport system

• To be undertaken by the local State Governments/Corporations immediately and completed by 1.4.2005.

Emission norms for city public service vehicles City Buses and Taxis City buses and taxis should conform to the following norms: From 1.4.2004 - vehicles registered before 1.4.96 to have Minimum 1996 emission norms and those registered after 1.4.1996 to have applicable emission norms on date of registration. From 1.4.2008 - vehicles registered before introduction of Bharat Stage-II norms to have Minimum India 2000 ( Bharat Stage-I) emission norms and those registered after introduction of Bharat Stage-II norms to have applicable emission norms on date of registration. Emission norms for 3-wheelers (autos/tempos) 3-wheelers should conform to the following norms: From 1.4.2004 - vehicles registered before 1.4.2000 to have Minimum 1996 emission norms and those registered after 1.4.2000 to have applicable emission norms on date of registration. From 1.4.2008 - vehicles registered before 1.4.2000 to have Minimum India 2000 (Bharat Stage-I) Emission norms and those registered after 1.4.2000 to have applicable emission norms on date of registration.

46

Emission norms for inter-state buses/Trucks from/to the identified cities Intercity buses should conform to the following norms: From 1.4.2006- Minimum of 1996 emission norms in respect of vehicles registered before 1.4.2000 From 1.4.2007- Minimum India 2000 ( Bharat Stage-I) norms in respect of buses registered after 1.4.2000. From 1.4.2008- Minimum India-2000 (Bharat Stage-I) norms in respect of vehicles registered before 1.4.2005 From 1.4.2011- Minimum Bharat Stage-II norms in respect of vehicles registered after 1.4.2005.

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Annexure IV

1. Action Plan for the Control of Air Pollution for the city of Bangalore (November 2003)

Actions Taken:

In exercise of powers under Sec 19 of the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1981 the entire state was declared as air pollution control area by the Department of Forest, Ecology and Environment on 30.05.88.

Task Force for Control of Air Pollution in Bangalore city set up on 10.09.2001 under the chairmanship of Additional Chief Secretary to Government of Karnataka.

To reduce traffic congestion, 108 roads converted to one-way, 5 flyovers, 3 railways underpass on outer ring road (ORR) and 2 railways over bridges completed. 206 km of road asphalted.

Green diesel and green petrol (sulphur 0. 05%) is supplied in Bangalore ORR area from 1.4.2003.

Out of 70,731 (as on 31.07.2003) auto rickshaws registered in Bangalore city 35,000 auto rickshaws are running on LPG with unauthorized LPG kits and detachable cylinders.

64 auto rickshaws fitted with authorized LPG kits. 6 Auto LPG dispensing stations (ALDS) with an average offtake of 5.0 kl/month

are operating in Bangalore city. Transport Department has approved Bajaj 4-stroke (rear engine) LPG auto

rickshaws in bi-fuel mode on 25.01 2003. State Level Steering Committee on development of bio-fuels was constituted on

16.07.2003 under the chairmanship of Additional Secretary and Development Commissioner.

Supply of 5% ethanol blended petrol in 20 districts from 9.5.2003 and in the remaining 7 districts from the month of September.

219 Emission testing centers provided with web cameras for issue of PUC (pollution under control) certificate.

The Department issued a government order on 23.1.2003 restricting the plying of transport/commercial vehicles aged more than 15 years within the ORR limits of the city. Transporters threatened to go on strike. The decision is therefore under abeyance.

The Transport Department has identified 6,600 lorries which are more than 15 years old.

Stricter drives to check adulteration of fuel by the Food and Civil Supplies Department. The Department has reported that 309 fuel stations have been checked during April to July 2003.

Measures enforced by Food and Civil Supplies Department to prohibit the misuse of PDS kerosene in adulteration of petrol.

Supply of PDS kerosene denied to cardholders with LPG connection. Introduction of coupon system to ensure supply of PDS kerosene to genuine

cardholders, etc. The Bangalore Metropolitan Transport Corporation (BMTC) has increased its

fleet size from 2,491 to 3,108 buses from 31.3.2001 to 1.10.2003.

48

Proposed Action Plan within the Outer Ring Road Limits of Bangalore:

Mandatory conversion of in-use 3-wheelers after 1.04.1991 onwards to bi-fuel mode in a phased manner from 1.11.2003.

Register only new 3-wheelers having bi-fuel mode from 1.11.2003. Register all new vehicles only if they are either Bharat Stage-II compliant or run

on LPG. Conversion of nearly 35,000 auto rickshaws running with unauthorized LPG kits

and detachable cylinders by October 2005. Introduction of “No PUC Certificate–No Fuel” scheme in petrol/diesel bunks by

October 2004. Mandatory setting up of electronic emission testing centers in each petrol bunk

from 1.11.2003 onwards. Ban on entry of vehicles aged more than 15 years within the ORR limits from

1.11.2003. BMTC to replace its fleet with Bharat Stage-II compliant vehicles. Augmentation of the services by BMTC by 17% by increasing fleet size from

3,106 buses at present to around 4,330 by end-October 2005. Increase sales tax and impose entry tax on white kerosene (Superior Kerosene

Oil) to curb adulteration with petrol. Strengthen vigilance and surveillance to check adulteration of fuels. Mandatory self-registration of kerosene wholesalers and production of end-use

certificates before Food and Civil Supplies Department. Establish Auto LPG dispensing stations in Bangalore city by March 2004. Convert five roads to one-way, and construct two flyovers and one railway

underpass by March 2004. Karnataka State Pollution Control Board (KSPCB) to install one online ambient

air quality monitoring station by 5 June 2004. KSPCB to take action to promote cleaner fuels in major industries in DG sets and

boilers.

2. Action Plan for the Control of Air Pollution for the City of Ahmedabad (November 2003)

Actions Taken:

Vehicles

The Government constituted a Task Force in June 2002, under the Chairmanship of the Chief Secretary, to implement the recommendations made during a seminar organized by the Gujarat Pollution Control Board (GPCB) to discuss the problems of air pollution in major urban areas in Gujarat.

To check adulteration of petrol with gasoline in vehicles, the Transport Department started the drive to check fuel adulteration; 522 such cases were found from July to December 2002.

Drive on checking of vehicles for pollution under control (PUC) certificates and fuel adulteration has been intensified in a coordinated manner. Various agencies including GPCB, Traffic Police, Road Transport Office and Forensic Science Laboratory were involved.

The FC & CA Department has initiated various actions to ensure that no loose kerosene is sold in the vicinity of petrol pumps.

49

Intensified drive to check vehicular emissions and implementation of the ban on

supply of loose 2-T oil. The FC & CA Department has initiated establishment of advanced fuel testing laboratories in the state.

The Ahmedabad Municipal Transport Service (AMTS) has already started scrapping the old buses generating high pollution. AMTS has scrapped 114 buses in the last 6 months.

GPCB and the Road Transport Office perform counter-checking of PUC certification to ascertain its reliability.

Intensified ambient air quality monitoring networking in Ahmedabad. Three new flyovers are planned in Ahmedabad and Rs35 crores have been allocated.

Industries

GPCB has already intensified monitoring of air samples from various industries to

verify compliance with specified norms. It has also intensified ambient air quality monitoring at critically polluted industrial areas to pinpoint the sources of pollution and to take punitive action thereof.

GPCB has given necessary instructions to all the industrial estates in the city for the development of a greenbelt all along the periphery.

GPCB has already initiated various actions for the implementation of the Charter on Corporate Responsibility in Gujarat for the industries covered under the 17 categories.

Scheme for Switching to LPG/CNG

In accordance with orders of Honorable Supreme Court, a time-bound scheme for switching over to LPG/CNG mode has been proposed.

Earlier, the Central Government indicated that there was no possibility of supplying the CNG. However, recently the government has agreed to explore the option of CNG from other sources within Gujarat. The Gujarat State Petroleum Corporation (GSPC) is working as a nodal agency in the state for establishing a statewide network for CNG in Gujarat.

GSPC has already initiated various actions for the implementation of CNG project and establishment of CNG network in the state with the total investment of Rs650 crores (250 crores for Ahmedabad). Various studies have been conducted and the work is under progress in this regard. GSPC has also proposed conversion of different type of vehicles to CNG as fuel, in a phased manner.

A proposal is under consideration to enact the Clean Fuel Act to facilitate the compulsory switch-over of certain categories of vehicles on cleaner fuel.

The Government of Gujarat has constituted a committee for the identification of plots for CNG/LPG fuelling stations in Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation (AMC) and Ahmedabad Urban Development Authority (AUDA) limits. AMC and AUDA have agreed to reserve such plots.

No-objection certificate issued to private entrepreneurs by the Directorate of Petroleum, Government of Gujarat for the distribution of gas in Ahmedabad city.

Proposed Vehicular Action Plan (Short-Term Measure)

Phasing out of old vehicles of more than 15 years by 31/12/2005.

50

Banning diesel-run rickshaws within the city limits and AUDA areas by 30.11.2003.

Intensifying implementation of ban on 2T oil at petrol stations/service garages. Diversion of heavy vehicles such as trucks/luxury buses/etc. away from the city

by 31.10.2003. Better traffic management. Strict enforcement of smoke test/vehicle test protocols and third party audits of

PUC centers including calibration audits. To launch a drive to stop adulteration of fuels particularly in 3-wheelers and

commercial vehicles. Only Bharat Stage-II compliant vehicles will be registered. Strengthening of ambient air quality monitoring network by augmenting the

number of monitoring stations by 1.4.2004.

Medium-term Measures

Flyover to be provided at highly congested traffic areas. GSPC has already initiated various actions for the implementation of CNG

project and establishment of CNG network in the state with the total investment of Rs650 crores (250 crores for Ahmedabad). Various studies have been conducted and the work is under progress in this regard. GSPC has also proposed conversion of different type of vehicles to CNG as fuel, in a phased manner.

Government of Gujarat has constituted a committee for the identification of plots for CNG/LPG fuelling stations in AMC and AUDA limits. AMS and AUDA have agreed to reserve such plots.

Industrial (Short-term Measures)

Intensifying monitoring by special vigilance squad under the Air Act, 1981. Determining efficacy of air pollution control systems and taking remedial action(s)

including upgrading of the existing air pollution control measures by 31.12 2004. Implementation of Charter on Corporate Responsibility for Environmental

Protection (CREP) action plan for highly polluting industries as decided by MoEF. Ban on burning of garbage/dry leaves/PVC bags/other packaging materials

within the industrial estate. Providing pucca roads within industrial estates and in the vicinity of the industrial

area to be completed by 15.6.2004.

Medium-term Measures

Changing of fuel from coal/lignite to gas. Conversion to be made compulsory for grossly polluting industries and deadline for this to be set by GPCB considering the availability of gas.

Greenbelt development around the industrial estates and also in the vacant places within the estates.

3. Summary of the Action Plan for the Control of Air Pollution for the City of

Kolkata (September 2002)

51

Actions Taken: Industries

Stricter location policy for new industrial units restricting setting up of polluting

industries (Red Category) in Kolkata municipal area (KMA). Ensuring regulatory compliance for grossly polluting industries. Introduction of stricter emission standards for boilers, ceramic kilns, foundries

and rolling mills of KMA with effect from 11.05.2001. Mandatory use of clean fuels. Financial assistance for installation of pollution control devices in small-scale

industries, etc. Regularly complying industries are awarded environmental excellence

certificates. M/s Coal India Ltd., M/s Eastern Coalfield Ltd., M/s Bharat Coking Coal Ltd. have

been requested not to supply coal to industries which have been ordered to discontinue the use of coal.

About 67% of coal-fired boilers and about 73% of coal-fired ceramic kilns have already been converted to oil-fired ones.

Vehicles

Introduction of Euro-I norms for all new private vehicles. Bharat Stage-II norms for all new 4-wheeled passenger cars. Ban on supply of loose 2T oil. Improvement in the fuel quality. Upgradation of emission testing centers. Unleaded petrol was made available from 01.02.2000. Selling of pre-mixed 2T oil made mandatory with KMA from 15.11.2001. Benzene content in petrol reduced to 3% from 2001. Sulphur content in petrol and diesel reduced to 0.05% with effect from

01.07.2001. Only LPG driven 3-wheelers are registered in Kolkata from June 2003. Emission

norms for CNG vehicles (all categories) and LPG vehicles (heavy duty) with effect from May 2002, respectively.

Gasoline blended with 5% ethanol mandatory from January 2003.

Proposed Action Plan: Industries

Scheme for compliance of emissions standards for new Cossipore Generating Station. Electrostatic precipitators will be erected in all six boilers in a phased manner.

For other large and medium industries, the strict monitoring schedule to check their compliance will continue. Repeated noncompliance will be dealt with technical hearing, imposition of suitable bank guarantees and forfeiture of the same and also closure in extreme cases for failing to come on compliance path within a given time schedule.

The West Bengal Pollution Control Board has notified stricter emission standards than national standards for particulate matter emission in small-scale industries

52

operating coal-fired boilers, coal-fired ceramic kilns, coal-fired hot rolling mills and small cast iron foundries, etc.

Future action plan under corporate responsibility for environment protection for highly polluting 18 categories of industries have been approved and will be implemented in a time-bound manner.

Emission norms for new diesel engines for genset application will be made available in a phased manner from January-July 2004.

Vehicles

Bharat Stage-III and Bharat Stage-IV emission norms will be implemented for new vehicles ( except 2- and 3-wheelers) from 2005 and 2010, respectively.

For 2- and 3-wheelers Bharat Stage-II and Bharat Stage-III emission norms will be introduced by 2005 and 2008/10, respectively.

Sulphur in diesel will reduce to 0.035% and 0.005% by 2005 and 2010, respectively.

Inspection and maintenance system for all categories of in-use vehicles will be introduced from April 2006.

New PUC checking system will be introduced for all categories of in-use vehicles by October 2004.

Augmentation of mass transport system by April 2004. Stricter emission norms will be made applicable for interstate buses and trucks. Switch over to LPG as automotive fuel in all the vehicles or compliant to Bharat

Stage-II. Introduction of marker system for detection of adulteration of fuels. No PUC – No petrol policy will be implemented. Action plan proposed for pollution control from vehicular sources includes time-

bound action plan for switch over to LPG as automotive fuel in all the vehicles or compliant to Bharat Stage-II.

Time-bound phasing out program of old taxis, auto rickshaws, goods carriers, buses, heavy and medium transport vehicles.

Improvement in fuel quality through supply of low benzene (1%) gasoline in Kolkata region.

A working group has been constituted for recommending action plan for switchover of 2-wheelers, 3-wheelers and motor vehicles operating in Kolkata to LPG/CNG.

Scheme for Switching to LPG/CNG

In accordance with orders of Honorable Supreme court a time-bound scheme for switching over to LPG mode has been proposed though some constraints in switching over to LPG have also been mentioned.

The scheme for being operational is subjected to the pre-requisites like - The establishment of evenly distributed network of at least 75 dispensing stations within 6 months. - Financial institutions to make funds available to the owners of the existing diesel vehicles for change over to Bharat Stage-II or petrol–LPG engines.

4. Action Plan for the Control of Air Pollution for the City of Hyderabad (November 2003)

53

Actions Taken:

Five mobile task forces has been constituted on 09.08.2002 to look after various issues related to implementation of action plan.

The number of ambient air quality monitoring stations has been increased from 9 to 21 stations.

Among steps taken so far for controlling pollution from vehicular sources includes:

PUC certificates to all 3- and 4-wheelers have been made mandatory from 01.08.2002 and for 2-wheelers from 01.09.2002. Upgradation of PUC centers for petrol by 1 October 2002 and for diesel

by 1 November 2002. 122 polluting centers are computerized in the city. No-Fuel without PUC drive commenced. 280 pre-mixed 2T oil dispensing stations have been installed. 2 task forces are operating since 4.05.2002 to check the adulteration of

oil and fuel. Six LPG dispensing stations are operational out of targeted 45 stations.

23 plots have been identified for setting up multi-fuel dispensing station. Improvement in the fuel quality Multi-Model Transport System (MMTS) to improve mass transportation

system has been introduced. The MMTS was inaugurated on 9.8.2003. Electric trains are in operation. The required road network and other facilities are being worked out. Various mass awareness programs organized.

Since, 2000, with an intention of carbon sequestration, Hyderabad Urban Development Authority (HUDA) has taken up Urban Greening Project. This project is up to 2006.

Since 1999 the Municipal Corporation of Hyderabad has taken up a total of 2,652.39 hectares of the avenue plantation till date. Proposed Action Plan: Vehicles

On the basis of recommendations of the Cabinet Sub-committee the following action plan has been proposed to controlling vehicular pollution.

Euro-II norms will be applicable to all new 4-wheeled vehicles of 3.5 tons and below laden weight by October 2004. Bharat Stage-II norms will be applicable all new buses/goods vehicles by

April 2005. Bharat Stage-II norms will be applicable for all new 3-wheelers with

immediate effect. All in-use petrol driven 3-wheelers to be converted to LPG by October

2005. Phasing out of heavy goods carrier of +20 years by October 2004. Phasing out of heavy goods carriers of +15 years by October 2005. All petrol taxis to be converted to LPG by October 2004. +15 year-old government vehicles to be replaced by Euro-II compliant or

LPG by December 2003.

54

Taxi permits not to be issued for vehicles above 10 years with effect from October 2004. Setting up of LPG dispensing stations in HUDA area. Issuance of necessary amendment of Motor Vehicle Act to apprehend

and penalize the use of adulterated fuel in vehicles from January 2004. Establishment of continuous online monitoring station by December 2003. To augment existing pre-mixed 2T oil petrol outlets To augment number of PUC centers along with increase in tariff for

emission testing. The Andhra Pradesh State Road Transport Corporation (APSRTC) has

proposed to convert 538 buses to Euro-I norms every year till 2005 for plying in HUDA limits. Supplying low sulphur diesel (0.05% sulphur) by April 2003. The Gas Authority of India Ltd. has assured that laying of pipelines from

Vishakapatnam to Hyderabad shall be completed by 2003. Within this period 37 LPG dispensing stations should be established in HUDA area. Conversion of 2-, 3- and 4-wheeled vehicles to LPG or dual mode would be encouraged after August 2003. Scheme for Switching to LPG/CNG

The Gas Authority of India Ltd. has assured that laying of pipelines from

Vishakapatnam to Hyderabad shall be completed by 2003. Within this period 37 LPG dispensing stations should be established in the HUDA area. Conversion of 2-, 3- and 4-wheeled vehicles to LPG or dual mode would be encouraged after August 2003.

At present there is no allocation or prospects for large-scale supply of natural gas, the use of CNG in large vehicles shall be taken up only on assurance of its reliable supply. 5. Action Plan for the Control of Air Pollution for the City of Mumbai (December 2003) Actions Taken:

Vehicles

India stage 2000 emission norms (Euro-I equivalent) for all vehicles introduced in 2000

The Honorable Bombay High Court by their order dated 17 October 2001 directed for phasing out of old commercial vehicles unless they are converted to run on LPG/CNG. So far various categories of old commercial vehicles have been phased out.

Mahanagar Gas Limited is supplying CNG for vehicular application in Mumbai through its 57 filling stations.

LPG also has been approved as automotive fuel in August 2000. LPG is a clean fuel. The oil companies have set up about 15 LPG dispensing stations in Mumbai.

At present there are 47 retrofitting workshops for fitment of CNG kits on the in-use 4-wheelers light vehicles like taxis, cars and 158 workshops for 3- wheeler auto rickshaws.

For the retrofitment of LPG kits on 4-wheeler light vehicles, there are 166 workshops in Mumbai and 3-wheeler auto rickshaws the number of workshops are 179.

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Bharat Stage-II norms (Euro-II equivalent) have been implemented for all the new vehicles (except 2- and 3-wheelers) since 2001/2002.

The low sulphur diesel (0.05%) introduced since 2001/2002. Leaded petrol phased out from 2000. Low smoke 2-T oil was made available from 1998. Benzene content in gasoline reduced to 1%. Some of the taxis have been converted to CNG mode. 5% ethanol blended gasoline introduced since January 2003.

Industries

Government of Maharastra implemented the industrial location policy. Almost all the industries have been provided with pollution control systems. In Kandivili there were complaints of air pollution due to existing cluster of stone

crushing and hot mix plants. The Board has directed all these units to shift to the confirming zone. Action Plan Proposed:

Vehicles

Mahanagar Gas Limited (MGL) is supplying CNG for vehicular application in

Mumbai through its 57 filling stations. Efforts are being made by MGL to increase the CNG dispensing facilities to about 80 outlets by March 2004.

Bharat Stage-III and Bharat Stage-IV emission norms will be implemented for new vehicles (except 2- and 3-wheelers) from 2005 and 2010, respectively.

For 2- and 3-wheelers Bharat–II and Bharat Stage-III emission norms will be introduced by 2005 and 2008/10, respectively.

Sulphur in diesel will be reduced to 0.035% and 0.005% by 2005 and 2010, respectively.

Inspection and maintenance system for all categories of in-use vehicles will be introduced from April 2006.

New PUC checking system will be introduced for all categories of in-use vehicles by October 2004.

Augmentation of mass transport system by April 2004. Stricter emission norms will be made applicable for all interstate buses and

trucks.

Industries

Future action plan under corporate responsibility for environment protection for highly polluting 18 categories of industries has been approved and will be implemented in a time-bound manner.

Emission norms for new diesel engines for genset application will be made available in a phased manner from January-July 2004.

6. Action Plan for the Control of Air Pollution for the City of Kanpur (October 2003)

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Actions Taken: Oil Companies: Regular monitoring of auto fuels for any adulteration. Introduced low sulphur (0.05%) auto fuel. Introduced ethanol blended gasoline. State Transport Department: Registration of all new vehicles as per auto fuel policy road map, age of the vehicles has been fixed, 3-wheelers only with catalytic converter/scrubber being registered and allowed to ply within the municipal limits, battery operated 3-wheelers are being encouraged. PUC certificate mandatory for all vehicles and is issued for a period of 6 months. Traffic Police: Traffic system being regulated manually, Traffic restrictions are being imposed in peak hours; some of the congested roads have been identified for one-way traffic. Forest Department: Tree plantation is being encouraged along roadsides under social forestry programs. Uttar Pradesh Pollution Control Board: Regular industrial air quality monitoring/ ambient air quality monitoring is being done; issue guidelines and notification for strict compliance of exhaust norms, regular public awareness, inventory will be taken of all air polluting industries, no new industry is being issued NOC in non-confirming area. Central Pollution Control Board: Prepared Environment Management Plan for Kanpur city. Directorate of Industries: Registration of new industries is being done as per master plan of the city. Kanpur Development Authority: KPA has revised its old master plan. In the revised master plan major bypass and Mass Rapid Transport System (MRTS) has been proposed. Four flyovers have already been completed. Kanpur Nagar Nigam: Prohibitory orders on open refuse burning, regular sweeping and cleaning operations are being done. Kanpur Electricity Supply Company: Maintenance and modernization of old underground cabling. Proposed Action Plan:

A time-bound action plan has been proposed in which different organizations have been entrusted with several duties in the form of both long- and short-term measures as follows: Traffic Police: has been entrusted with the responsibility of better traffic management, checking fuel quality, improving inspection and maintenance procedures, etc. Regional Transport Department: Traffic and road management, expansion of pre-mixed 2T oil outlets, restriction in registration of 2-stroke 2- and 3-wheelers, phasing out older and grossly polluting vehicles in a time-bound manner, restricting movement of

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goods vehicles in urban and congested areas, higher road taxes on older vehicles, promotion of alternative cleaner fuels like CNG, LPG and battery-operated vehicles. Directorate of Industries: No new industries in residential and sensitive areas to set up, while existing industries to be shifted from these areas in a phased manner. Inventory has been planned and is being executed. Transport Department: Phasing out older vehicles, old tempos to be banned on certain routes by 2006, parking alternatives shall be provided in all congested commercial areas, and gradual introduction of CNG buses. Kanpur Nagar Nigam: Proposal for generation of energy from Municipal Solid waste by 2005, more parking areas are being proposed as per master plan. Recreational areas with greenbelt have been proposed in the city in annual plans, proposal of shifting congested Lohamandi, Sabjimandi by 2008, proper infrastructure development and maintenance, environmental management, removal of encroachments, etc. Kanpur Development Authority: 25 parking spaces with 15,000 square meters road space has been proposed by 2010, six flyovers have been proposed at different locations by 2010, six new subways have also been proposed for infrastructure development and management. Uttar Pradesh Pollution Control Board: Updating of inventory status of industries by 2005, three new ambient air quality monitoring stations have been proposed with data display, proper inspection and monitoring of polluting sources, shifting of polluting industries, installation of air of pollution control devices, etc. GAIL (India) Ltd.: To supply 0.3837 million metric standard cubic meters per day (mmscmd) of natural gas by the year 2006 and 0.6352 mmscmd by the year 2013. Oil Companies: Promotion of superior quality and cleaner fuels. Central Pollution Control Board: Recommendations made in are persuaded through various regulatory agencies, coordination in implementation of the action plan. Kanpur Electricity Supply Company: Proposal for modernization of old underground cabling by 2020. Forest Department: Development of greenbelts, proposal has been made for tree plantation on both sides of all national highways by 2008 and in all areas as identified in the proposed 2010 master plan. Non-conventional Energy Development Agency: Promotion of non-conventional energy resources.

Aside from the above recommendations, several organizations were also

entrusted with other responsibilities for controlling air pollution in Kanpur city. Scheme for Switching to LPG/CNG

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In accordance with orders of Honorable Supreme Court, no time-bound scheme for switching over to LPG mode has been proposed. Though oil companies have been asked to promote use of cleaner fuels like LPG/CNG, etc., even the Gas Authority of India is also entrusted with the responsibility of CNG supply in the city and opening of CNG outlets at all necessary points in the city.

7. Action Plan for the Control of Air Pollution for the City of Varanasi (October 2003) Actions Taken:

Industries

Organized inventories of all the polluting industries. Control of Industrial emissions and ensuring compliance with standards. Identification and closure of clandestine/unauthorized industrial operations.

Domestic

Notification for banning open burning of garbage. Promotion of use of LPG as domestic fuel instead of burning coal, wood, etc.

Vehicular

Vehicular emission inventory has already been done. Notification and implementation of vehicular emission norms as per road map

notified by the Government of India. PUC for checking compliance of emission norms for in-use vehicles. Retrofitting of after-combustion technology like catalytic converters. Improvement in the fuel quality to match with the prescribed emission norms. Introduction of low benzene (5%) gasoline Introduction of low sulphur (0.25%) diesel) Introduction of pre-mixed 2T oil and expanded the pre-mixed outlets. Introduction of ethanol (5%) blended gasoline. Ban on re-registration of vehicles converted from petrol to diesel. Stricter drives to check adulteration of fuel. Restriction of movement of goods carriers in urban areas. Restrictions on movement of local goods carriers during peak hours. Better traffic management through bypassing interstate/intercity traffic, bus

terminal shifted to the outskirts, etc. Interagency Task Force

It is proposed to form a “Pollution Prevention Authority” exclusively under the

chairmanship of the Divisional Commissioner to implement the action plan as per the specified framework in the action plan. Proposed Action Plan:

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Industries

Inventory of emissions from industrial sources. Though the city is devoid of any industry that is air polluting still an inventory will be carried out to strengthen the data.

Monitoring and closure of clandestine industrial operations. Vigilance of industries.

Domestic

Notification for banning of open burning of garbage. Promotion of use of LPG as domestic fuel instead of burning coal, wood, etc.

Vehicles

Inventory of emission load from all categories of vehicles. Implementation vehicular emission norms in accordance with the roadmap laid

down by the Expert Committee on Auto Fuel Policy. Retrofitting of after-combustion technologies like cat converters and particulate

traps by March 2005. Supply fuel compatible with emission norms. Phasing out of old vehicles. Implement new emission norms for in-use vehicles from October 2004. Introduction of low benzene (3%) gasoline with effect from April 2005. Introduction of low sulphur diesel (0.05%) with effect from 2005. Ban on registration of vehicles converted from petrol to diesel. Better traffic management, bypassing of interstate/intercity traffic. Wherever possible widening of roads and removal of encroachments. Development and improvement in road and railway infrastructure. Fiscal measures like higher road tax for old vehicles, restructuring of parking fees

and road tolls, and fiscal incentives for alternative fuels.

8. Action Plan for the Control of Air Pollution for the City of Lucknow (October 2003)

Actions Taken:

Domestic

Notification of banning of open garbage burning. Nagar Nigam has banned use of coal/wood/diesel for preparing food items on

commercial basis and cooking gas (LPG) is the only fuel allowed for such activity. Vehicles

Implemented Bharat Stage-I emission norms for all categories of vehicles with

effect from 01.04.2000. Compliance of emission norms for in-use vehicles. Fuel quality matching Bharat Stage-II emission norms is already being achieved. Introduction of low benzene (1%) petrol.

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Auto LPG facility has already been developed at one retail outlet, M/s SSR filling station, Jankipuran Lucknow. The facility is provided with a storage capacity of 7.5 cubic meters. One more such facility has also been planned for the city.

PUC certificate mandatory for all vehicles and is issued for a period of 6 months In the city, 2T pre-mixed fuel oil is already dispensed from most retail outlets and

there has been a ban on supply of loose 2T oil. Oil company officials already carried out fuel adulteration checks at the retail

outlets. One mobile lab is based in Lucknow, which visits retail outlets regularly to detect fuel adulteration.

Old Vikram tempos are banned on certain routes. Only scrubber fitted tempos are allowed to ply in the city. Encroachments by patri dukandars (street vendors) are being removed. Parking alternatives have been provided in Hazaratganj, etc. For the improvement of public transport system, circular railways are already

functional in Lucknow as a mass transport system by 25.12.2002. Introduction of alcohol blended gasoline from 01.01. 2003. Nagar Nigam has done work of approximately Rs14 crore in the last 2 years for

widening and improvement of road surface and construction of concrete roads in densely populated areas.

Several bridges/flyovers constructed for the smoother flow of traffic. Industries

Siting policy for new Industries. Red category of Industries not permitted within municipal areas of Lucknow Nagar Nigam, while green industries with power load less than 5 kilovolt amperes (KVA) are considered on a case-to-case basis.

Proposed Action Plan: Industries

Organization of the inventories of the polluting industries. Inspection and monitoring of industries to ensure compliance. Identification and closure of unauthorized industrial operations. All commercial establishments having DG sets of capacity 7.5 KVA and above

shall install wet scrubber and acoustic chamber.

Domestic

Notification for banning open burning of garbage. Promotion of use of LPG as domestic fuel. Improved electricity supply in the city to discourage the use of DG sets.

Vehicles

Conducting vehicular emission inventory. Introduction of clean fuels like CNG/LPG/Hybrid battery, etc. For Lucknow city,

after availability of LPG/ CNG fuel, a period of minimum 1 year shall be required for installation of CNG/LPG conversion kits in vehicles. On trial basis, the Indian Oil Corporation (IOC) is developing an Auto LPG facility at one retail outlet. Expected commissioning is by March 2003.

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GAIL India Ltd. has proposed a natural gas project for the city of Lucknow. In the first phase, 18,000 kg CNG per day is to be made available for vehicles by June 2004 subject to land availability, government permission for installing the infrastructure facilities, etc. 1,000 consumers to be completed as domestic consumers during the first phase.

Branch pipeline project of IOC for connecting Lucknow with a pipeline from Allahbad-Kanpur section. The said project shall ensure smooth supply of petroleum products in Lucknow.

Providing more open space in the city as per master plan for the Lucknow city. Construction of two flyovers to be completed by June 2004. Introduction of fuels matching Bharat stages II, III, IV, etc. Improvement in the fuel quality. Ban on supply of loose 2T oil. Drive to check adulteration. Improvement of public transport system. Improvement of existing PUC system. Introduction of compulsory inspection and maintenance practice for on-road

vehicles. Phasing out grossly polluting vehicles for, e.g., 15-year old commercial vehicles,

8-year-old buses, etc. Restriction of movement of goods carrier in urban areas. Ban on conversion of petrol vehicles to diesel vehicles. Improvement in traffic management through various measures like rapid mass

transport, introduction of synchronized signals, providing more open area in the city, etc. Improvement in road and rail infrastructure through increasing road length,

augmentation of railway network, etc. Certain fiscal measures like restructuring parking fees and road tolls and fiscal

incentives for alternative fuels and vehicles.

Other Measures

Awadh Forest Division Lucknow is undertaking an ambitious plantation project starting from 2000-01 to 2009-10 in order to make Lucknow green, clean and beautiful. 9. Action Plan for the Control of Air Pollution for the City of Agra (October 2003)

Actions Taken:

Vehicles

Phasing out of grossly polluting vehicles plying within the city area. The Regional Transport Authority has already fixed age limits for different categories of vehicles.

Diesel-driven 7-seater tempos fitted with a scrubber only are being issued registration. Till now 205 such vehicles have been fitted with a scrubber.

Restriction on plying diesel-driven tempo taxis and auto rickshaws on Mahatma Gandhi Road and prohibition of all types of commercial vehicles within a radius of 500 meters of Taj Mahal.

Supply of diesel having sulphur content 0.05% since April 2003. Strict checking of vehicular emissions for in-use vehicles.

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Industries

In zones I, II, and III 114 industries are drawing natural gas for use in production processes.

Strict vigil on compliance of 292 industries that were directed by the Supreme Court not to use coal or coke. Out of the 292 industries 87 have been connected for CNG by GAIL (India) Ltd.

All brick kilns within a radius of 20 km of significant monuments of Agra city have been closed.

New Industries using coal and coke are not being allowed to set up within the Agra Trapezium zone in Uttar Pradesh.

Regular monitoring of ambient air quality in the Agra city. Currently four monitoring stations are in Agra city. Proposed Action Plan:

The city of Agra has been divided into five different zones and an action plan has been proposed in a zone-wise manner.

Industries

It is proposed to supply CNG as fuel for processing/production and it is also proposed to replace diesel generator sets with gas generators. It is proposed to implement the same in different zones in the following manner: Zone I: Already started. Zones II & III: By September 2002 laying of pipelines expected and supply expected by October 2002. Zone IV: If gas is available then 1 year from the date of approval. Zone V: As per GAIL (India) Ltd. it is a no gas zone due to safety reasons.

Restriction on supply and usage of coal, coke, wood, rice husk, and bagasse to the industries situated in the city limit of Agra.

Diesel generator sets installed by Industries/commercial establishments in no gas zones shall be fitted with wet scrubber and acoustic enclosures.

Only small-scale service and business-related enterprises (SSSBEs) that are essentially required within the city should be allowed in the designated commercial areas/authorized markets/authorized shopping plaza.

Strict vigil on compliance of 292 industries that were directed by the Supreme Court not to use coal or coke.

Petha Industries operating in the city shall be shifted to Kalindi Vihar site identified for this industry and shall operate on CNG/LPG only. Vehicles

Setting up of CNG/LPG retail outlets within Agra City for supplying CNG/LPG to vehicles in a phased manner. For the establishment of CNG station for vehicles and piped natural gas in Agra, the total project cost will be around Rs102 crores. Detailed engineering work is in progress for project implementation. One auto LPG dispensing station is already in place and is expected to be operational by October 2003.

Phasing out grossly polluting vehicles plying within the city in a phased manner. Commercial vehicles including 3-wheelers, tempos, auto rickshaws, taxis, buses,

etc. being used for public transport are to be converted to clean fuel like CNG/ LPG, etc.

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in a phased manner. Till such time these vehicles shall be fitted with a wet scrubber/filter and a notification for compulsory wet scrubber/dry filter shall be made.

Stop plying diesel driven tempo-taxis and auto rickshaws on Mahatma Gandhi Road and prohibition of all types of commercial vehicles within a radius of 500 meters of Taj Mahal.

Notification and compliance for fitting of filter/wet scrubber in tempos, taxis, 3- wheelers, city buses, diesel ambassador taxis, commercial jeeps, light/medium goods vehicles, and heavy goods vehicles registered in Agra.

Supply of ultra low sulphur diesel (0.05%) and premixed petrol in Agra. Ban on supply of loose 2T oil at petrol pumps and supply of only premixed 2T oil

gasoline at all petrol pumps. Checking for adulteration. Strict checking of vehicular emissions and PUCs. Better traffic management. Introduction of clean fuels like CNG/LPG.

Other Measures

Construction of footpaths/widening of roads up to the boundary limit along the major roads to minimize natural dust and congestion.

Declaration of land for up to appropriate distance behind Taj as green corridor. Providing LPG for domestic and commercial use. Notification for declaring Agra/Taj Mahal Trapezium Zone as sensitive are

thereby restricting further sitting of red category industries in Agra with suitable modification for CNG-based industries.

Scheme for switching over to LPG/CNG

For CNG two online stations and five daughter stations are proposed to be commissioned by GAIL within 15 months after approval. In Zone–I CNG is already being supplied, for Zones II and III it is proposed to supply CNG by October 02 while in Zone IV supply will be ensured within 1 year after approval, while Zone V is no-gas zone.

For LPG, IOC has initiated work for establishment of one Auto LPG stations. IOC has established one workstation and supply is expected within 1 month. 10. Action Plan for the Control of Air Pollution for the City of Jodhpur (October 2003)

Actions Taken:

Vehicles

Shifted transport companies from busy city areas to Transport Nagar situated in industrial area.

Routing heavy vehicles through bypass. Tempos have been removed from heavy traffic routes in the city and have been

directed through alternate roads. Trucks are allowed to enter in main city area of Jodhpur after obtaining pass from

additional District Magistrate. Number of city buses has been reduced to 50% as compared to earlier.

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Better traffic management system. Introduced of pollution-under-control (PUC) certificates and effective checking

rules. 18 PUC centers have been authorized by transport department. Initiated long-term plan for construction of over-bridge/under-bridge on railway

crossings in the city. Ban on plying of vehicles which are more than 15 years old. Heavy traffic areas have been identified and one-way traffic has been introduced. Improvement and development of many other roads have been taken up under

ADB project. Tenders have been prepared by ADB for construction of three flyovers in

Jodhpur city. Action taken for control of high-speed vehicles. Checking of vehicles emitting smoke with the help of smoke meters available

with the traffic police. Removal of pressure horns from vehicles along with development of silence

zones. Sulphur content in diesel reduced to 0.25% from September 2000. Unleaded

petrol being supplied from April 2000. Dense plantation work has been taken up in Jodhpur and nearby areas by the

Forest Department.

Proposed Action Plan:

Vehicles

Augmentation in the number of monitoring stations from 3 to 6 by June 2003. Already prepared traffic master plan. Effective checking of vehicular emissions. Incorporation of environmental policy parameters in urban planning. Reduction in sulphur in diesel from 0.25% to 0.05%. Supply of premixed 2T oil. Phasing out all grossly polluting vehicles. Development of greenbelt around the city. Master plan to shift various commercial activities located in densely populated

areas to outside area in the outskirts of the city. Assessment of air pollution problems in the city.

Other Measures

Number of new industries/commercial activities causing pollution in

residential/commercial areas not to go up.

Constitution of Inter-Agency Task Force

Implementation of the action plan shall be monitored by a high powered committee headed by Principal Secretary, Environment, Government of Rajasthan.

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11. Action Plan for the Control of Air Pollution for the City of Faridabad (June 2004) Actions Taken:

Vehicles

Sulphur content in diesel and petrol has been reduced to 0.05%. Task force has been formulated under the chairmanship of Deputy

Commissioner, Faridabad at district level for rigorous auditing and inspection of PUC centers.

In order to check the adulteration of fuel the Haryana government has put up special cell for monitoring of retail outlets, depots and oil tankers, etc.

The District Authorities are keeping strict vigil that solvent like naphtha kerosene, etc. and are not made available to the unauthorized persons/dealers.

High penalty imposed on defaulting (with adulterated fuel) vehicles. Haryana State Transport Department has given different color codes to 3-

wheelers depending upon the life of the vehicle. For the purpose of retail vending of CNG/PNG, M/s Indraprastha Gas Ltd., have

engaged a technical consultant for preparation of detailed feasibility report for expansion of its supply of CNG/PNG in the adjoining towns of Delhi, which includes the towns of Faridabad and Gurgaon.

The State government has issued notification on 24.12.2003 vide which the age for the operation of various types of transport vehicles has been fixed.

Industries

Almost all the industries covered under Air Pollution Act and using fuel other than

oil and electricity have already installed the air pollution control devices.

Action Plan Proposed:

Vehicles

Introduction of vehicular emission norms as per the road map proposed by the expert committee on Auto Fuel Policy.

Reduction in benzene content to 1% in gasoline. To supply fuel compatible with implemented emission norms. The draft notification is under preparation for phasing out of 15-year-old

commercial vehicles and all diesel 3-wheelers. Upgrading of PUC system. Implementation of new emission norms for in-use

vehicles from October 2004 On-road inspection of vehicles by the representatives of F&S Department,

Transport Authority and Himachal State Pollution Control Board. Improved centralized inspection and maintenance program to replace existing

PUC system. Bypassing of interstate/city vehicles and restriction of entry of non-destined

commercial vehicles in the city. Stricter drive to check the adulteration of fuel.

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Installation of pre-mix oil dispensers and ban on sale of loose 2T oil to be planned by IOC.

Haryana State Government has decided to approve “authorized testing stations” for the grant/renewal of certificate of fitness to all types of motor vehicles registered/intended to be registered in Faridabad.

Upgrading of public transportation system. Besides maintaining its bus fleet of 3,500 buses, Haryana Transport Department has floated a new privatization scheme through which it is intended to grant 2,476 bus permits situated on various routes in the state.

Industries

Stricter and regular inspection and monitoring of industries to ensure compliance. Closure of clandestine/unauthorized industries. Fuels like compressed natural gas (CNG), light diesel oil (LDO), and high speed

diesel (HSD) to be introduced in industries instead of rice husk, coal, etc. Ultra low sulphur diesel to be used by industries for their generating sets. Industries using rice husk as fuel to dump rice husk ash in a landfill outside

Faridabad town. Thermal power plants in Faridabad and Badarpur should keep their electrostatic

precipitators functioning efficiently. Encourage tree plantation.

12. Action Plan for the Control of Air Pollution for the City of Dhanbad-Jharia

(February 2004)

Actions Proposed: Vehicular Sources

Inventory of emission load from all categories of vehicles with respect to different pollutants to be done.

Notification of vehicle emission norms in accordance with the road map proposed by the expert committee on Auto Fuel Policy.

Introduction of clean-fueled vehicles like CNG/LPG/hybrid battery, etc. Necessary equipment to verify vehicular emission would be purchased to

intensify drive for checking vehicular emissions so as to take necessary action against the defaulters.

To ensure that no loose kerosene is sold within the vicinity of petrol stations. Intensify the implementation of the ban on supply of loose 2T oil at petrol

stations/service garages. All new vehicles for Dhanbad-Jharia would be registered only if they are Bharat-II

compliant. Diversion of bulk public vehicles from Kendua-Dhanbad Road to Kendua-Jharia

Road. Diversion of traffic density from Dhanbad-Saridhella-Govindpur Road towards

Dhanbad-Baliapur-Sindri Road. Counter-checking of pollution under control certification so as to ascertain its

reliability. Construction of flyovers and roads connecting to mining areas by 31.4.2004.

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Diversion of traffic load from Dhanbad-Patherdih-Sindri Road to Railway by increasing frequency of Dhanbad-Sindri local train.

Regulation of traffic in peak hours at major traffic intersections. Restriction on movement of trucks and carrier vehicles in urban areas. Mining areas and colonies in the area to be provided with good plantation and

permanent roads. Construction of ring road along the periphery of Jharia coalfield and link and

feeder roads connecting the centers of activities to the ring road. The ring road shall be connected to NH-2 and NH-32 suitable link roads by 31.4.2004.

Strengthening and construction of new roads.

Ambient Noise Control

Control of noise pollution from industrial sources. Measures for control of traffic noise. Notification for restricted use of loudspeakers for social and religion functions and

its effective implementation.

Industrial Sources

Organization of the inventories of the polluting industries, i.e., large, medium and small scale has already been commenced.

Control of industrial emissions ensuring compliance to standard. Identification and closure of clandestine/unauthorized operations. Round-the-clock vigilance of industries for identification and control of

clandestine emissions. Compliance to standards in DG sets. Verification of compliance to specified norms under Air Act would be intensified. Ambient air quality monitoring at critically polluted industrial areas in the town to

be intensified. All the time vigilance on coming up of new industries. All the industrial plants to develop a greenbelt all along the periphery. To ensure

reclamation of mined-out areas. There are many abandoned mined-out areas where mining is not being carried

out for the long time. Such mines should be immediately declared abandoned and should start reclamation.

Illegal open burning of coal to prepare soft coke. Soft coke manufacturing by ‘Bhatt’ method (stack burning).

Municipal Solid Waste

Development of collection, treatment and disposal of municipal solid waste. Notification for banning open burning of garbage.

13. Action Plan for the Control of Air Pollution for the City of Patna (January 2004) Action Plan Proposed:

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Vehicles

To launch a drive to stop usage of kerosene in vehicles particularly 3-wheelers and commercial vehicles on regular basis by 31.3.2004.

To ensure no loose kerosene is sold within the vicinity of the petrol station. To stop the practice of removing silencers by 3-wheelers and no tampering with

vehicles are done by 31.03.2004. Necessary equipment to verify vehicular emission to be purchased to intensify

drive for checking vehicular emission so as to take necessary action against defaulters. Auto exhaust monitoring stations to be made functional by 31.01.2004.

Ban on supply of loose kerosene oil at petrol station/service garages; loose 2T oil at petrol pumps and introduction of pre-mixed fuel oil and expansion of pre-mixed outlets.

Advance fuel testing laboratories are to be established at Patna. IOC has already established one laboratory in Patna which will be utilized for checking fuel adulteration on regular basis.

Old buses and other commercial vehicles of 15 years and above age not complying with the emission norms shall be allowed retrofitting within 1 year so as to meet the norms, otherwise they will not be allowed to operate.

All new vehicles in Patna would be registered only if they are Bharat-II compliant or they run on LPG/CNG by 01.04.2005.

Regular monitoring at critically polluted areas of the city so that plan for providing flyovers and other traffic management systems can be developed. One flyover at Chariyatand shall be functional by 30.6.2004 and another flyover at Mithapur area by 30.6.2005.

Removal of air pressure horns from transport buses and other vehicles. Control of noise pollution due to playing of loudspeakers, DG sets, crackers, etc. Transport of building materials like sand, etc., garbage and other solid wastes

should only be done through properly covered vehicles. Better traffic management: regulation of traffic during peak hours at major

crossings, railway stations and bus terminals. Synchronized traffic signals shall be made functional by 31.03.2004. Industries

Verification for compliance of specified norms by the industries under Air Act, 1981 would be intensified.

Ambient air quality monitoring in industrial area of the city to be intensified to pinpoint the source of pollution and take punitive action thereof.

All industrial units in the city to develop a greenbelt along their periphery. Verification of the compliance by industries with respect to emission norms

through surprise inspections. Proper upkeep and regular sweeping of roads. Strict implementation of prohibition of usage of carry bags having thickness less

than 20 microns for any purpose or containers made of recycled plastic for storing, carrying, disposing or packing of foodstuffs.

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Municipal Waste

Littering of municipal solid waste shall be prohibited in the city. Municipal solid waste shall be managed and handled in such a way that proper segregation, collection, transportation, storage, processing and disposal is ensured.

Intensive awareness campaigns shall be conducted in order to sensitize the citizens to segregation of waste and to promote recycling and reuse of segregated materials.

Facility for storage of municipal solid waste transportation and processing shall be created. Proper landfill sites shall be identified and developed.

Proper management and handling of bio-medical waste generating units shall be ensured.

Common disposal/incineration sites for the bio-medical waste, generated in the city, may be provided. Intensive awareness campaigns, workshops, seminars, etc. shall be conducted.

14. Action Plan for the Control of Air Pollution for the City of Pune (October 2003) Actions Taken:

Industries

Maharastra Pollution Control Board has started giving very elaborate instructions

to industries for controlling emissions generated from D.G. sets. Several conditions are specified for stack height commensurate with kVA installed and for barricading noise.

Vehicles

Inventory of emission load from vehicles is done in Pune city and the Pune

Municipal Corporation (PMC) and is reported by the Central Institute of Road Transport (CIRT), Pune.

Banning registration of all new diesel public vehicles. Unleaded petrol has already been made available. Supply of gasoline with 1% benzene started from April 2003. Supply of low sulphur diesel (0.05%) has been started. Ban on supply of loose 2T oil. The Regional Transport Office has banned six-seaters within PMC area. Only petrol-driven rickshaws are permitted in PMC area. Switching over to cleaner fuels, etc. Vehicles are regularly checked for PUC certificates and if found exceeding the

limits, registration is suspended till satisfactory repair. PMC has purchased 100 Bharat Stage-II compliant buses; 38 of the existing

buses have been phased out. At present there are 57 PUC centers in Pune. Ten river bridges have been constructed while others are in different stages of

construction. Introduced synchronized traffic signals. Better traffic management through bicycle pathways, bypassing of intercity

/interstate buses, etc.

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Proposed Action Plan:

Vehicles

To review inventory of emission load from all categories of vehicles. Notify and implement vehicular emission norms as per roadmap recommended

by Expert Committee on Auto Fuel Policy. Performance checking for cat. Conversion kits to be put in place by 01.04.2005.

At present there are 68 conversion centers in Pune city. Stricter drive to check the adulteration of the fuels. Periodical surprise checking is

being performed. PMC has proposed to phase out 18 more PMC buses in March 2004 and 25 new

buses are to be purchased. Improvement of the existing PUC centers. Defaulter has to pay Rs100 at a time.

Proposed as per Mumbai High Court orders: first time defaulter, there should be imposition of fine. Second time defaulter, cancellation of driving license and further defaulters, vehicle will be banned from plying.

Phasing out of grossly polluting vehicles. Government of Maharastra has framed the phase-out program for different categories of vehicles.

Ban on alteration of petroleum vehicles to diesel vehicles. Proposed various flyovers/bridges to reduce the congestion and these are under

various stages of completion while few have already been completed Increasing road length and improvement in road surface. Higher road tax for older vehicles. Fiscal incentives for alternative fuel and vehicles.

Industrial

Organization and review of the inventories of the polluting industries. Control of industrial emissions and ensuring compliance of the standards. Identification and closure of clandestine/unauthorized industrial operations or

shifting. Within 18 months, 3 units are identified which requires shifting. Compliance to standards in D.G sets. Three industries have been identified and

instructed for compliance. Implementation of industrial location policy for shifting of industries from non-

confirming zones. Implementation of Corporate Responsibility for Environmental Protection (CREP)

rule for 17 categories of industries having more pollution potential. Domestic

Notification for banning of open garbage burning. It is prescribed by the

Maharashtra Pollution Control Board (MPCB) through authorization under the Municipal Solid Waste Management and Handling Rules 2000 and Bio-Medical Waste.

Promotion of use of LPG as domestic fuel instead of burning coal, wood and cow dung, etc.

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Scheme for Switching to LPG/CNG

In accordance with orders of Honorable Supreme Court, no time-bound scheme for switching over to LPG mode has been proposed, though a plan for promotion of cleaner fuels has been proposed.

Two auto LPG outlets are being operated on a trial basis at Pune. The final

demand for LPG will be about 1-2 tons per day. The above additional facilities will be ready subject to obtaining Chief Controller of Explosives and other statuary approvals.

15. Action Plan for the Control of Air Pollution for the City of Sholapur

(December 2003) Actions Taken: Vehicles

Bharat Stage-II emission norms implemented from April 2004 Inventory of emission load from vehicles in Solapur city reveals emission of 27

tons of pollutants per day. Ban on supply of loose 2T oil. Checking fuel adulteration. Banning registration of all new diesel public vehicles like six-seaters. Only petrol 3-seaters are running in the city. Vehicles are checked regularly for PUC certificate and if found exceeding the

limits the registration is suspended until satisfactory repair is done. Renewal of certificate is granted after observing satisfactory performance.

Introduction of LPG is in an advanced stage and the Sholapur Municipal Corporation is required to modify the fleet of the Sholapur Municipal Transport to make it compatible with environmentally friendly fuels.

Industries

Compliance is kept under observation through regular inspection and vigilance. To minimize the pollution load the Maharashtra Pollution Control Board (MPCB)

has started implementing the Corporate Responsibility for Environmental Protection (CREP) rule for 17 categories of Industries having more pollution potential within a specified time frame.

MPCB has adopted the river regulation zone (RRZ) policy for siting of industries as declared by the Government of Maharashtra dated 15.07.2000.

MPCB has also adopted siting criteria for stone crushers. Proposed Action Plan: Vehicles

Bharat Stage-III emission norms to be implemented from 2005. Performance checking for catalytic converters and conversion kits to be put in

place by 01.04.2005.

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To supply gasoline with 3% and 1% benzene contents by 2004 and 2010, respectively.

To supply low sulphur diesel (0.05%) by January 2004. Ban on supply of loose 2T oil. Introduction of alternate fuels like CNG/LPG. IOC proposed to plan one regional

office to supply auto LPG. Improvement of public transport system to discourage use of private vehicles. Improvement of existing PUC system. Phasing out of grossly polluting vehicles like 15-year-old commercial vehicles,

etc. Ban on conversion of petrol vehicles to diesel vehicles. Better traffic management to avoid congestion through introduction of

synchronized signals with timers, bypassing of intercity interstate traffic, increased road length, and augmentation of railway network and fiscal incentives.

Industries

Organization of inventories of polluting industries Control of emissions and ensuring compliance of standards. Identification and closure of clandestine/unauthorized industrial operations. Compliance to standards in DG sets. Identification of areas where industries from nonconforming zones shall be

shifted. Notification for banning open burning of garbage. Promotion of LPG as domestic fuel instead of burning coal and wood.

16. Action Plan for the Control of Air Pollution for the City of Chennai (June 2004)

Actions Taken:

Vehicles

Bharat Stage–II norms have been implemented for the registration of new passenger cars from 01.07.2001.

Emission norms for in-use vehicles in consultation with MoRTH and MoEF have been implemented in Chennai city for all vehicles from 1.1.1997.

Catalytic converter fitted passenger car have been registered since 1997. Officials of Transport Department and Police Department conduct periodic

inspection of in-use vehicles in Chennai. Supply of unleaded petrol from February 2000. In Chennai city low sulphur diesel (0.05%) has been supplied since 01.07.2001. Supply of pre-mixed 2T oil since 01.04.2002. Entry of heavy vehicles restricted in Chennai city during peak hours. Ring roads have been constructed to avoid the entry of intercity vehicles in the

city. Mass transport system (Metro rail) introduced from Beach to Thiru Myilai in

phase I and extension to Velachery in phase II is under progress. Fiscal measures like structuring parking fees and road tolls have been

implemented.

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Five ALDS are functioning in Chennai City. Twelve LPG retrofitting centers have been set up in the city.

Green tax has been levied for vehicles more than 15 years old from May 2003. 112 private emission centers and 3 Tamil Nadu Pollution Control Board

emission-testing centers in the city have been authorized to check emission. Encroachment on roads being removed to reduce congestion.

Industries

No new polluting units permitted within the city. No new incinerators permitted within the city; old incinerators being phased out. Common facilities are set up outside the city for the incineration of bio-medical

waste. Industries have been directed to develop a greenbelt of at least 25% of the

project area. Greenbelts are also being developed by industries on roadsides and common places. Renewal of consent to operate is based on compliance with this condition.

Periodic inspection of industries and monitoring of ambient air quality and source emission are being carried out for compliance.

All stacks from industrial units are to be fitted with online stack monitor with computer recording arrangements.

Proposed Action Plan:

Vehicles

LPG as auto fuels (auto rickshaws and taxis) in Chennai city. Oil companies have promised to set up 28 ALDS. Presently 7 ALDS are functioning. Work on 12 ALDS is in progress and are to be commissioned by June 2004. Remaining ALDS will be completed by July 2004.

Introduction of low benzene (1%) petrol. To check adulteration of fuel and illegal sale of kerosene to vehicles. So far 770

kerosene licenses were cancelled due to violation of control order and other illegal activities.

Phasing out of grossly polluting vehicles. Improvement of public transport system. Maharashtra Transport Corporation

replaced 117 buses by complying with Bharat Stage-II norms during 2002-2003. 25 buses are to be replaced during 2003-2004.

Upgradation of existing vehicle emission testing centers to computerized emission testing centers.

Prohibition of movement of heavy goods vehicles except essential services in Chennai city on 19 important roads.

National Highways Authority of India under MoRTH has undertaken the work of constructing a bypass road to Chennai connecting NH45, NH4, and 5. The total length of the bypass road is 31.40 km.

Industrial Pollution

To provide scrubbers to reduce emissions from M/s GMR Power Corporation. To shift the entire coal handling from Chennai port to Ennore Port by December

2004.

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To shift the entire iron ore handling from Chennai port to Ennore Port by December 2005.

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Annexure-V

FORMAT FOR PREPARATION OF ACTION PLAN FOR POLLUTION CONTROL IN CITIES/TOWNS

Aspect Activity Action/

Responsible Agency

Time Frame

Industrial Organization of the inventories of the polluting industries, i.e., large-, medium- and small-scale sectors Control of industrial emissions and ensuring compliance to standards Identification and closure of clandestine/unauthorized industrial operations Round-the-clock vigilance of industries for identification and control clandestine emissions Compliance to standards in DG sets Domestic Notification for banning of open burning of garbage

1.

Air Pollution Control Industrial and Domestic

Promotion of use of LPG as domestic fuel instead of burning coal, wood and cow dung cakes

Vehicular emission inventory Inventory of emission load from all categories of vehicles with respect to different pollutants Emission norms and vehicle technology Notification of vehicle emission norms like Bharat Stage-II, III, IV, etc. in consultation with MoRTH, MoEF Notification of emission norms for in-use vehicles in consultation with MoRTH, MoEF Retrofitment of after-combustion technology like catalytic converters, particulate traps, etc. Introduction of clean fuelled vehicles like CNG/LPG/hybrid, battery, etc. Fuel quality and specifications Introduction of fuels matching Bharat stages II, III, IV, etc. in consultation with Central Government (MoP&NG) Introduction of low benzene (1%) petrol in consultation with Central Government (MoP&NG) Introduction of low and ultra low sulphur diesel in consultation with Central Government (MoP&NG) Introduction of pre-mixed fuel oil and expansion of pre-mixed outlets Ban on supply of loose 2-T oils at petrol pumps Introduction of alcohol blended gasoline Checking of fuel adulteration Introduction of alternate fuel like CNG/LPG depending upon availability Other command-and-control measures Improvement of public transport system for discouraging use of private vehicles Phasing out grossly polluting vehicles (like 15-year-old commercial vehicles, 8-year-old buses, etc.) Restriction of movement of goods vehicles in urban areas Ban on alteration of petrol vehicles to diesel vehicles

2.

Air Pollution Control Vehicular Emissions

Traffic management

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Introduction of synchronized signals with times Provision for bicycle pathways Provision for bus only lanes Bypassing of intercity/interstate traffic Regulation of traffic in peak hours at major traffic intersections, railway stations and interstate bus terminals Road and rail infrastructure Increasing road length and improvement of road surface Augmentation of railway network where possible Construction of metro rails where feasible Fiscal measures Higher road tax for older vehicles Structuring parking fees and road tolls Fiscal incentives for alternate fuels and vehicles

Note: This is a sample format for action plan. Other items and targets as relevant to local conditions may be included accordingly. CNG = compressed natural gas; LPG = liquefied petroleum gas; I&M = inspection and maintenance; MoEF = Ministry of Environment and Forests; MoP&NG = Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas; MoRTH = Ministry of Road Transport and Highways.

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Annexure VI

PROGRESS OF WORK FOR ACHIEVEMENT OF COMPLIANCE IN (9+4+9) POLLUTED CITIES AS IDENTIFIED BY THE SUPREME COURT,

ALONG WITH AN ACTION PLAN FOR CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION IN NONATTAINMENT CITIES IDENTIFIED BY CPCB

S.No. Activity Date

1 Supreme Court issued order for preparation of action plan for control of pollution in nine critically polluted cities in India

8 April 2002

2 Chairman, Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) issued letters to all concerned state pollution control boards (SPCBs)/committees to prepare an action plan in (9+4) polluted cities as identified by Supreme Court and 53 nonattainment cities as identified by CPCB

24 April 2002

3 Rajasthan SPCB submitted action plan for five cities in Rajasthan state 2 May 2002 4 Action plan submitted by West Bengal Pollution Control Board for control of pollution

in Kolkata and Howrah 8 May 2002

5 Supreme Court issued order for compulsory switch over of all 2-wheelers, 3-wheelers & motor vehicles to LPG/CNG in cities which are equally or more polluted than Delhi

9 May 2002

6 Reminder letter issued to all concerned SPCBs/committees for preparation of action plan

14 May 2002

7 Meeting held in Paryavaran Bhawan, Ministry of Environment & Forests (MOEF), on “Identification of cities which are equally or more polluted than Delhi

21 June 2002

8 Jharkhand SPCB submitted brief action plan for the city of Jharia 25 June 2002 9 Tamil Nadu SPCB submitted action Plan for the city of Chennai 5 July 2002 10 Conference of Secretaries of Environment and Chairpersons of SPCBs/committees

held in Delhi to discuss formulation & implementation of action plan for control pollution in selected cities

8-9 July 2002

11 Letter issued by MoEF to MoPNG in which four cities, Ahmedabad, Pune, Kanpur and Kolkata were identified as cities which are equally or more polluted than Delhi

12 July 2002

13 Guidelines for preparation of action plan for controlling pollution issue to all concerned SPCBs/ Committees by Member Secretary, CPCB

2 Aug 2002

14 Andhra Pradesh SPCB submitted action plan for control of pollution in nonattainment cities of Andhra Pradesh

3 Aug 2002

15 Gujarat SPCB asked for 6 months for the preparation of revised action plan for Ahmedabad

8 Aug 2002

16 Action plan submitted by West Bengal SPCB for control of pollution and scheme for switch over to LPG/CNG as fuel in Ahmedabad city

8 Aug 2002

17 Uttar Pradesh State Pollution Control Board submitted action plan for Kanpur city and asked for further time period of six weeks for resubmission of action plan

8 Aug 2002

18 Maharashtra State Pollution Control Board submitted action plan for the city of Pune and asked for time period of one month for resubmission of action plan

9 Aug 2002

19 Himachal Pradesh State Pollution Control Board submitted action Plan for control for non–attainment cities in the state

31 Aug 2002

20 Maharashtra State Pollution Control Board submitted action plan for the city of Pune 6 Sept 2002 21 Action Plan submitted by State Pollution Control Board of Haryana for the city of

Faridabad 9 Sept 2002

22 A workshop organized by CPCB to discuss and finalize the format for carrying out an inventory of various polluting sources

17 Sept 2002

23 Chandigarh Pollution Control Committee submitted action Plan for control for the city of Chandigarh

25 Sept 2002

24 Methodology for estimation of Pollution load sent to all SPCBs/committees 4 Oct 2002 25 Uttaranchal State Pollution Control Board submitted action Plan for control of

pollution in the city of Dehradun 17 Oct 2002

26 Action Plan submitted by Gujarat State Pollution control Board for control of pollution in 6 cities, namely, Vapi, Surat, Ankleshwar, Surat, Baroda and Rajkot

13 Nov 2002

27 Chattisgarh State Pollution Control Board submitted action plan for Bhilai, Korba, and Raipur

1 Jan 2003

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28 Govt. of Maharashtra submitted report on implementation of action plan for the control of pollution in Mumbai city

24 Jan 2003

29. Meeting to ascertain the progress made in formulation of the plan as well as the mechanism for its implementation was convened by Shri V.K Duggal Special Secretary, MoEF

24 Mar 2003

30. State Govt. of Gujarat submitted status report on implementation of action plan 17 Apr 2003 31. Meeting on review of action plan was held at CPCB under the chairmanship of

Chairman, CPCB 21 Apr 2003

Harahan State Pollution Control Board submitted action plan for control of air pollution ion the cities of Hair and Dhabi

21 Apr 2003

32`. Action Plan for controlling air pollution in Kanpur, Lucknow, Agra and Varanasi submitted by UPPCB

25 Apr 2003

33. Action Plan for controlling air pollution in Jodhpur city submitted 7 May 2003 34 Bihar State Pollution Control Board submitted revised action plan for the city of

Patna 19 June 2003

35. Haryana State Pollution Control Board submitted revised action plan for control of air pollution in Faridabad city

3 July 2003

36 Reminder letters issued to Concerned state boards to submit revised action plan 11 June 2003 37 Letters issued to zonal offices of concerned 9 + 4 cities to conduct ambient air

quality monitoring in these cities. 15 July 2003

38 Salient features and comments on action plan send to state boards of 9 + 4 cities for revising the action plan

5 Aug 2003

39 Karnataka State Pollution control Board submitted report status of implementation of action plan in the city of Bangalore.

21 Aug 2003

40 Maharashtra State Pollution Control Board submitted report status of implementation of action plan in the city of Pune

25 Aug 2003

41 In accordance with the recent orders of Honorable Supreme Court dated 16 August 2003, nine critical polluted cities with respect to RSPM as identified by Honorable Court were asked to submit action plan for the control of air pollution particularly with reference to RSPM

29 Aug 2003

42 A meeting to review action plan for air quality improvement of identified polluted cities was held under the chairmanship of Navin B. Chawla, Special Secretary, MoEF

15 Sept 2003

43. Tamil Nadu State Pollution Control Board submitted air quality improvement action plan for the city of Chennai

24 Sept 2003

44. Revised action plan submitted by Haryana Pollution Control Board for the city of Faridabad

30 Sept 2003

45. Government of Karnataka submitted information to the EPCA on air quality improvement action plan for the city of Bangalore

30 Sept 2003

46. Revised action plan submitted by Gujarat Pollution Control Board for the city of Ahemdabad.

3 Oct 2003

47. Maharastra State Pollution Control Board submitted revised action plan for the city of Pune

17 Oct 2003

48. Received revised action plans for the cities of Jodhpur, Ahmedabad, Faridabad Patna Agra, Kanpur Lucknow, Hyderabad and Chennai as submitted to MoEF

23 Oct 2003

49. Department of Forest, Ecology and Environment, Government of Karnataka submitted revised action plan for the city of Bangalore

23 Oct 2003

50. Department of Forest, Ecology and Environment, Government of Karnataka submitted revised action plan for the city of Bangalore

13 Nov 2003

51. Action plan for the city of Mumbai submitted by MSPCB through fax 3 Dec 2003 52. Action plan for the city of Solapur submitted by MSPCB 15 Dec 2003 53. Department of Environment, Science & Technology, Government of Andra Pradesh,

submitted action plan for the city of Hyderabad in accordance with the format of EPCA, NCR

29 Dec 2003

Environment & Forest Department, Government of Gujarat submitted revised action plan for the city of Ahmedabad along with minutes of the task force meeting held on 29 July 2002

8 Jan 2004

54. Department of Forest and Environment, Government of Jharkhand submitted revised action plan for the city of Jharia-Dhanbad

8 Jan 2004

55. Bihar State Pollution Control Board and Department of Environment and Forests, Government of Bihar submitted revised action plan for the city of Patna

14 Jan 2004

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56. Department of Environment Forests Department, Government of Tamil Nadu submitted revised action plan in accordance with the format of EPCA

20 Jan 2004

57. Jharkhand State Pollution Control Board submitted revised Action Plan for the Control of Air Pollution in Jharia-Dhanbad

17 Feb 2004

58. The 50th Conference of Chairman/Member Secretaries of Pollution Control Boards/Committees was held at New Delhi

8-9 Mar 2004

59. For action plan for 7 cities, the concerned SPCBs did not submit any action plan by 15 April 2004 as was asked during the conference. A reminder letter was sent to all the concerned SPCBs wherein they were asked to submit their action plan as per EPCA format to CPCB by 31 May 2004

12 May 2004

60. Haryana State Pollution Control Board submitted revised Action Plan for the Control of Air Pollution in the city of Faridabad in accordance with EPCA format

30 June 2004

61. A technical review meeting on Action Plans for the air quality improvement for the cities of Agra, Jharia, Varanasi, Patna, Jodhpur and Pune was held at MoEF under the chairmanship of Shri Naresh Dayal, Additional Secretary, MoEF

7 July 2004

62. For action plan of remaining 37 cities, the concerned SPCBs did not submit any action plan by 15 June 2004 as was asked during the conference. A reminder letter was sent to all the concerned SPCBs wherein they were asked to submit their action plan as per EPCA format to CPCB by 10 August 2004

23 July 2004

63. Tamil Nadu State Pollution Control Board submitted its action taken report for the city of Chennai

July 2004

64. Tamil Nadu State Pollution Control Board submitted an Action Plan for the Control of Air Pollution for the city of Madurai

11 Aug 2004

65. Gujarat Pollution Control Board submitted revised action plan for the cities of Surat, Vadodra, Ankleshwar, Rajkot and Vapi

20 Aug 2004

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II. Review of Air Quality Management System Existing in Other Countries A. Introduction

A reduction in air pollution emissions in Western Europe and North America has been achieved by enactment and enforcement of international, regional, national, and local emissions and air quality regulations which have been aimed mainly at the energy, industry, and transport sectors. These changes have dramatically improved air quality in cities in Western Europe and North America and this has been heralded as one of the great success stories of effective environmental policies. Although many cities continue to suffer from traffic related air pollution and poor air quality, they have implemented a number of policy measures to reduce the overall level of polluting emissions.

This chapter sets out to review approaches taken to address the problem of

urban air pollution Europe and North America and identify possible measures that could be useful in combating air pollution in cities of Asian countries. B. Urban Air Pollution

Throughout the 19th century high levels of urban air pollution were frequently experienced throughout the cities of Europe. From 1950 almost every country in Europe and North America experienced serious air pollution. This led to these countries enacting their First National Air Pollution Control Legislation. Despite progress in air pollution policy, many European and North American countries have continued to experience, over the past 3 decades, summer and winter photochemical smog caused by the reaction between emissions from motor vehicle and sunlight. Urban air pollution episodes continue to pose a significant threat to human health in European and North American cities. C. Air Quality Trends

Air quality in European and North American cities has improved over the last 50 years. However, improvements in urban air quality are now being threatened by vehicle emissions caused by growth in the transport sector. In Europe approximately 40 million people residing in 115 large cities still experience accidence of the World Health Organization's (WHO) air quality guidelines for at least one pollutant every year especially for O3 and PM1O (EEA, 1998; EC,1999a).

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) tracks trends in air quality based on actual measurements of pollutants concentrations in the ambient (outside) air monitoring sites across the country. Monitoring stations are operated by state, tribal, and local government agencies as well as some federal agencies, including EPA. Trends are derived by averaging direct measurements from these monitoring stations on a yearly basis. The air quality based on concentrations of the principal pollutants has improved nationally over the past 20 years (Table 1).

EPA estimates nationwide emissions of ambient pollutants and their precursors

based on actual monitored readings or engineering calculations of the amounts and types of pollutants emitted by vehicles, factories, and other sources. Emission estimates are based on many factors, including the level of industrial activity, technology

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developments, fuel consumption, vehicle miles traveled, and other activities that cause air pollution.

Emission estimates also reflect changes in air pollution regulations and

installation of emission controls. The 2001 emissions reported in this summary are projected numbers based on available 2000 information and historical trends. Emission estimation methods continue to evolve and improve over time. Methods have changed for many significant categories beginning with the years 1986, 1990, and 1996, and, consequently, the estimates are not consistently developed across all years in this trend period. Because emissions estimation methods for many significant categories have changed over time, comparisons of the estimates for a given year in this report to the same year in a previous report may not be appropriate.

Emissions of all principal pollutants except NOx have decreased or remained

essentially unchanged over the past 20 years (1982-2001), while all air quality measures for the six principal pollutants have gone down. Although NOx emission have increased, air quality measurements for NO2 across the country are below the national air quality standards. NOx plays an important role in a number of air pollution issues. These compounds contribute to the formation of ozone and particles as well as the deposition of acids and nutrients and visibility impairment.

The improvements are a result of effective implementation of clean air laws and

regulations, as well as improvements in the efficiency of industrial technologies. Despite great progress in air quality improvement, approximately 133 million

people nationwide still lived in counties with pollution levels above the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) in 2001. This annual “snapshot” view of the nation’s air quality can be used to show levels that people might currently be experiencing across the country. There are still 130 nonattainment areas out of the 230 originally resulting from the 1990.

Table 1: Change in Air Quality and Emissions

Percent Change in Air Quality

1982-2001 1992-2001

NO2 -24 -11 O3 1-h 8-h

-18 -3

SO2 -52 -35 PM10 - -14 PM2.5 Trend data not available CO -62 -38 Pb -94 -25

Percent Change in Emissions 1982-2001 1992-2001

NOx +9 -3 VOC -16 -8 SO2 -25 -25 PM10* -51 -13 PM2.5* - -10 CO 0 +6 Pb -93 -5 * Includes only directly emitted particles.

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In Europe, the reduction in emissions of 03 precursors has resulted in lower peak

concentrations of tropospheric ozone. Estimates for 1999 suggest that in all European Union (EU) countries, except northern European countries and Portugal, 42% of the population was exposed to O3 concentrations above the threshold value for the protection of human health (120 µg/m3) between 1 and 25 days and 12% on more than 50 days. The exceeded days are days with an 8-hour average O3 concentration of more than the threshold value (EEA, 2001). During the period 1995-1999 almost all the urban population in the EU were exposed to O3 concentrations above the threshold value. While peak O3 concentrations are decreasing due to reductions in NO and non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOCs), median values for O3 are tending to increase (EEA 2002). D. Policy Measures to Control Air Pollution

Past approaches to abating air pollution have included responses based on the belief of “dilution and dispersion”. For example, it was thought that by increasing the height of industrial chimney stacks, pollutants would be released much higher in the atmosphere and the environmental impacts would be reduced as a consequence of the dilution and dispersion of these pollutants. However, this approach has proved ineffective.

More sophisticated strategies have involved “end-of-pipe” abatement approaches, which involve the use of filters and scrubbers at the end of emission pipelines and chimney stacks to control the release of a particular air pollutant into the atmosphere, or prevention of the pollution altogether (Jackson, 1996).

Pollution control strategies are dependent on regional, national and local authorities setting air quality emissions limit values and standards for those pollutants which are considered harmful to public health and environment. Each country in Europe and North America has developed their own emission limits or target values for air quality, often taking into consideration the WHO guidelines values for air quality. The effectiveness of these standards in modifying individual sector behavior is based, in part, on the methods used to implement them, especially where there has been a government compliance monitoring presence (RCEP1998).

Over the past 20 years, there has been a considerable expansion in the environmental regulation of the industrial sector. Mandatory regulations and voluntary initiatives have demanded that businesses assume more responsibility for the environmental impacts which they create during the production process or in the final end product. Voluntary initiatives, commonly used in the United Kingdom (UK) in the 1980s, have not proved any more or less effective in achieving environmental objectives than the more adversarial and regulatory approach adopted by nations such as the United States (US). US regulatory policy has been more ambitious and this has resulted in greater resistance from business. In contrast, it has been argued that because the UK approach demanded less, the demands were perceived as reasonable, and therefore industry was more likely to comply with environmental regulations (Vogel, 1986).

Measures used to regulate the effect of industry on the environment have included the imposition of emission limits, efficiency standards and the requirement of

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best available end-of-pipe technologies. One alternative to command-and-control approach is the use of market-based instruments such as emission charges, taxes on resource use, tax relief on new capital investments, and penalties for the infringement of environmental regulations. For example, most European countries have encouraged the use of unleaded petrol and diesel by using taxes to make leaded petrol more expensive. Market-based instruments are seen to increase flexibility by allowing progressive shifts to less polluting fuels and by encouraging cost-effective abatement. The effectiveness of such instruments in achieving a particular environmental standard depends on the technical feasibility of removing pollutants, the elasticity of substitution among different fuels, the equitable availability of investment capital, and the general responsiveness of the market to price signals (Jackson, 1996). E. Air Quality Monitoring System

1. Air quality monitoring system in Europe

The European Air Quality Monitoring Network (EuroAirnet) is a Europe-wide air quality-monitoring network, consisting of a selection of monitoring stations from networks that are in operation in the European Member States. EuroAirnet has been developed in close cooperation between the European Environment Agency (EEA) and EU countries. The Network was set up to support the EEA in providing objective, reliable and comparable information on air quality at the European level (EEA 1999).

The main aim of EuroAirnet is to establish a network with sufficient spatial coverage, representativeness, and quality to provide the basic air quality data on a regular basis with a time delay of no longer than 6 months. EuroAirnet provides information to support and to facilitate the assessments of air quality to be produced by EEA. The specific objectives of EuroAirnet are to be met in three stages: Stage 1: Air pollution exposure assessments on the European scale to be

produced from monitoring alone. Stage 2: Air pollution exposure assessments to be produced by a combination of

monitoring and modeling. Stage 3: The network will support quantitative assessments of exposure and

effects, a basis for proposing cost-effective abatement strategies. Data from EuroAirnet stations established in Stage 1 shall enable: (i) Comparison of air quality in similar locations across Europe. (ii) Detection of current trends in air quality within a limited period. (iii) Assessment of exposure of the population, ecosystems, and materials at the

European level.

EuroAirnet comprises a number of existing stations in the countries. Data from EuroAirnet are reported to AIRBASE, the European Air Quality Database. The European Topic Centre on Air Quality manages EuroAirnet and AIRBASE and Climate Change under contract to EEA EuroAirnet includes, in principle, all European countries, including EEA members (18 countries as of May 2001), accession countries (11 countries, as of May 2001) and other countries. As of November 2000, 29 countries had made a selection of stations for EuroAirnet. Before November 2000, the development of EuroAirnet was made in collaboration with the Phare Topic Link on Air Quality, which

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assisted the 13 Phare countries in Central and Eastern Europe to make their selection and provide data (EuroAirnet 2002).

2. Air Quality Monitoring System in the United States

The EPA's ambient air quality monitoring program is undertaken by State and local agencies and consists of three major categories of monitoring stations, State and Local Air Monitoring (SLAMS), National Air Monitoring Stations (NAMS), and Special Purpose Monitoring Stations (SPMS) that measure the criteria pollutants. In addition, a fourth category, the Photochemical Assessment Monitoring Stations (PAMS), which measures precursors (approximately 60 volatile hydrocarbons and carbonyl), has been required by the 1990 Amendments to the Clean Air Act (OAQPS 2002).

The SLAMS consist of a network of 4,000 monitoring stations whose size and

distribution is largely determined by the needs of State and local air pollution control agencies to meet their respective State Implementation Plan (SIP) requirements. The NAMS (1,080 stations) are a subset of the SLAMS network and focus on urban and multi-source areas. In effect, they are key sites under SLAMS, with emphasis on areas of maximum concentrations and high population density.

The SPMS provide for special studies needed by the State and local agencies to support State implementation plans and other air program activities. The SPMS are not permanently established and can be adjusted easily to accommodate changing needs and priorities (OAQPS 2002). The SPMS are used to supplement the fixed monitoring network as circumstances require and resources permit. If the data from SPMS are used for SIP purposes, they must meet all quality assurance and methodology requirements for SLAMS monitoring.

A PAMS network is required in each ozone nonattainment area that is designated serious, severe or extreme. The required networks will have from two to five sites, depending on the population of the area. There will be a phase-in period of one site per year starting in 1994. The ultimate PAMS network could exceed 90 sites at the end of the 5-year phase-in period (OAQPS 2002). F. Air Pollution Control Strategies in Europe

1. Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control Industrial production processes account for a considerable amount of the overall

pollution in Europe (e.g., greenhouse gases, acidifying substances, volatile organic compounds and waste). The 1996 European Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC) Directive 96/61/EC is aimed at minimizing pollution from various point sources throughout the EU. Its objective is to achieve integrated prevention and control of pollution arising from a range of industrial activities. All installations covered by Annex I of the Directive are required to obtain a permit from the authorities in the EU Member States in order to operate. The permits must be 'integrated' and must take into account the whole environmental performance of the plant, i.e., emissions to air, water and land, generation of waste, use of raw materials, energy efficiency, noise, prevention of accidents, risk management, etc. The permits must be based on the concept of Best Available Techniques (BAT). BAT may include quite radical environmental improvements, which may be costly for companies. The Directive grants these

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installations an 11-year long transition period from the day that the Directive entered into force (Gouldson and Murphy 1998). The IPPC Directive applied to all new installations from October 1999, as well as existing installations that intend to carry out changes that may have significant negative effects on human beings or the environment. As mentioned above, the Directive does not immediately apply to other existing installations.

2. Integrated Product Policy

All products have some environmental impact whether from their manufacturing, use or disposal. In order to improve the environmental performance of a broad range of products throughout their life cycle, the European Commission adopted a Green Paper on Integrated Product Policy (IPP) in 2001 (CEC 2001). The life cycle of a product is often long and complicated. It covers all the areas from the extraction of natural resources, through their design, manufacture, assembly, marketing, distribution, sale and use to their eventual disposal as waste. At the same time it also involves many different actors such as designers, industry, marketing people, retailers and consumers. IPP attempts to stimulate each part of these individual phases to improve their environmental performance.

The Green Paper proposed a strategy to strengthen and refocus product-related environmental policies to promote the development of a market for environmentally friendly products. The products of the future should use less resource, have lower impacts and risks to the environment, and prevent waste generation at the conception and design stage. The Paper had the objective of launching a debate on the role and possible measures that could be taken on at the EU level.

IPP seeks to minimize the environmental impact of products by examining all phases of a products' life cycle and taking action where it is most effective. IPP has three main goals based on fundamental economic principles:

First, to stimulate consumer demand for environmentally friendly products. This

can only be achieved through easily accessible, understandable, and credible information. The main instruments put forward in the Green Paper to achieve this are various types of eco-Iabelling. Public authorities can also take the lead and give an important kick-start to greener markets through public procurement.

Second, to stimulate business leadership in the supply of green products. Instruments put forward in this context include the generation and flow of life cycle information, eco-design guidelines, and the integration of environmental aspects into standardization. One new element proposed in the Green Paper is the creation of product panels comprising key stakeholders.

Third, to use the price mechanism to develop markets for greener products. Instruments here could include differentiated taxation, e.g., reduced value-added tax rates on eco-Iabelled products; an extension of the producer responsibility concept to new areas; and, the use of state aid policy within the New Guidelines on State Aid for Environmental Protection (CEC 2001).

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3. Integrated Transport

Growing concern about the environmental impact of transport, especially its contribution to urban air pollution, has resulted in the EU taking a number of policy initiatives. In 1990 the Green Paper on the Urban Environment identified the difficulties confronted by conurbations in Europe and suggested actions to improve urban public transport and implement traffic management schemes (EC 1990). The 1992 Fifth European Environmental Action Programme recognized that transport policy could no longer be demand-led due to environmental constraints (EC 1992a). The Programme suggested that the future efficacy and sustainability of transport policy would be in direct proportion to the quality of the relationship between transport and environment. The 1992 Green Paper on Sustainable Mobility (EC 1992b) provided a comprehensive assessment of the overall environmental impact of transport and presented a common strategy, which would enable transport to fulfill the EU's economic and social role while containing the environmental impact. The 1992 White Paper on the Future Development of the Common Transport Policy outlined a new policy for European transport based on sustainable mobility, recognizing that transport has to have an environmental and social dimension (EC 1992c). In 1993, the European Community (EC) adopted a Trans-European Networks strategy to ensure the creation of more efficient international rail, road, combined transport, waterborne and aviation links between what are now fragmented systems (Rohart 1998).

In 1995 the EC issued its first policy document on public passenger transport in the form of the Green Paper on Citizens’ Network (EC 1995a). The Green Paper outlined ways of making public passenger transport more attractive and usable. The EC has also examined price-based policies, which could ensure that the true social costs of transport are reflected in the price of transport (EC 1995b).

In June 1998 the EC published a communication on the integration of environment into the definition and implementation of all community policies and activities, including the transport sector, with a view to promoting sustainable development. At a European Council meeting in June 1998 EU ministers of transport and environment adopted a number of actions to reduce the environmental impact of transport.

The 2001 White Paper on European Transport Policy for 2010 (EC 2001b) proposes an action plan of approximately 60 measures focused on four main themes, which aims to stabilize the modal distributions at 1998 levels by 2010. (i) Shifting the balance between modes of transport (improving the quality of the

road sector, revitalizing rail, controlling air transport growth and adapting maritime and inland waterway transport systems, linking up transport modes);

(ii) Eliminating bottlenecks (developing the trans-European transport network); placing users at the heart of transport policy (improving road safety, fair and efficient pricing through infrastructure and charging and harmonization of fuel taxation);

(iii) Managing the globalization of transport (linking the future Member States to the trans-European transport network).

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4. National Emissions Ceilings Directive

The EU National Emissions Ceilings (NEC) Directive 2001/81/EC sets national emission ceilings for pollutants which cause acidification and eutrophication and for O3 precursors in order to provide greater protection for the environment and human health. This Directive is part of the follow-up to the Commission's Acidification Strategy (EC1997), which sought to establish, for the first time, national emission ceilings for S02,NO, VOCs, NH3 which are responsible for acidification, eutrophication, and troposphere ozone formation. To reduce acidification the NEC Directive establishes national emission ceilings for each of the pollutants to achieve an interim target of "50% gap closure" by the year 2010, i.e., to close the gap between the 1990 situation and the critical load by 50%. With regard to health-related ground level O3 exposure, the O3 load above the critical level for human health (AOT 60=0) shall be reduced by two thirds compared with the 1990 situation. The guidelines set by WHO may not be exceeded more than 20 days a year. It is largely up to the Member States to decide which measures to take in order to comply (EC 1999b).

Member States must prepare and annually update national emission inventories and emission projections for SO2, NOx, VOCs, and NH3. These inventories and projections must be reported to the Commission and the European Environment Agency by 31 December each year.

Parallel to the EU NEC proposal, the EU Member States together with Central and Eastern Europe countries, the US and Canada have negotiated the new "multi-pollutant" protocol under the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution. The emission ceilings in the protocol are less ambitious than those proposed by the Commission.

The EU institutions are still discussing the NEC proposal. EU Environment Ministers reached a Common Position in June 2000, endorsing the environmental objectives proposed by the Commission. They reached agreement on emission ceilings which go beyond those agreed in Gothenburg, but which fall short of those proposed by the Commission. However, the Common Position provides for review in 2004 and 2008 with a view to making up the shortfall.

5. CAFÉ Programme

In order to develop a comprehensive, integrated and coherent framework for all EU air legislation and related policy initiatives the European Commission published a communication on the Clean Air For Europe (CAFE) Programme in 2001. The main elements of the Programme are: (i) to develop, collect and validate scientific information on the effects of air pollution

(including validation of emission inventories, air quality assessment, projections, cost-effectiveness studies and integrated assessment modeling);

(ii) to support the implementation and review the effectiveness of existing legislation and to develop new proposals as and when necessary;

(iii) to ensure that the requisite measures are taken at the relevant level, and to develop structural links with the relevant policy areas;

(iv) to determine an integrated strategy (by 2004 at the latest) to include appropriate objectives and cost-effective measures. The objectives of the first Programme

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phase are: particulate matter, tropospheric °3' acidification, eutrophication and damage to cultural heritage; and

(v) to disseminate to the general public the information arising from the Programme (EC 2001 a).

G. Air Pollution Control Strategies in the United States

1. The Clean Air Act

The Clean Air Act provides the principal framework for air quality management in the US. In 1990, the US Congress enacted a series of amendments to the Clean Air Act to increase air pollution control efforts. Changes to the Act included provisions to (i) Classify nonattainment areas according to the extent to which they exceed the

standard, tailoring deadlines, planning, and controls to each area's status; (ii) Tighten auto emission standards and require reformulated and alternative fuels in

the most polluted areas; (iii) Revise the air toxics section, establishing a new program of technology-based

standards and addressing the problem of sudden, catastrophic releases of toxics; (iv) Establish an acid rain control program, with a marketable allowance scheme to

provide flexibility in implementation; (v) Require a state-run permit program for the operation of major sources of air

pollutants; (vi) Implement the Montreal Protocol to phase out most ozone-depleting chemicals;

and (vii) Update the enforcement provisions so that they parallel those in other pollution

control acts, including authority for EPA to assess administrative penalties (CRS, 1999).

2. Clean Skies Act 2002

The 2002 Clean Sky Act amended Title IV of the US Clean Air Act to establish

new cap and trade programs requiring reductions of S02, NOx and mercury from electricity generation facilities.

On 14 February 2002, President Bush announced the Clear Skies Initiative which sets strict, mandatory emissions caps for S02, NOx, and mercury. The initiative will cut power plant emissions of these pollutants by 70%, eliminating an estimated 35 million more tons of these pollutants in the next decade than the current Clean Air Act (EPA, 2002).

In 2020, Clear Skies is expected to deliver US$96 billion per year in health and visibility benefits, including preventing 12,000 premature deaths. Additional health benefits in 2020 include 10,500 fewer hospitalizations or emergency rooms visits per year and 13.5 million fewer days when Americans suffer from minor respiratory symptoms, including days out of work, missed classroom days, restricted activity days and days with asthma attacks. Under an alternative estimate, Clear Skies would deliver US$11 billion in benefits, including 7,000 avoided premature deaths annually in 2020 (EPA, 2002).

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Clear Skies is modeled on America's most effective clean air program, the 1990 Clean Air Act's acid rain program. By using this proven, market-based approach, Clear Skies will dramatically reduce air pollution from power plants quickly and cost-effectively, keeping electricity prices affordable. Because of the nature of "cap-and-trade" programs, establishing a cap in 2010 will cause emissions reductions immediately, as companies act quickly to generate credits needed to meet the 2010 cap. Under the Acid Rain Programme, emissions reductions began immediately, and exceeded the required level of reductions by approximately 25%.

Clear Skies will ensure that environmental goals are achieved and sustained over the long term, even while energy use increases. The Clear Skies Programme aims to (EPA, 2002): (i) Cut S02 emissions from power plants by 73% from current emissions of 11 million

tons to a cap of 4.5 million tons in 2010, and 3 million tons in 2018. (ii) Cut emissions of NOx from power plants by 67% from current emissions of 5

million tons to a cap of 2.1 million tons in 2008, and to 1.7 million tons in 2018. (iii) Cut mercury emissions from power plants by 69%, establishing the first-ever

national cap on mercury emissions. Emissions will be cut from current emissions of 48 tons to a cap of 26 tons in 2010, and 15 tons in 2018.

(iv) Emission caps will be set to account for different air quality needs in the east and the west.

3. State Implementation Plans

While the Act authorizes EPA to set the National Ambient Air Quality Standards

(NAAQS), the states are responsible for establishing procedures to attain and maintain the standards. Under Section 110 of the Act, the states are required to adopt plans, known as state implementation plans (SIPs), and submit them to EPA to ensure that they are adequate to meet statutory requirements.

SIPs are based on emission inventories and computer models to determine whether air quality violations will occur. If these data show that standards would be exceeded, the state imposes additional controls on existing sources to ensure that emissions do not cause "exceedences" of the standards. Proposed new and modified sources must obtain state construction permits in which the applicant shows how the anticipated emissions will not exceed allowable limits. In nonattainment areas, emissions from new or modified sources must also be offset by reductions in emissions from existing sources.

The 1990 amendments require EPA to impose sanctions in areas which fail to submit a SIP, fail to submit an adequate SIP, or fail to implement a SIP: unless the state corrects such failures, a 2-to-1 emissions offset for the construction of new polluting sources is imposed 18 months after notification to the state, and a ban on most federal highway grants is imposed 6 months later. An additional ban on air quality grants is discretionary. Ultimately, a Federal Implementation Plan may be imposed if the state fails to submit or implement an adequate SIP (CRS, 1999).

The nonattainment areas are grouped into classifications based on the extent to which the NAAQS is exceeded, and establish specific pollution controls and attainment dates for each classification. The most extensive requirements apply to areas failing to

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attain the 1-hour ozone standard of 0.12 ppm. The nonattainment classifications for ozone is based on five classes and are based on a design value, which is derived from the pollutant concentration recorded by air quality monitoring equipment. For O3 non-attainment areas the deadline stretches from 1993 to 2010, depending the severity of the problem. H. Local Air Quality Management

Local air quality management is now considered the most effective way to address urban air pollution problems. Local air quality management has been defined as the application of a systematic approach to the control of air quality issues in which all factor determining air quality issues in which all factors determining air quality are considered in an integrated way (Longhurst et al., 1996). City authorities have a wide experience of air quality issues and therefore are in a good position to take action to develop local air quality strategies in cooperation with all stakeholders.

Eurocities (1996), an association of European metropolitan cities, undertook a review of good practice in European urban air quality management (UAQM) in six European cities: Bologna (Italy); Bratislava (Slovakia); Delft (Netherlands); Helsinki (Finland); Lisbon (Portugal); and Sheffield (UK). The six countries examined national and European legislation to improve urban air quality. However, this was in addition to a variety of initiatives such as Local Agenda 21, urban CO2 reduction, public transport provision and public awareness campaigns. Local authorities have a wide experience of air quality issues and are uniquely positioned to involve a variety of players in air quality management issues. In the national urban air quality management (UAQM) strategies of Finland, Italy, The Netherlands, Slovakia and the UK the local authority plays a key role in air quality management. The reciprocal nature of local authority action and government legislation has meant that national strategies are generally accepted. However, there are still key areas where the capacity of city authorities to take initiatives is limited, e.g., speed limits on major highways (Eurocities, 1996).

All six European cities recognized road traffic emissions as being the single most important and complex issue for air quality management to address. The range of measures to combat car ownership and use should be integrated within the principles of local Agenda 21. The UAQM study recommends that local Agenda 21 should be a common thread which runs through all the measures that aim to reduce vehicle emissions. A long-term commitment to public transport, with adequate investment, is important for the cities of the future.

All the cities involved in the study believe that simply supplying air quality measurements to the public is no longer sufficient or acceptable. Information on air quality should be used to instigate awareness and education campaigns. These can play a major role in changing stakeholders’ perceptions of air quality and encouraging them to contribute to, and be involved in, improving air quality. The UAQM study concluded that there is:

“…a need for a flow of information on air quality management between cities and countries, so that a unified approach to meeting the needs of the Air Quality Framework Directive can be achieved. Examples have been cited which outline the need for coordination and coordination within agencies. One of the main aspects of successful air quality management will be inter and intra cooperation. Once this has been achieved, a

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coherent planning stage can be instigated. A planning stage, which is clear and accessible to those outside the local authority, must be produced. This in turn will be the basis for the essential next step─involving the wider community in air quality management.”

The UAQM study was followed by the Air Action project entitled “Achieving Change Locally,” the final report of the study was published in June 2000 (Eurocities, 2000). The aim of the study was to develop local air quality action plan in collaboration with business partners with an emphasis on land use and transport issues. The study examined the action plan undertaken in Bratislava (Slovakia), Helsinki (Finland) and Sheffield (UK) and concluded that the road transport culture is the prime cause of poor air quality in all three countries. It recommended that the inappropriate use of motor vehicles should be tackled by city authorities working together with other cities and countries to develop affordable, attractive and accessible alternatives to the private car. Decisions on appropriate use of transport should be made at the local level in consultation with a wide range of stakeholders. The policies of transportation, land use, planning, economic regeneration, and air quality must be integrated to ensure that separate policies and actions are working in harmony in achieving common goals.

I. Learning From Other City Experiences

A number of megacities and large conurbations throughout the world have adopted similar measures to those used in Europe and North America as well as developing their own unique methods to deal with air quality management and the causes of poor air quality such as transport. Curitiba in Brazil is a city of approximately 1.6 million residents, which has grown fourfold in the last 30 years. Unlike many large conurbations throughout the world, Curitiba has not suffered the poor quality of life associated with growth in motor vehicle use. Instead, it has developed a public transport system that provides residents with access to jobs, homes, recreation and other elements of the urban community by implementing small improvements guided by a long-term transport plan. Public transport in Curitiba now provides a high quality service at a low cost with reduced travel time. Curitiba's buses attract more passengers per operating kilometer than in any other Brazilian city. The result has been less traffic congestion, reduced pollutant emissions and substantial fuel savings of approximately 27 million liters of fuel per year (Rabinovitch and Hoehn, 1995).

The city of Bogota in Colombia is a fast growing city of approximately 7 million people and is considered to be the fifth most polluted city in Latin America after Mexico City, Santiago, Sao Paulo and Rio de Janeiro. The cause of poor air quality is increasing motor vehicle use. However, Bogota is just one country that has adopted similar measures used in Europe to develop a new model to deal with transport and mobility, with the aim to create a highly participatory process and a genuinely sustainable transportation system, which serves the multiple objectives of economic viability, quality of life, environmental integrity and social justice. The city decided that the transportation system of Bogota should be for people rather than cars and to achieve this goal the city authority has developed a program to take away street and other urban space consistently and strategically from private cars and to transfer it to better and more productive uses. The program includes the following measures: (i) Parking control and constraint; (ii) Successful even/odd number plate car restraint days;

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(iii) Traffic calming measures and pedestrian areas; (iv) Construction of more than 200 km of bicycle paths; (v) Provision of high capacity fine mesh network for public transport offering high

speed service over the metropolitan region; (vi) Renewal of public transport fleet to reduce noise and air pollutant emissions; and (vii) A car-free day.

On 24 March 2000 Bogota held a Car-Free Day similar to those held in European

cities of Amsterdam and Bologna. The day required 1 month of planning, consultation, preparations and media campaigns under the direction of the office of the Mayor of Bogota, with the cooperation of concerned local, regional and national organizations. Between 6:30 am and 7:30 pm an estimated 800,000 private cars stayed at home which had a number of benefits for the city. On that day people moved around by a combination of walking, skating, running, cycling and other two-wheel transport and public transport, including 55,000 taxis and approximately 25,000 small buses. More than 250 km of special paths were reserved for bicycle use on the day. The Car-Free Day resulted in a reduction in: (i) traffic accidents: with only 27 accidents being reported compared to a daily

average of 100; (ii) traffic deaths: with no deaths occurring compared to a daily average of 2-3

deaths caused by road traffic accidents; (iii) traffic injuries: 28 reported injuries of which 8 were slight accidents involving

cyclists compared to an average day of 70-80; and (iv) vehicular emission: with a 20-30% decrease in vehicle exhaust emissions. There

was an 8% reduction in NO emissions, a 22% reduction in CO, and a 21% reduction in PM.

J. Learning from Europe and North America

European and North American countries have achieved significant improvements in urban air quality over the past 4 decades. The main factors which have influenced the improvement of urban air quality have been due to inter alia, the following factors: (i) Enactment and enforcement of international, regional, national and local

emission and air quality regulations, e.g., EU Air Quality Framework Directives, UN/ECE Long-range Transport of Air Pollution Convention and the North American Ozone Annex;

(ii) Structural changes in the economy, for example, a decline in heavy industry and a move to a service sector economy which is less polluting;

(iii) Technological advances, which have increased energy efficiency and for reduced pollutant emissions, have begun to decouple energy use and economic growth, e.g., catalytic converters, flue gas desulphurization units;

(iv) Increased defensive expenditure, which represent the costs of positive action to protect society from some or all of the impacts of economic growth;

(v) As the economic growth has increased so have the levels of investment in air pollution control and abatement.

The general approach to improving urban air quality is to control the emissions

from the main polluting sectors. For the transport sector this has included measures to

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reduce motor vehicles emissions, improve fuel quality, transport and traffic management to control travel demand and reduce the need to travel.

For the industrial sector, integrated pollution control has required that all emissions from the industrial plants to air, water and land must be considered together. The overall environmental performance must be taken into account including issues such as the generation" of waste, use of raw materials, energy efficiency, noise, prevention of accidents, risk management, etc. Pollution Permits are based on the concept of Best Available Technique, which in some cases may mean quite radical and costly environmental improvements.

The European Commission has identified seven key issues, which it recommends that existing and prospective Member States of the EU should implement in order to improve urban air quality. These key issues address action to be taken at both the national and local level and are applicable to other countries outside Europe that need to address the problem of deteriorating urban air quality (EC, 2000): (i) Air quality management and regulation should be effectively integrated with that

of other environmental sectors (e.g., water, noise and waste), preferably throughout a single environmental protection agency and a single legal instrument;

(ii) Quality assured assessment of ambient air quality should be undertaken before formulating a strategy for air quality improvements, compiling an inventory of emissions and mapping emissions;

(iii) A comprehensive air quality management strategy should be drawn up to improve and maintain air quality, addressing all issues of concern and focusing on issues of immediate concern in terms of complying with air quality criteria;

(iv) Arrangements should be put in place for effective public participation and the involvement of interest a significant role or function to perform in relation to air quality management;

(v) Adequate provision should be made for monitoring, regulation and enforcement of legislation, regulations, permits and licenses. In particular, sufficient human and technical resources need to be allocated to enable all functions to be properly performed;

(vi) Record keeping and reporting should be performed to meet the requirements of air quality standards and guidelines and to inform the public; and

(vii) Air quality management plans should be regularly reviewed and updated to ensure that they remain relevant to the key issues of concern.

The use of air quality management areas and zoning of industrial sectors is just

one way to address poor air quality hotspots and to develop appropriate action which requires the integration of policies on transport, land use and industrial location. Although it is too early to determine the success of these zones in improving air quality, it does provide a more focused approach in addressing particular air quality problems and bringing about the associated health benefits for certain parts of the city.

Air quality information should be used not only for reporting but to educate and encourage a range of different stakeholders to participate and engage in air quality management initiatives.

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Road transport continues to pose the greatest threat to achieving and maintaining good urban air quality. In cities that have a poorly maintained vehicle stock and less stringent emission standards, pollution from motor vehicles is a significant threat to human health. A wide range of measures can be taken by city authorities to reduce the use of the motor vehicle and encourage the use of less polluting modes of transport, which result in improvements in air quality. The integration of public transport and land use is important in reducing the need for travel. Measures such as travel plans have been used to encourage private and public employers to take responsibility for the way their employees travel to work.

A number of European networks have been established to address a range of issues related to the city. These networks aim to foster a spirit of cooperation and exchange of information and best practice between cities which are addressing similar issues in urban air quality management, but which have different economic political and cultural backgrounds. K. Air Quality Enforcement and Control Strategies in Some Asian Cities

1. Bangkok

Both the Central Thai Government and the Bangkok Metropolitan Administration (BMA) have developed a clear policy to improve air quality. A high priority has been placed on improving air quality and the Government’s general policy on air pollution is to keep air quality in attainment areas within ambient air quality standards. The setting of ambient air quality standards is predominantly the responsibility of the national government. The main role of the local government in air quality management is in enforcement of existing policies through inspection and public awareness. BMA declared 1999 as the Air Pollution Mitigation Year and implemented the following 13 measures: (i) Providing free car engine tune-up service stations for the public; (ii) Publishing car engine maintenance manuals for public distribution; (iii) Setting up black smoke inspection points in 50 districts jointly with the traffic

police; (iv) Setting up six mobile black-smoke inspection units in six areas; (v) Setting up motorcycle white smoke and noise level inspection units in the inner

area of Bangkok; (vi) Reporting about Air Pollution Control Department through the display boards and

air quality reports to promote pollution-free streets; (vii) Designating pollution-free streets, which prohibited single occupant-vehicles;

Originally, there were three streets, later increased to eight streets; (viii) Paving road shoulders to reduce dust; (ix) Enforcing windscreens for buildings, which were under construction; (x) Putting up campaign boards to inform the public on various measures being

implemented; (xi) Designating car-free streets to reduce air pollution; and (xii) Improving fuel quality by joint efforts to reduce air pollution.

2. Beijing

The State Environmental Protection Administration (SEPA) regulates stationary sources as well as ambient air quality, and some regulations on mobile sources. It has

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primary policymaking power as well as regulatory enforcement power. In line with the objectives of SEPA, the Beijing Municipal Government has made concrete plans to abate air pollution, mainly by regulating mobile sources of pollution. The main aim of the Beijing Environmental Protection Bureau (EPB) for abating air pollutants is based on the following objectives. (i) To change energy production and consumption levels and control pollutants from

coal; (ii) To prevent and control vehicle emissions; (iii) To reduce dust pollutants (airborne particulate matter); and (iv) To control industrial pollutants.

Beijing has more air quality management capacity than other cities in the People’s Republic of China (PRC). Information on air quality in Beijing is more accessible than in other cities that were surveyed. Beijing’s environmental expenditure in 1999 was 4.5% of the city’s gross domestic product and 4.5 times the national average.

3. Busan

Each local government has the authority to municipal ordinances for environmental quality standards taking into consideration the characteristics of the region under its jurisdiction. A combination of strategies and legislation by the Busan Metropolitan Government and the Ministry of Environment has produced some effective measures for the preservation of air quality in Busan. The city of Busan has been taking various measures to reduce air pollution: expansion of clean fuel supply, mandatory installation of catalytic converters, implementation of SO2 control measures, and the operation of environment vigilante. As a result, the concentrations of air pollutants in Busan in 2000 were much lower.

Busan plans to build on its existing air quality measures through stricter air improvement targets. The Air Quality Management Plan of Busan for the new Millennium was established in 2002 and it contains many countermeasures to reduce the emissions of NOx, VOCs and PM10. The Busan Metropolitan Government is currently considering the following plans in order to improve its air quality. (i) Increasing the number of compressed natural gas (CNG) buses on the road to

1800 by 2010. (ii) Enlarging the current subway system and other modes of public transport. (iii) Establishing telemetry monitoring systems (TMS) in larger emission monitoring

stations. (iv) Consolidating countermeasures of reduce O3 by: introducing efforts to reduce

emissions of O3 precursors (such as NOx, VOCs); raising public awareness about the harms of O3 and encouraging their participation in anti-ozone campaigns; providing education to 730 factories which emit unacceptable amounts of VOCs including gas stations, laundries, oil reservoirs, printing houses etc.; developing of new model for an O3 forecasting system; and establishing of measuring stations for photochemical pollutants with a total of 3 stations by 2003.

(v) Increasing the use of clean (environmentally friendly) fuels: reducing the sulphur content of heavy oils from 0.5% to 0.3% from July 2001; ensuring stricter management of factories that emit large volume of air pollutants and use petroleum. Conversion of factories currently using heavy oils and diesel fuels to

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the use of clean fuels such as LNG; supporting the switching of small town buses and garbage trucks from using diesel fuel to LPG; and implementing a study on Gashol (mixed fuel: gasoline 90% and alcohol 10%).

(vi) Introducing fugitive dust reduction measures: reducing PM levels by 10% by 2002 (below 56 µg/m3); introducing stricter tests for emissions from diesel vehicles; installing vacuum-cleaning vehicles in each district; stricter control of factories that emit large volumes for air pollutants and suspended particulate matter; establishing re-afforestation projects at deforested sites; and establishing sprinkler systems in school.

(vii) Enforcing stricter vehicle emission inspections: giving priority to smoke emission-emitting heavy-duty vehicles like buses; giving free vehicle emission tests and distributing public information about the impact from vehicle emissions; and issuing local ordinance on idling vehicles.

4. Hong Kong, China

The Hong Kong Environmental Protection Department (EPD) Air Division

administers most of Hong Kong, China’s air quality management under the Air Pollution Control Ordinance.

EPD has successfully used the following procedure to address some of Hong Kong, China’s air pollution problems: conduct air quality tests to find out the actual source of the air pollution problem; inform the public to obtain their support; form policies to tackle each problem; continue monitoring to evaluate the results and effectiveness of the measures; and revise policies if necessary.

With this system, Hong Kong, China’s has introduced the following legislation and control programs to deal with specific air pollution problems in Hong Kong, China.

a. Control of Emissions from Stationary Sources (i) Licensing control of major air polluting activities which are called specified

processes (31 manufacturing processes which include power stations, petrochemical works, cement plants and incinerators);

(ii) Control on the installation and modification design of furnaces, ovens and chimneys;

(iii) Improved smoke emission standards; (iv) Introduction of cleaner industrial fuel with lower sulphur content; (v) Prohibition of open burning of construction waste, tires, cable and wire; and (vi) Control of dust emissions from construction activities.

b. Control of Emissions from Motor Vehicles

The Hong Kong, China’s Government has adopted an integrated motor vehicle emission control strategy, which has five major elements; (i) Clean alternatives to diesel vehicles, (ii) Stringent vehicle emission and fuel standards, (iii) Strengthened emission inspection, (iv) Strengthened enforcement against smokey vehicles, and (v) Education and publicity.

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5. Jakarta

Jakarta has carried out several efforts to improve the air quality. Prodasih is a

recent program that is aimed at improving the air quality of Jakarta. The program includes controlling and checking the road worthiness of motor vehicles including vehicle emissions and managing traffic to reduce traffic congestion, promoting the use of clean fuel including gas fuel, controlling industrial emissions managing land use development and expanding the green space in the city.

With regard to the Blue Sky Programme implemented by the Ministry of Environment in Jakarta, there are 20 industries under strict control. These industries are steel melting (7), power plant (3), glass melting (4) and textile (6). All the industries have signed an agreement with the Government of Jakarta that they will meet air emission standards by the end of 2004.

In 1986, the Local Government of Jakarta introduced an inspection and maintenance (I&M) program, which was legalized by the Governor Decree Number 95 in the year 2000.

A publicity campaign has been used to encourage people awareness and increase public participation on the Clean Air Programme. The activities are emission test for private cars under the I&M program and dissemination information through all media.

6. Seoul

A combination of strategies and legislation by the Seoul Metropolitan Government and MOE has produced some effective measures for the preservation of air quality in Seoul. The city of Seoul has been taking various measures to reduce air pollution: expansion of clean fuel supply, mandatory installation of car exhaust filtration devices, implementation of SO2 control measures and the operation of environment vigilante.

In order to raise awareness of air pollution in Seoul, MOE launched the “Ozone Alert System” in July 1995 to alert the public when the concentration of O3 exceeds specific standards so that the damage to human health and living environment may be minimized. Furthermore, since high SO2, levels are a problem, and fuel combustion in factories, households, motor vehicles and power plants account for the most part of all SO2 emissions; MOE has implemented the following: expansion of the low- sulphur oil supply, obligatory use of clean burning fuels, expansion of district heating systems, and regulation of solid fuel (coal) consumption.

The Seoul Metropolitan Government and the national Government have also tried to regulate the large number of construction sites to reduce fugitive dust emissions. The improvement in Seoul’s air in the past few years is also a result of the replacement of coal by cleaner fuels, such as liquefied natural gas (LNG) and low sulphur fuels, for individual household heating and various types of commercial energy consumption. These efforts were particularly effective in reducing the wintertime air pollution, so that over 70% reductions in the wintertime concentration of SO2 and TSP have been achieved during the last decade.

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The Air Quality Management Plan of Seoul for the new Millennium includes a

NOx reduction target of 10%, further reductions in SO2, fugitive dust emission reductions and other air quality management plans. L. Conclusion

A number of measures from the recent experience of air quality management in Europe and North America have been identified in this chapter, which could be adapted to suit the needs of other countries throughout the world and the large conurbations and mega cities in Asia where similar problems of poor air quality are being experienced. Measures taken in Europe and North America to improve air quality have included air quality zones in certain parts of the city, regular monitoring of air quality and the provision of information to the public on air quality as well as specific measures directed at the control and use of motor vehicles. Lessons in urban air quality management can be learnt not only from the European and North American experience but also from other mega cities, which are also pioneering new ways and policies to improve air quality and to address its causes.

REFERENCES 1. CEC (2001) Green Paper of Integrated Product Policy Commission of the

European Communities. COM (2001) 68 final, 07.02.2001. 2. Euro Airnet (2002) see http://www.nilu.no/niluweb/services/euroairnet/ 3. EPA (2002) Clear Skies Legislation Introduced In Congress Proposal will

Improve Air Quality, Prevent Premature Deaths, Illnesses. Press Release, 29 July 2002 Washington, D. C., USA see http:// www.epa.gov/epahome/headline_072901.htm

4. CEC (1996) Council Directive 96/2/EC of 27 September 1996 on ambient air quality assessment and management.

5. CEC (200I) Green Paper of Integrated Product Policy. 6. CRS (1999) Summaries of Environmental Laws Administered by the EPA.

Congressional Research Service Report RL30022 7. see http:// www.cnic.org/nle/ersreports/briefingbooks/laws/d.cfm 8. EC (1990) Green Paper on the Urban Environment. COM(90) 218 final.

European Commission, Brussels, Belgium. 9. EC (1992a) Towards Sustainability: A European Community Programme of

Policy and Action in Relation to Environment and Sustainable Development. European Commission, COM (92) 23 Final, Vol. II, Brussels Belgium.

10. EC (1992b) Green Paper on Transport and the Environment. European Commission, COM (92) 46 final, 20 February 1992. CEC, Brussels.

11. EC (1992c) The Future Development of the Common Transport Policy. European Commission, COM (92) 494. 2 December 1992. CEC Brussels.

12. EC (1995a) The Citizen's Network: Fulfilling the Potential of Public Passenger Transport in Europe. European Commission, Brussels, Belgium.

13. EC (1995b ) Towards a Fair and Efficient Pricing in Transport. COM (95) 691. European Commission. Brussels, Belgium.

14. EC (1997) Community Strategy to combat acidification. European Commission, COM (97) 88, Brussels, Belgium.

15. EC (l999a) EU Focus on Air. European Commission, DG Environment, Brussels, Belgium.

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16. EEA (2001) Environmental Signals 2001. European Environmental Agency, Copenhagen, Denmark.

17. EC (I 999b) Proposal for a Directive setting national emission ceilings for certain atmospheric pollutants and for a Daughter Directive relating to ozone in ambient air. European Commission, COM (99)125, Brussels, Belgium.

18. EC (2000) Handbook on the Implementation of EC Environmental Legislation: Air Quality. European Commission. Brussels, Belgium.

19. EC (200Ia) Communication from the Commission: The Clean Air For Europe (CAFE Programme: Towards a Thematic Strategy for Air Quality. EC, COM (200 I) 245 final. 04.05.2001. Brussels, Belgium.

20. EC (200 I b) White Paper European Transport Policy for 2010: Time to decide. EC, COM (2001) 370. Brussels, Belgium.

21. EEA (1998) Europe's Environment: The Second Assessment. European Environmental Agency. Copenhagen, Denmark.

22. EEA (1999) Criteria for EUROA'ET: The EEA Air Quality Monitoring and Information Network. Technical Report 12. European Environmental Agency, Copenhagen, Denmark.

23. Gouldson, A. and J. Murphy (1998) Regulatory Realities: The implementation and impact of industrial environmental regulation, Earthscan, London.

24. Jackson, T. (1996) Material Concerns: Pollution, Profit and Quality of Life.

Routledge, London. 25. OAQPS (2002) see: http://Epa.gov/oar/oaqps/qa/index. Html# mission 26. RCEP (1998) Setting Environmental Standards. Royal Commission on

Environmental Pollution. The Stationary Office, London. 27. Rabinovitch, J. and J. Hoehn (1995) A Sustainable Urban Transportation

System: The Surface Metro in Curitiba, Brazil. Working Paper No. 19, UNDP, New York, USA.

28. Vogel, D. (1986) National Styles of Regulation: Environmental Policy in Great Britain and the United States. Cornell University Press, Ithaca.

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III. STRATEGIC NEED FOR N INTEGRATED AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM IN INDIA

A. Introduction

The goal of air quality management is to maintain a quality of air that protects human health and welfare. This goal recognizes that air quality must be maintained at levels that protect human health, but must also provide protection of animals, plants (crops, forests and natural vegetation), ecosystems, materials and aesthetics, such as natural levels of visibility. And to achieve this air quality goal, it is necessary to develop policies and strategies in an integrated manner. An integrated air quality management system is depicted in Figure 1 which is a key to air pollution and health-related problems.

Figure 1: Key to Air Quality Management System

B. Components of an Integrated Air Quality Management System An integrated air quality management system needs to be developed in India for

to improve air quality successfully. Action needs to be taken in the following components of an integrated air quality management system.

AIR QUALITY AND HEALTH

IMPROVEMENT

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(i) Strengthening of institutional mechanism (ii) Assessment of air quality

Monitoring Emission inventory Source apportionment Air pollution exposure and damage

(iii) Evaluation of control strategies (iv) Developing and implementing air quality management plan

1. Strengthening of Institutional Mechanism

The existing institutional mechanism needs to be strengthened with manpower and infrastructure to implement an air quality management strategy. The following actions need to be done.

a. Constitution of Air Quality Management Cell

At present there is no separate air quality management cell existing within state

pollution control boards. A separate cell with adequate manpower and infrastructure needs to be constituted by SPCBs. The cell will be responsible for coordination with various agencies on air quality management issues.

b. Identification of Separate Coordinators from Various State

Departments

Coordinators from different state and Central departments like Municipal Corporation, Department of Environment, Development Authority, Traffic Police, state-level coordinator of oil company, Automobile Manufacturers Association, CPCB, MoEF, etc. have to be identified for regular interaction among them for exchange of data related to the air quality management system.

c. Constitution of Working Groups/Interministerial Task Force

Preparation of an effective air quality management strategy for air pollution control primarily demands for constitution of a working group for the preparation of the same. SPCBs or state departments of environment should hold the responsibility of constituting working group. The working group may include representatives from CPCB, SPCB, MoPNG, SIAM, MoRTH, development authorities, city planners, state environment and transport department, local agencies, individuals from education and research institutions concerned in the field of air quality management, pollution control, air modeling, environmental economics, etc. The working group may also include representatives from the public forum as public participation is the best policy for effective implementation of any work plan. NGOs working in the same field may also join hands in the constitution of the working group.

The working group will be required to develop a work strategy for air quality

management at the local level by referring to successful air quality management strategies and practices at the international and national levels. Thus the most essential step towards air quality management involves development of a working plan, which will provide directional aid towards reaching the goal of developing action plan for the control of air pollution. The most important steps in the development of working strategy for

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development of air quality management system are presented in Table 1. These steps should be taken into consideration while developing a work plan for air quality management at local level.

Table 1: Steps in Developing an Air Quality Management System

Step-1: Assessment and Analysis Options A. Assessment

1. Identifying sources, 2. Quantifying sources, 3. Monitoring air pollution, 4. Assessing the exposure conditions, 5. Identifying the source-exposure relationship, 6. Estimating relative importance of pollution sources, and 7. Assessing the environmental damage.

B. Analysis of Options 1. Investigating short-/long-term control options 2. Performing cost-benefit/cost-effectiveness analysis, and 3. Developing a control strategy and investment plan.

Step-2: Air Pollution Control

A. Developing institutions/regulations/enforcement mechanisms, B. Raising awareness and environmental education, and C. Implementing an investment plan.

Step-3: Surveillance

Establishing an air quality Information system

d. Allocation of Separate Funds for Institutional Mechanism

There should be separate funds allocated for strengthening of institutional mechanism. The arrangement the funds can be made available from State government/Central Government or through external funding agencies. The funds can also be generated through imposition of new taxation system like green tax or air pollution tax.

e. Action Points for Strengthening of Institutional Mechanism

(i) A separate air quality management cell (AQMC) shall be constituted within CPCB and SPCBs. (ii) Separate coordinators from different departments like Municipal Corporation, State Department of Environment, Traffic Police, Development Authorities, etc. associated with the air quality management system should be identified. (iii) There should be regular interaction among state and Central departments concerned. (iv) The interministerial task force/working groups under the chairmanship of secretary, State Department of Environment should be constituted assigning proper terms of references. (v) Adequate budget for implementation of an AQM system should be allocated from the State and Central funds or through external funding agencies.

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C. Assessment of Air Quality

Air quality assessment is a very essential component of air quality management system. Assessment of the air quality helps in evaluating impacts of existing activities as well as efficiency of control measures taken so far. The air quality assessment program needs the following broad categories of data: (i) ambient air quality monitoring data from representative sites, for all key pollutants for relevant averaging times; emission inventory data; source apportionment data; and health impact data.

1. Ambient Air Quality Monitoring

Air quality monitoring is the measurement of various pollutants to study the pattern and movement of air masses and deterioration of air quality. Monitoring helps in estimating the dynamic concentration levels of various pollutants from time to time, based on the dispersal model of the original concentration at sources and at receptor end.

The ultimate purpose of monitoring is not merely to collect data, but to provide

the information necessary for scientists, policy makers and planners to make informed decisions on managing and improving the environment. Monitoring fulfils a central role in this process, providing the necessary and sound scientific basis for policy and strategy development, objective setting, compliance measurement against targets and enforcement action. Guidelines for ambient air quality monitoring have been prepared by CPCB. Some of the components of the guidelines are described in the following sections.

a. Monitoring Objectives

The first step in designing or implementing any monitoring program is to define its overall objectives. Setting diffuse, overly restrictive or ambitious monitoring objectives will result in a cost-ineffective program with poor air quality data. In such circumstances, it will not be possible to make optimal use of the available manpower and resources. Thus, it is vital that clear, realistic and achievable monitoring objectives be set. The key monitoring objectives of the monitoring are as follows: (i) Determining population exposure and health impact assessment (ii) Informing the public about the air quality and raising awareness (iii) Identifying threats to natural ecosystem (iv) Determining compliance with national and international standards (v) Providing objective inputs to air quality management, traffic and land-use

planning (vi) Source apportionment and identification (vii) Policy development and prioritization of management actions (viii) Development/validation of management tools (Models, GIS system, etc.) (ix) Assessing point or area source impacts (x) Trend qualification, to identify future problems or progress against

management/control targets

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b. Components of Monitoring

The following parameters need to be decided for carrying out ambient air quality

monitoring:

i. Number and Distribution of Monitoring Locations

Knowledge of existing air pollutant levels and patterns within the area are essential for deciding the number and distribution of stations. Isopleths distribution of ambient concentrations determined from modeling or previous air quality information can be used to determine number and distribution of stations. When isopleths maps are not available, information on emission densities and land use pattern may be used with wind rose data to determine areas of expected higher concentrations. The number of monitoring stations in a city can be selected based on background information collected on sources and emissions, population figures which can be used as indicators of region variability of the pollutant concentration. The number of sampling sites depends on: (i) Size of the area to be covered (ii) The variability of pollutant concentration over the area to be covered (iii) The data requirements, which are related to the monitoring (iv) Pollutant to be monitored (v) Population figures which can be used as indicators of criticality both from the

view of likely air quality deterioration as also health implications. A general guide to the number of minimum stations and its distribution needed

for monitoring trends of the common pollutants in urban areas based on population consideration is recommended in the Table 2 as per IS 5182, Part 14, 2000. These criteria is for reference only, actual criteria followed at site must be based on a compromise between available resources and site-specific parameters such as the size of the area to be covered, variability in pollutant concentration, etc.

For other monitoring objectives, particularly in relation to epidemiological studies,

the nos. will have to be increased. There are several other modifying factors as follows: (i) In highly industrialized cities the number of stations for SPM and SO2 must be

increased. (ii) In areas where large amounts of heavy fuels are used the number of stations for

SO2 should be more or vice versa. (iii) In regions with irregular terrain, increase the number of stations. (iv) In cities with extremely heavy traffic the number of stations for NOX, oxidants and

CO may need to be doubled. (v) In cities with low traffic and a population of >4 million, the number of stations for

SO2 , NOX and CO can be reduced.

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Table 2: Recommended Minimum Number of Stations, Population-Wise

Pollutant Population of Minimum No. of AAQ Evaluation Area Monitoring Stations SPM (Hi-Vol.) <100,000 4 100,000−1,000,000 4+0.6 per 100,000 population 1,000 000–5,000,000 7.5 + 0.25 per 100,000 population >5,000,000 12 + 0.16 per 100,000 population SO2 (Bubbler) <100,000 3 100,000−1,000,000 2.5+0.5 per 100,000 population 1,000,000–10,000,000 6+0.15 per 100, 000 population >10,000,000 20 NO2 (Bubbler) <100,000 4 100,000−1,000,000 4+0.6 per 100,000 population >1,000,000 10 CO <100,000 1 100,000−5,000,000 1+0.15 per 100,000 population >5,000,000 6+0.05 per 100,000 population Oxidants -do- -do-

Source: Indian Standards (IS) 5182, Part 14, 2000.

Table 3 gives a guide on the distribution of stations. These criteria is for reference only, actual criteria followed at site must be based on compromise between available resources and site specific parameters such as size of the city, nature of terrain, and spatial variations in the concentrations of the pollutants, etc. It is assumed in these tables that population figures are indicators of region size and pollution variability. The number of monitoring stations are generally based on experience gathered over the years in monitoring and can be increased or decreased based on the analysis of data obtained in monitoring. Resource availability is also an important factor in determining the number of monitoring stations in a city.

Generally three monitoring stations are chosen as one each in a residential (or

commercial), sensitive, or industrial area. Distribution of monitoring stations in a city depends on the distribution of pollution sources and population in a city. More stations should be located in areas where population density is high, number of industries is more, and vehicular density is high. Dividing the entire area into grids and locating stations at intersections of a grid or within a grid can also estimate distribution of stations. However, the grid pattern is not very economical, as most often it requires a large number of stations in a city. Dispersion models can be used to find maximum pollution levels and spatial variation of pollutant concentration can be used to determine distribution of stations.

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Table 3: Distribution of Sampling Stations

Number of Stations

Total Number of Stations In City Center or Industrial Areas

In Residential Areas

1 2 3 4 5 10

1 1 2 2 3 6

0 1 1 2 2 4

Source: WHO 1977.

ii. Selection of Monitoring Location

Principal factors governing the locations of the sampling stations are the objectives, the particular method of instrument used for sampling, resources available, physical access, and security against loss and tampering. Air quality monitoring should be done in areas where a pollution problem exists or is expected i.e. mainly in industrial areas, urban areas, traffic intersections etc. One of the objectives of monitoring is to determine status and trends and the air quality monitoring should be done in metropolitan cities and other urban areas so as to compare their levels and determine trends. Selection of site is very important as an incorrect location may result in data that may not meet the objectives of monitoring and will be of limited value. In general the following requirements should be satisfied for site selection.

Representative Site. A site is representative if the data generated from the site reflects the concentrations of various pollutants and their variations in the area. It is not easy to specify whether the location of the station is satisfactory or not, however it may be checked by making simultaneous measurements at some locations in the area concerned. The station should be located at a place where interferences are not present or anticipated. In general the following conditions should be met:

(i) The site should be away from major pollution sources. The distance depends

upon the source, its height and its emissions. The station should be at least 25 m away from domestic chimneys, especially if the chimneys are lower than the sampling point; with larger sources the distance should be greater (WHO, 1977).

(ii) The site should be away from absorbing surfaces such as absorbing building material. The clearance to be allowed will depend on the absorbing properties of the material for the pollutant in question, but it will normally be at least I m. (WHO, 1977).

(iii) The objective of monitoring is often to measure trends in air quality and measurements are to be conducted over a long time; thus the site should be selected such that it is expected to remain a representative site over a long time and no land use changes, re buildings etc. are foreseen in near future. The instrument must be located in such a place where free flow of air is

available. The instrument should not be located in a confined place, corner or a balcony. Comparability. For data of different stations to be comparable, the details of

each location should be standardized. The following is recommended in IS 5182 (Part 14) 2000

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(i) On all the sides it should be open, that is, the intake should not be within a

confined space, in a corner, under or above a balcony. (ii) For traffic pollution monitoring the sampling intake should be 3 m above the

street level. The height of 3m is recommended to prevent re-entrainment of particulates from the street, to prevent free passage of pedestrians and to protect the sampling intake from vandalism.

(iii) Sampling in the vicinity of unpaved roads and streets results in entrainment of dust into the samplers from the movement of vehicles. Samplers are therefore to be kept at a distance of 200 m from unpaved roads and streets. Physical Requirement of the Monitoring Site. The following physical aspects

of the site must be met: the site should be available for a long period of time; easy access to the site should be there anytime throughout the year; site sheltering and facilities such as electricity of sufficient rating, water, telephone connection etc. should be available; and it should be vandal proof and protected from extreme weather.

Highest concentrations and concentration gradients of carbon monoxide are

likely to be in the vicinity of roads, highways. The gradients vary in both time and space on the micro and on the neighborhood scale. The recommended criteria for siting monitoring stations for CO are given in Table 4. These criteria are for reference only; actual criteria followed at site must be based on a compromise between available resources and site-specific parameters such as nearby sources, concentration gradients of pollutants, etc.

Table 4: Recommended Criteria for Siting Monitoring Stations

Station Type

Description

Type A Downtown pedestrian exposure stations Locate station in the central urban area in a congested, downtown street surrounded by buildings where many pedestrians walk. Average daily travel on the street should exceed 10,000 vehicles with average speed of less than 6.7 m/s. Monitoring probe is to be located 0.5 m from the curb at a height of 3 ± 0.5 m.

Type B Downtown neighborhood exposure station Locate station in the central urban area but not close to any major street. Specifically streets with average daily travel exceeding 500 vehicles should be located at least 100 m away from the monitoring station. Typical locations are parks, malls or landscaped areas having no traffic. Probe height is to be 3 ± 0.5 m above the ground.

Type C Residential station Locate station in the midst of a residential area or suburban area. Station should be more than 100 m away from any street having a traffic volume in excess of 500 vehicles/day. Station probe height must be 3 ± 0.5 m.

Type D Mesoscale Station Locate station in the urban area at appropriate height to collect meteorological and air quality data at upper elevations. The purpose of this station is not to monitor human exposure but to gather trend data and meteorological data at different height. Typical locations are tall buildings and broadcast towers. The height of the probe, along with the nature of the station location must be carefully documented in each case.

Type E Nonurban station Locate station in a remote no urban area having no traffic and no industrial activity. The purpose of this station is to monitor for trend analysis for nondegradation assessments and for large-scale geographical surveys, the location or height must not be changed during the period over which trend is examined. The height of the probe must be documented in each case. A suitable height is

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Station Type

Description

3 ± 0.5 m. Type F Specialized source survey station

Locate station very near a particular air pollution source scrutiny. The purpose of the station is to determine the impact on air quality, at specified locations, of a particular emission source of interest. Station probe height should be 3 ± 0.5 m unless special considerations of the survey require nonuniform height.

Source: IS 5182 (Part 14), 2000. Topographical and Meteorological Factors. Topographical and meteorological

factors must also be considered for selecting a monitoring site. The topographical factors that must be considered are mountains, valleys, lakes, oceans and rivers. These factors cause meteorological phenomena that may affect air pollutants distribution.

Winds caused by daytime heating and nighttime cooling may affect pollutant

transport causing either buildup of pollutants or dilution. Canyons or valleys may channel the local winds into a particular direction, resulting in increase in wind speed. The presence of large waterbodies may cause a land-sea breeze wind pattern, which may determine pollutant transport. The mountain or hilly terrain may cause precipitation that may affect pollutant concentration. A minimum distance of the sampler from road for measurement of ozone and NOx is given in Table 5. These criteria is for reference only, actual criteria followed at site must be based on compromise between available resources and site-specific parameters such as nearby sources, concentration gradients of the pollutants, topographical features, etc.

Table 5: Minimum Distance of Sampler from Road

for Measurement of Ozone and NOx

Average Traffic (vehicles per day)

≤ 10,000

15,000

20,000

40,000

70,000

≥ 110,000

Minimum distance of sampler from road (meters)

≥ 10

20

30

50

100

≥ 250

Source: ETC, Canada 1995. In general the following requirements may be met for siting the monitoring

station: (i) Height of the inlet must be 3–10 m above the ground level. (ii) The sampler must be more than 20 m from trees. (iii) Distance of the sampler to any air flow obstacle, i.e., buildings, must be more

than two times the height of the obstacle above the sampler. (iv) There should be unrestricted airflow in three of four quadrants. (v) There should be no nearby furnace or incinerator fumes.

Once an area has been selected for locating a monitoring station, the site can be selected by finding maximum concentration using air quality modeling. Modeling refers to the mathematical expression for the fate of pollutants when they are released into the atmosphere taking into consideration the various aspects of atmospheric effects such as dispersion, advection, etc. Air quality models are capable of predicting the temporal and spatial distribution of pollutants for a given domain of interest. Air quality modeling can be applied to ground-level sources, elevated point sources, line sources, area sources, flying sources under unlimited mixing, limited mixing, inversion, fumigation, trapping and

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also on complex terrain, flat terrain and coastal areas. The methodology is different in each case. Maximum ground-level concentrations can be calculated where the air quality monitoring station can be located.

iii. Measurement Methods NAAQS states the measurement methods for various pollutants. These methods

should be used for conducting ambient air quality measurements. Selecting the method among the various options depends upon the resources available to sustain the measurement over a long time, detection limit of the methods, degree of skill required, etc. Automatic analyzes are often costly and need skilled manpower to operate them. Measurement of pollutants by wet chemical methods is fairly simple. The detection limit of the method should be lower than the expected concentrations in an area.

Instruments used for the air quality monitoring should be easy to use, calibrate

and require minimum maintenance. Automatic analyzers are costly and require skilled manpower and needs to be calibrated very frequently depending upon how often the calibration parameters change. Measurement of sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) by wet chemical method is fairly simple and can be employed easily in India. High volume samplers are being widely used for particulate matter measurement in India.

The following precautions must be followed in analysis of air pollutants:

(i) Properly cleaned glassware must be used. (ii) One set of glassware must be calibrated as per requirement. (iii) All critical chemicals used must be of analytical grade. (iv) Double distilled or nanopure water must be used for preparation of reagents and

analysis. (v) Glassware and storage bottles must be rinsed with distilled water and chemicals,

respectively. (vi) Name, strength and date of preparation, expiry date and initial of chemist who

has prepared the reagent must properly mark reagent bottles. (vii) Desiccant in the dessicator must be changed as per requirements. (viii) Chemicals whose strength changes with time must be standardized before use. (ix) Calibration graphs must be made every time a new stock solution is prepared. (x) Reagent bottles must be made airtight before storage. (xi) Key reagents must be prepared fresh on the date of analysis. (xii) Storage of chemicals must be done as per recommendations like away from

sunlight, etc. (xiii) Active silica gel bottles with holes must be placed inside the weighing chamber. (xiv) The analytical balance must have a sensitivity of 0.1 mg or better.

Meteorological Measurements. Meteorology plays a significant role in the study

of air pollution and it is necessary to measure meteorological parameters. The essential meteorological parameters that should be measured are wind speed and direction, ambient air temperature, relative humidity, rainfall, atmospheric pressure and mixing height. Details of the meteorological instrument and method of measurement are given in Annexure II. Anemometer is used to measure velocity of air, wind vane is used to measure wind direction, precipitation gauge or rain gauge is to measure rainfall and precipitation, thermometer is used to measure temperature, dry and wet bulb

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hygrometers and sling psychrometers are used to measure humidity in the air. The sonic detection and ranging system is used to measure mixing height.

The wind data, i.e., speed, direction and intensity are graphically represented by

a diagram called wind rose diagram. Humidity is measured in terms of relative humidity (RH), which is the percentage of moisture present in the air, complete saturation being taken as 100. The greater the RH more the air is saturated. RH below 30% is also unpleasant which can cause drying of mucus, sore throat, and cough. Moisture indicates the potentiality for fog formation in relation to the degree of air pollution.

Laboratory Requirements. The samples collected from sites are analyzed in

the laboratory. If possible a kiosk can be constructed at the site and common laboratory apparatus such as refrigerator, balance, oven, spectrophotometer, etc. can be kept at the site so that the collected samples can be analyzed at the site and the losses due to improper sample preservation, transportation can be minimized. However, enough space must be available with sufficient power at the site. If constructing a kiosk at the site is not possible then the samples must be properly preserved and transported to the laboratory for analysis. The laboratory instrument must be calibrated regularly so as to minimize errors.

d. Data Handling and Presentation

Air quality depends on the physical characteristics of the area and the site

observations must be recorded so that data interpretation can be easier. Site observations can be type of area, whether residential, industrial, sensitive or traffic intersections, distance from nearby sources, whether the location is in a marketplace, etc. Height of instrument above ground level should also be recorded. The data should be validated by rejecting erroneous data or by applying corrections as per the calibrations performed of flow rates. The data should be recorded in the prescribed formats. Software programs have been developed for doing data entry in dBase and analysis is done using FoxPro. The data presentation should be such that the objectives of monitoring are met.

One of the objectives of monitoring is to determine compliance to NAAQS so 24-

hourly average and annual average should be computed as NAAQS are given for these averages except for CO where 8-hourly and 1-hourly averaging should be performed. 98th percentile should be calculated as the NAAQS states that 24-hourly standard could be violated 2% of the time but not on 2 consecutive days. One of the objectives is to understand the scavenging behavior of environment. It is known that particulate matter is scavenged from the environment during monsoons and in order to understand seasonal variations, monthly averaging should be done and plotted. Best fit lines should be plotted to determine trends in air quality.

The following must be followed for reporting data:

(i) The values should not be reported below the detection limit as per the method. (ii) Suspended particulate matter (SPM)/respirable suspended matter RSPM)

values, which are very high, should be reported in round figures (without decimal place).

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(iii) Any outlier values found should be checked for contamination of sample, sudden change of environmental conditions in the vicinity of the monitoring site, etc. and discarded if necessary.

e. Financial Requirements

The essential requirements for conducting air quality measurements are the resource requirements in terms of personnel, infrastructure in the field and lab, equipment and finance, etc. Enough resources should be available for purchase of instruments, hiring of manpower, establishing laboratory, etc. Field staff having chemistry background should preferably be employed for fieldwork and laboratory analysis. A scientist should supervise the work of chemist and field staff. He may also be involved in the interpretation of the data. An example of parameters that needs to be considered for estimating capital cost and operation and maintenance cost are given in tables 6 and 7.

Table 6: Operation and Maintenance Cost of Monitoring Stations

S. No. Item

Recurring costs

1 a) Filter paper

2 b) Chemicals

3 c) Glassware

4 d) Contingencies

5 e) Transportation

Manpower

1 a) Salary of JSA

2 b) Salary of JLA/FA

Table 7: Capital Cost of Establishing Stations

S. No. Item Description

1. Respirable dust sampler/instruments 2. Automatic meteorological parameter monitoring instrument capable of

measuring wind speed, direction, relative humidity, atmospheric pressure and temperature

3. Balance 4. Refrigerator 5. Oven 6. Spectrophotometer 7. Dessicator 8. Spare air blowers

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f. Manpower Requirement The manpower employed in monitoring should be competent to carry out field

and laboratory work. Personnel with science background with MSc in environmental sciences, chemistry should be engaged in monitoring. The personnel employed should be aware of the various Environmental Acts, rules and notifications thereunder and should have knowledge of statistical tools for analyzing and compiling data. The personnel should have knowledge of environmental chemistry and behavior of air pollutants so as to carry out interpretation of data. Field assistants carry out the field monitoring and these field assistants should have an MSc in environmental chemistry. The junior scientific assistant (JSA) generally carries out laboratory analysis and the JSA should be PhD or MSc with relevant experience. The data entry operator and JSA normally carry out data entry and analysis. The data entry operator should have requisite qualifications such as diploma in software applications, etc.

g. Operation of Air Quality Monitoring Equipments

The operation of a high volume sampler for measuring SPM is described below. Field Sampling. Tilt back the inlet and secure it according to manufacturer's

instructions. Loosen the faceplate wing nuts and remove the face place. Remove the filter from its jacket and center it on the support screen with the rough side of the filter facing upwards. Replace the faceplate and tighten the wing nuts to secure the rubber gasket against the filter edge. Gently lower the inlet. Inertial jet and cyclonic inlets must have their seals in contact with the top of the faceplate. Look underneath the inlet just as it is coming into contact with the faceplate to assure that this contact is being made. It may be necessary to readjust the position of the filter/motor assembly in the sampler housing to obtain such a seal. Excessively windy and wet conditions should be avoided when changing samples. Pre-loading in a filter cartridge assembly, temporary removal of the sampler to a protected area, or a wind or rain shield may be used if the sample must be changed in inclement weather. Set the timer for the desired start and stop time. Replace the chart paper in the flow recorder, if there is one, set the proper time, and mark the time and date on the chart.

For a manually flow controlled sampler turn on the motor for 5 minutes and

measure the exhaust pressure with a pressure gauge or rotameter. Read the flow rate corresponding to this exhaust pressure from the calibration curve and record it on the data sheet. Turn off the motor and assure that the timer is in its automatic mode. For automatically flow-controlled units, record the designated flow rate on the data sheet. Record the reading of the elapsed time meter. The specified length of sampling is commonly 8 hours or 24 hours. During this period, several reading (hourly) of flow rate should be taken.

After sampling is complete, record the final flow rate and the elapsed time in the

same manner. Subtract the initial elapsed time from the final elapsed time to determine the sample duration. Remove the faceplate by removing the wing nuts. Fold the filter in half lengthwise by handling it along its edge with the exposed side inward. Insert the filter in its jacket. Note the presence of insects on the deposit, loose particles, noncentered deposits, evidence of leaks, and unusual meteorological conditions on the data sheet. Mark the flow recorder chart, if any, and return it with the data sheet.

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The following precautions must be followed in sampling of air pollutants:

(i) The high volume sampler (HVS)/respirable dust sampler (RDS) must be properly calibrated to get the correct flow rate.

(ii) Corrective and preventive maintenance of the HVS/RDS must be done. (iii) The filter used for sampling should be of good quality (having better mechanical

stability, chemical stability, particle sampling efficiency, flow resistance, cost and availability, etc.)

(iv) Filter should be mounted properly on the support screen with the rough side of the filter facing upwards.

(v) The wing nuts should be tightened properly to avoid any leakage (vi) Weighing of filter paper must be done after conditioning in dessicator having

active moisture absorbent. (vii) Weighing of filter paper must be done in balance having accuracy of 0.01 mg and

silica gel bottle must be kept in weighing chamber to avoid error while weighing. (viii) Distilled water must be used in manometer tube and water must be changed

every fortnightly and zero level must be checked every time. (ix) Shelter should be provided at the sampling site to protect instruments during the

rainy season. (x) Ice should be kept in the sampling tray during sampling to avoid evaporation loss

and better absorption. (xi) Evaporation loss if any must be made up with distilled water. (xii) Proper preservation of samples must be done after sampling. Gaseous samples

must be preserved properly in an icebox or refrigerator (below 5°C) prior to analysis.

h. Quality Assurance and Quality Control in Air Quality

Monitoring

Quality assurance and quality control (QA/QC) is an essential part of any monitoring system. It is a program of activities that ensures that measurements meet defined and appropriate standards of quality, with a stated level of confidence. The overall objectives of QA/QC for air monitoring are: accurate, precise and credible measurements, data representative of ambient or exposure conditions, measurements consistent over time, high data capture, evenly distributed, and optimal use of resources.

The functional components of a QA/QC program are identified as follows: definition of monitoring and data quality objectives, network design, management and training systems, site selection and establishment, routine site operations, establishment of calibration/tractability chain, network audit and intercalibration, system management and support, and data review and management.

Design of an effective QA/QC program is first step in the process of quality management. The program needs to be fully documented, and compliance with its procedure and requirement actively monitored.

An analytical quality control program develops information that can be used to

evaluate the accuracy and precision of analytical data in order to establish the quality of the data; provide an indication of the need for corrective actions; and to determine the effects of corrective actions.

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Analytical Quality Control. Analytical quality control (AQC) scheme is taken up at two levels as mentioned below:

Within-laboratory AQC. It is necessary to check the accuracy of analytical

results within laboratory. The various sequential stages involved are: choosing an analytical method suitably free from bias, and ensuring the complete and unambiguous description of that method; checking that satisfactory precision is obtained with the method; establishing a control chart as a continuing check on precision and some sources of bias; and ensuring accuracy of standard solution.

Between-laboratory (or interlaboratory) AQC. In between-laboratory (or

interlaboratory) AQC a group of laboratories has to achieve comparability of results by controlling the accuracy of each laboratory. Usually between-laboratory AQC should be conducted as soon as all laboratories have satisfactorily completed the within-laboratory AQC tests.

AQC tests between laboratories are necessary for the following two reasons: to

test for possible bias caused by sources not already checked in within-laboratory AQC; and to provide direct evidence that the required comparability of results between laboratories has been achieved.

Accuracy may deteriorate with time and hence subsequently regular tests are required as a continuing check on between laboratories bias. Interlaboratory proficiency testing of ambient air quality measurement methods are described below. A flow chart for the approach to achieving accuracy of analytical results is shown in Figure 2.

i. Interlaboratory Proficiency Testing of Ambient Air

Quality Measurement Methods Interlaboratory proficiency testing is a recognized tool for checking the capability

of testing laboratories for producing reliable test results and judging the effectiveness of quality system/program. Participating in proficiency testing programs, involving interlaboratory test comparisons, provides valuable information with regard to the status of performance of laboratories participating in the program. This in turn leads to efforts for identification of areas of weakness and measures to be taken for improvement.

Interlaboratory comparisons are conducted for a number of purposes and results

may be used by participating laboratories and other parties.

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SELECTI SELECTION OF METHOD WITHIN

LABORATORY

TESTING APPLICATION OF METHOD

BETWEEN LABORATORY

Figure 2: Flow Chart for Approach to Achieving Accuracy of Analytical Results

Choose Analytical Method

Ensure Unambiguous Description of

Methods

Estimate within Laboratory Precision

Set up Control Charts

Compare Calibration Standards Solutions

Check Inter- laboratory Bias

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Interlaboratory comparisons may be used, for example to:

(i) Determine the performance of individual laboratories for specific tests or measurements and to monitor laboratories’ continuing performance;

(ii) Identify problems in laboratories and initiate remedial actions which may be related to, for example, individual staff performance or calibration of instrumentation;

(iii) Establish the effectiveness and comparability of new test or measurement methods and similarly to monitor established methods;

(iv) Provide additional confidence to laboratory clients; (v) Identify interlaboratory differences; (vi) Determine the performance characteristics of a method, often known as

collaborative trials; (vii) Assign values to reference materials (RMs) and assess their suitability for use in

specific test or measurement procedures.

Types of Proficiency Testing. Proficiency testing techniques vary depending on the nature of the test item, the method in use and the number of laboratories participating. It thus supplements laboratories own internal quality control procedures by providing an additional external measure of their testing capability. The performance of a laboratory depends on the quality system management of the laboratory. Major elements of the quality system are management of equipment staff, environment, test items, records, test methods and internal audits. The following are the common types of proficiency testing schemes.

Measurement Comparison Schemes Measurement comparison schemes involve the test item to be measured or

calibrated being circulated successively from one participating laboratory to the next. A reference laboratory provides assigned values for the test item, which might be a country’s highest authority for the measurement concerned. It may be necessary for the best item to be checked at specific stages during the conduct of proficiency test. This is to ensure that there are no significant changes in the assigned value throughout the course of the proficiency test.

Interlaboratory Testing Schemes Interlaboratory testing schemes involve randomly selected sub-samples from a

source of material being distributed simultaneously to participating testing laboratories for concurrent testing. After completion of testing, the results are submitted to the coordinating body and compared with the assigned value(s) to give an indication of the performance of the individual laboratories and the group as a whole. It is essential that the batch of the test items provided to participants in each round be sufficiently homogeneous so that any results later identified as extreme are not attributed to any significant test item variability.

Split-Sample Testing Schemes One special form of proficiency testing, which clients of laboratories, including

some regulatory bodies often use, is the technique of split-sample testing. Typically split-sample testing involves comparisons of the data produced by small groups of

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laboratories (often only two laboratories), which are being evaluated as potential or continuing suppliers of testing services. Split-sample testing schemes involve samples of a product or a material being divided into two or more parts with each participatory laboratory testing one part of each sample. They differ from interlaboratory testing schemes described earlier, as there are usually a very limited number of participating laboratories. Uses for this type of scheme include identifying poor precision, describing consistent bias and verifying the effectiveness of corrective actions.

A similar technique of split-sample testing is also used in the monitoring of

environmental and clinical laboratories. Typically these schemes involve the results from several split samples over a wide concentration interval being compared between an individual laboratory and one or more other laboratories. Under such schemes, one of the laboratories may be considered to be operating at a higher level (i.e., lower level of uncertainty) due to use of reference methodology and more advanced equipment, etc. Its results are considered to be the reference values in such intercomparisons and it may act as an advisory or monitor laboratory to the other laboratories comparing split-sample data with it.

Infrastructure for Conducting Interlaboratory Comparison on Ambient Air Quality Methods. The primary requirement for conducting interlaboratory comparison on physical and chemical methods for measurement of air pollutants is depicted in Figure 3.

This system is primarily known as the Ring Test Facility. It mainly consists of

several mass flow meters of different flow capacities. A mass flow controller regulates these mass flow meters. Provision for producing the diluted air is done by means of compressor. The compressed air produced by the compressor is dried and purified by passing the air through silica gel and activated carbon, respectively. The standard gas stored in steel cylinders is diluted to the desired concentration by the dilution air or zero air.

It is difficult to store nitrogen dioxide in pressurized cylinders due to its unstable

nature. Therefore, nitric oxide stored in steel cylinders is converted to nitrogen dioxide by means of a process called gas phase titration (GPT). In order to attain GPT, nitric oxide is allowed to react with ozone (produced by an ozone generator) to produce nitrogen dioxide. The ozone generator used for GPT can also produce desired ozone gas mixtures for calibration of continuous monitoring analyzers and proficiency testing. In order to check the mixing of gas mixtures it is advisable to install the continuous monitoring analyzers on the Ring Test Facility. The calibration of the continuous monitoring analyzers is accomplished by means of static dilution system. The static dilution system is shown in Figure 4.

The standard gas mixtures produced by the Ring Test Facility are made available

to different participants through a glass tube for inter-laboratory comparison exercises.

Choice of Method/Procedure

Participants can use the method of their choice, which is consistent with routine procedures used in their laboratories. However, in certain circumstances, the coordinator may instruct participants to use a specified method. Such methods are usually nationally

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or internationally accepted standard methods, and will have been validated by an appropriate procedure (e.g., collaborative trial).

Where calibration procedure is used, the assigned value will often be a reference

value obtained from measurements obtained by a reputed calibration laboratory, which should use a well-defined and accepted procedure. It is desirable that participating laboratories use the same or similar procedure, but this will not always be practicable for calibration laboratories.

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Zero Air

SILICA GEL (for drying )

ACTIVATED CHARCOAL (For purifying)

MFC (0-50 MLPM)

MFC (0-100 LPM)

MFC (0-100 LPM)

MFC (0-5 LPM)

MFC (0-50 MLPM)

MFC (0-5 LPM)

CONTROLLING UNIT OF MFC

MIXING CHAMBER

N2GAS (100%)

COMPRESSOR

200 LITRE STORAGE TANK

GPT REACTION

TUBE

PERMEATION OVEN CUM

OZONE GENERATOR

WET CHEMICAL SAMPLING

SYSTEM

AUTOMATIC ANALYZER

FOR HUMIDITY

WATER BOTTLE

ZERO AIR

Ambient

GAS CYLINDER (NO/SO2/CO)

GAS SAMPLING LINE

(NO + O3 = NO2 + O2)

Figure 3: Ring Test Facility

GPT= Gas Phase Titration MFC= Mass Flow Controllers

120Figure 4: Static Volumetric Dilution

OVERFLOW

PRESSURE METER (-1) –(+2) BAR

TO ANALYZER

PURE GAS OUTLET

PURE GAS VALVE VACCUM

PUMP

PURE GAS CYLINDER MIXER

MIXER

MAIN VACCUM VALVE

PRESSURE METER

REGULATION VALVE

SPAN GAS OUTLET

DC SUPPLY FOR MIXER

ZERO GAS SUPPLY

ZERO GAS VALVE

PRESSURE REGULATOR (-1) – (+2) bar

100 LITRE GLASS VESSEL

INJECTION INLET

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Determination of the Assigned Value There are various procedures available for the establishment of assigned

values. The most common procedures are listed below in an order that in most cases will result in increasing uncertainty for the assigned value. These procedures involve use of:

(i) Known values: with results determined by specific test item formulation (e.g.,

manufacture or dilution) (ii) Certified reference value: as determined by definitive methods (for quantitative

tests) (iii) Reference values: as determined by analysis, measurement or comparison of

the test item alongside a reference material or standard, traceable to a national or international standard

Statistical Evaluation of Test Results Appropriate statistical design of a proficiency-testing scheme is essential.

Careful consideration is given to the following matters and their interaction:

(i) The precision and trueness of the test(s) involved; (ii) The smallest differences to be detected between participating laboratories at a

desired confidence level; (iii) The number of participating laboratories; (iv) The number of samples to be tested and the number of repeat tests or

measurements to be carried out on each sample; (v) The procedure to be used to estimate the assigned value; and (vi) Procedures to be used to identify outliers.

Benefits of Interlaboratory Testing. The direct benefits of participation of

proficiency testing are: it provides an objective means of assessing and demonstrating the reliability of the data they are producing, laboratories can claim that they can perform testing competently, it supplements laboratories’ own internal quality control procedures by providing an additional external audit of the testing capability, and laboratories can prove their testing capabilities to users that the results produced by them are reliable.

The results from proficiency testing program are useful to the participating

laboratories. Successful participation in a specific program may represent evidence of competence for that exercise. Similarly, unsuccessful performance may reflect a random departure from laboratory’s normal state of competence. Participation in a proficiency testing program helps the laboratories to assess and demonstrate the reliability of the data they are producing. One of the main uses of the proficiency testing is to assess its ability to perform tests competently. It thus helps to demonstrate its own quality system procedures.

These also complement the technique of onsite laboratory assessment by

technical assessors usually used by laboratory accrediting bodies. The accrediting bodies generally evaluate the quality system of the laboratory as per national and international criteria. Thus the proficiency testing gives a chance to the laboratory to evaluate its own quality system. In case the performance of the laboratory in the proficiency testing is not found satisfactory, the laboratory should find out its causes of inadequacy. Once the causes are analyzed, it would be possible for the laboratory to identify the number of areas wherein improvement is needed. The laboratory

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should then be able to initiate appropriate action to improve its quality system for that testing in particular and as a whole for the organization.

i. Selection of Pollutants

Urban areas have several hundred air pollution compounds in a typical source

mix. The choice of parameters to be monitored is based on a number of factors, including those laid down in regulations, local sources of pollutants, or for particular studies. Prior to selection of pollutants, an emission inventory or modeling results can be carried out or used if available. The pollutants expected from the sources present should be monitored. For monitoring in metropolitan cities and urban areas, the common urban air pollutants such as CO, SO2, NOx, SPM, and RSPM should be measured on a regular basis. Resource availability plays a very important role in determining the pollutants to be measured in an area.

The World Health Organization (WHO) has developed air quality guidelines for

23 compounds. The first priority selection of pollutants for monitoring should be based on the WHO guidelines list. The second priority are those additional pollutants for which guidelines have not been set, but which are known to be harmful and are produced by the major industries in the city.

Typical pollutants sampled in a monitoring system include suspended particulate matter (SPM), preferably at the PM10 or PM2.5 size range as these have the greatest health impacts; sulfur dioxide (SO2), oxides of nitrogen (NOx), ozone (O3), carbon monoxide (CO), and lead (Pb). In certain cases compounds dependent on specific source mix in the city like specific compounds/elements within the SPM fractions (such as PAH). Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) such as benzene, toulene, xylene and aldehydes are also monitored. Meteorological data is also required to be monitored.

j. Network Design There are no universal rules for network design, since any decision will be

determined ultimately by the overall monitoring objectives and resource availability. The overall design goal is to ensure that the maximum information can be derived from the minimum effort. Various issues related to network design are discussed in the coming paragraphs.

k. Resource Constraints and Issues Resource availability is a key issue that needs to be addressed at a very early

stage of the network design process. Important resource constraints in network design are those of money, skilled manpower, and of time. In practice, this is usually the major determinant in network design, which will exert a particular strong influence on the choice of site numbers, pollutants to be monitored and instrumentation selected.

l. Site Numbers and Selection

There are a number of approaches to network design and site selection. Exposure assessment, in particular, will often need to target both source- oriented monitoring sites (worst case environment or hotspots) and background locations optimized for quantifying general population exposure. Second grid-based monitoring strategies can be optimized to provide detailed information on spatial variability and

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exposure pattern for priority pollutants. A more flexible approach to network design involves siting monitoring stations or sampling points at carefully selected representative locations, chosen on the basis of required data and known emission/dispersion patterns of the pollutants under study.

Some general points to be considered when selecting a site location are: overall monitoring objective, sources and emissions, meteorology and topography, model simulation, and existing air quality. Total numbers of site to be selected in network design will depend on: required data use/objectives, area to be covered, spatial variability of pollutants, resource availability and instruments deployed.

m. Sampling Duration and Frequency

The period and frequency of sampling should be such that statistically reliable averages can be obtained with the data. In India, the National Ambient Air Quality Standards states that annual average should be computed of 104 measurements taken twice a week of 24-hour duration.

The pollutants vary diurnally and seasonally and these variations should be

taken in to account for determining the frequency of sampling. The precision required in the data is also important in determining the frequency of sampling. Sampling should be more frequent than the frequency of variation of pollutants.

Particulate matter levels are lower during the monsoon months due to removal

by wet deposition. Air pollutants such as CO levels are higher during winter months due to lower mixing height resulting in less volume of troposphere available for mixing and hence higher concentrations. Thus measurements should be conducted in all the seasons so that in annual average all the seasons are represented equally.

n. Instrumentation Issues

There are a number of different methods to measure any given pollutant, varying in complexity, reliability, and detail of data. These range from simple passive sampling techniques to highly sophisticated remote sensing devices. A monitoring strategy should carefully examine the options to determine which methodology is most appropriate, taking into account program objectives, initial investment costs, operating costs, existing laboratory and computer facilities, reliability of systems, ease of operation, availability of manpower and power and shelter availability at monitoring sites.

It is advisable to choose the simplest technique that will do the job. Inappropriate, too complex or failure-prone equipment can result in poor network performance, limited utility and, worst of all, a waste of money. Although the monitoring objectives are the major factors to consider, resource constraints and the availability of skills manpower must also be considered. There is a clear trade-off between equipment cost, complexity, reliability, and performance. More advanced systems can provide increasingly refined data, but are usually more complex and difficult to handle.

o. Data Handling and Presentation

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Air quality depends on the physical characteristics of the area and the site observations must be recorded so that data interpretation can be easier. Site observations can be by type of area, whether residential, industrial or traffic intersections, distance from nearby sources, whether location is in a market place, etc. Height of the instrument above ground level should also be recorded. Erroneous data should be rejected. The data presentation should be such that the objective of monitoring is met. One of the objectives of monitoring is to determine compliance. Another objective is to understand the scavenging behaviors of environment. It is known that particulates are scavenged from the environment during monsoon and in order to understand seasonal variations, monthly averaging should also be done and plotted. Best-fit lines should be plotted to determine trends in air quality.

The following must be followed while reporting data: the values should not be reported below detection limit as per the method; SPM/RSPM values, which are very high, should be reported in round figures; and any outlier values found should be checked for contamination of sample, sudden change of environmental condition in the vicinity of the monitoring site, etc., and discarded if necessary.

p. Air Quality Information System

In order to ensure that an AQMS is having the desired impact, it is important to not only continuously monitor air quality, but also to widely disseminate the monitoring results. An air quality information system (AQIS) has several significant uses. Air quality management authorities use it to enforce laws and regulations, issue permits, and develop strategies and policies. Polluters (i.e., industries) can use it to monitor the impacts of their activities. The public can refer to air quality information to understand the effects of each individual. The public can refer to air quality information to understand the effects of each individual’s activities (traffic, cooking, refuse burning), change attitudes, the effects of the pollution, and the measures introduced by the authorities. An AQIS can ultimately be used in concert with all the players above for air pollution forecasting and alert measures during pollution episodes.

Elements of an AQIS database:

(i) Measurement and monitoring data, as time series, for each monitoring site; (ii) Emissions inventory; and (iii) Air pollution concentration data from dispersion models, presented as

concentration fields (calculated concentrations in each square in a km2 grid system or calculated concentrations representing each road link and other hotspot locations).

Features of database presentation software:

(i) Graphs depicting previously measured time series for one or more

components at each monitoring site; this could be continuous recording data such as from a NOx monitor, or 24-hour average data from integrating measurement methods such as pararosaline method for SO2.

(ii) On-line presentation of most recent measurement on computer monitors; and (iii) Calculation and presentation of concentration statistics: monthly or annual

averages, frequency distributions, maximum values, and instances where air quality guidelines have been exceeded.

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Not all cities can develop an AQIS that performs all these functions, in a short-time period. A simple and straightforward AQIS has the following features:

(i) Timeliness of data (able to present the previous month’s data); (ii) Efficiency (working together of institutions involved in monitoring, chemical

analysis, modeling, and public reporting); (iii) Accessibility (easy access to data for analysis, enforcement, and reporting by

involved government agencies); and (iv) Public reporting (polluters and the public-at-large should have access to the

most up-to-date monitoring data, even if at a more aggregated level than the pollution control authorities).

q. Action Points for Air Quality Monitoring System

(i) Guidelines on the air quality monitoring system prepared by CPCB should be

followed by the different monitoring agencies. (ii) The infrastructure and skilled manpower working for the AQMS needs to

strengthened. (iii) Data from the SPCB and industry-maintained stations should be regularly

compiled, analyzed, and disseminated. (iv) The air management information system for proper dissemination of data

related to AQM system with proper manpower and infrastructure should be developed.

(v) Adequate funds need to be allocated for monitoring activities as well as for the AQIS.

D. Emissions Inventory

An emissions inventory is a database of estimated emission for one or a number of pollutants for a defined period in a defined geographic area. They are a basic part of an integrated AQM program. It provides the foundation for a sound and cost-effective air quality policy.

1. Emission Source Category

An emission inventory generally includes the following sources:

(i) Point sources (industries, mining, fuel terminal, etc.) (ii) Area sources (biomass burning, road construction, electric generators, fuels,

filling stations, dry cleaning, etc.) (iii) Line sources (on-road an off-road mobile source) (iv) Natural sources (wind-blown dust, sea spray, etc.)

There are various subcategories of point sources, which include combustion emission, process emission (industry-specific), fugitive emission (uncontrolled material handling, conveyers), storage tank emission, and miscellaneous solvent usage.

Area source can be sub-categorized into:

(i) Stationary source fuel combustion emissions (industrial, commercial, residential fuels, biomass or waste-derived fuels) and evaporative emissions

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(ii) Fugitive source for VOC emission (organic solvent utilization, fuel and organic material storage and distribution, waste treatment and disposal, pesticide usage)

(iii) Fugitive source for particulate matter emission (paved and unpaved roads, agricultural tilling and harvest activities, construction activities, wind erosion)

(iv) Fugitive source for ammonic emission (livestock, fertilizer usage, domestic ammonia)

On-road mobile sources include emission from vehicle exhaust of different

categories, evaporative, emission crankcase emission.

Off-road mobile sources include aircraft, trains, boats, construction, agricultural equipment.

Natural sources include sea spray, lightning, volcanoes, windblown dust,

transpiration from vegetation.

2. Emission Factors Emission factors are important elements of inventory development. These

relate pollutant emissions to a measure of activity level.

An emission factor is a representative value that attempts to relate the quantity of a pollutant released to the atmosphere with an activity associated with the release of that pollutant. These factors are usually expressed as the weight of pollutant divided by a unit weight, volume, distance, or duration of the activity emitting the pollutant (e.g., kilograms of particulate emitted per mega gram of coal burned). Such factors facilitate estimation of emissions from various sources of air pollution. In most cases, these factors are simply averages of all available data of acceptable quality, and are generally assumed to be representative of long-term averages for all facilities in the source category (i.e., a population average).

The general equation for emission estimation is:

E = A x EF x (1-ER/100)

Where:

E = emissions, A = activity rate, EF = emission factor, and ER = overall emission reduction efficiency (%)

ER is further defined as the product of the control device destruction or removal efficiency and the capture efficiency of the control system. When estimating emissions for a long period of time (e.g., 1 year), both the device and the capture efficiency terms should account for upset periods as well as routine operations.

Emission factors have been determined for a wide range of industrial, commercial and domestic activities and tabulated values may be used to estimate emissions; however, these emission factors need to be used with care, as adjustments in emission factors may be needed to take into account difference in operating conditions, fuel and feed materials.

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Comprehensive tabulation have been prepared by the U.S Environmental

Protection Agency (USEPA 1985), WHO (Economopoulos 1993), and by the European Commission (Bouscaren 1992). In some instances, appropriate emission factors are not available and therefore it becomes necessary to conduct the necessary research for coming up with estimates.

Emission factors for different type of vehicles are given in Annexure I. 3. Suggested Models for Estimation of Emissions

The objective of emission inventory preparation should be very clearly spelt

out to facilitate selection of the appropriate model. The major objective of emission inventory preparation in general is estimation of emission loads under various scenarios with technological or policy interventions planned. Several models are available for preparation of emission inventories. Some of the models are CORINAIR, IPIECA toolkit, IVEM, mobile 6, PREIS, etc. CORINAIR takes into account emissions from point, line and area sources and gives percentage-wise or mass emission load per year from 11 different categories of sources.

IVEM and mobile 6 models are used for estimating vehicle emission. Tanks models can be used to estimate VOC emission for storage tanks. The MECH model is used for estimating PM emission from material handling, agricultural tilling, construction and demolition purposes.

a. The IPIECA Toolkit

The IPIECA toolkit is a PC-based emission inventory model. The toolkit allows

users to develop comprehensive emission inventories and assess the effect of a range of future energy, transport, commercial and industrial scenarios on emission. The model is highly flexible and can be adapted to characterize emissions within a city, region or country and at various temporal scales up to 100 years. The toolkit, using built-in options and equations, can also be used where only incomplete sets of local data are available. The model provides a sound balance between complexity, accuracy, and user friendliness. The model also shows the impact of a proposed solution or step to curb air pollution. This, if adopted in Indian conditions, may help us select a range of best emission control options to improve the air quality.

The model requires the following main input:

Mobile sources: Vehicle type, size and fuel used Driving speed, mileage and fuel consumption Vehicle life Diesel and gasoline specifications being used Cost data; etc. Stationary sources: Fuel types/quality by local industries Emission factors in terms of amount of pollutant produced per unit of fuel consumed and the effects on emissions of the introduction of a range of industry process changes and “end-of-pipe” pollution controls.

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b. IVEM Model

The IVEM model was developed by the University of California, Riverside and Globle sustainable systems research in cooperation with the US EPA. The model was designed to estimate emissions from in-use vehicles in developing countries. It can be used to estimate emissions of criteria pollutants such as CO, VOCs, PM10, PM2.5, NOx and Pb; air toxics such as benzene, 1.3 butadiene and aldehydes; as well as global warming emissions such as CO2, N2O, NH3 and CH4.

The model contains base emission factors for over 1,370 different vehicle

types. These base factors were developed from European, Japanese, US and other developed countries’ emission factor databases. The emission factors include separate emission rates for each pollutant and each operational condition, including temperature, driving speed, and mix of cold and warm-up operation. The model also adjusts emissions rates to reflect changes in local environmental conditions, fuel characteristics and the type of vehicle inspection and maintenance program, if any, in operation.

The IVEM model uses 3 key input files:

(i) Location file Driving and start patterns and amounts Altitude, road grade (optional), temperature, humidity Diesel and gasoline fuel quality Inspection and maintenance program

(ii) Fleet file

Distribution of vehicle types and technologies Allows normal use and multi-stop vehicles

(iii) Country adjustment file

Adjustments to base emission factors

c. PREIS Model

The Pune regional emission inventory study (PREIS) was carried out in Pune, India during March 2004. Several experts from the US EPA and California Air Resources Board supported a team of around 40 participants from several Indian government and education institutions. The majority of the work was carried out over an intensive 7-day period and resulted in a well-documented inventory of PM10 emissions in the Pune region. Emission was estimated over 50 distinct source categories. There were many assumptions made in the Pune study and emission factors used were primarily based on emission measurements undertaken in the US and Mexico. Therefore, the team has conceded that there is a lot of uncertainty surrounding the emissions inventory estimates. However, perhaps the important point to remember from the study is the clear and structured approach that was used. All estimates, assumptions, sources of data, etc. were well-documented and are available on the project web site. Recommendations for validating the assumptions and improving the emission estimates are included in the final report.

Adopting a common methodology and approach to emissions inventory

development in South Asia has significant advantages. Common methodologies would allow comparisons of emissions in each city, may assist in ensuring that local

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emission factors are representative of South Asian conditions and would facilitate regional dispersion modeling.

d. Constructing an Inventory

Constructing an inventory requires information on the source strength of all emitters within specified geographical areas. There are five stages involved in calculating emission inventory:

(i) Establishing a list of point sources and mobile sources; (ii) Contacting each point source operator to obtain quantitative process and

emission data; (iii) Compiling data on activity levels for area and mobile sources such as number

of vehicles kilometers and speed, number of house hold boilers, monthly oil used in a area etc;

(iv) Reviewing data to evaluate its suitability and developing alternative strategies or activity levels indicators as necessary; and

(v) Processing the individual source and activity level data to provide a spatial desegregated source inventory.

4. Developing an Emission Inventory Plan

In order to ensure that the emission inventory development process is carried

out efficiently and accurately and to prevent the need for costly revision in the future, the preparation of an inventory preparation plan is recommended. An inventory plan can identify the available resource including staffing for developing the inventory. The plan should generally include the following:

(i) Definition of the geographic area and the time scale to be covered by the

inventory (ii) Scope of the inventory including the sources and pollutants that will be

inventoried (iii) Data quality objectives (iv) Background and a review of existing inventories (v) Staff and their responsibilities (vi) Data collection methods, analysis procedures, and estimation techniques (vii) QA/QC procedures (viii) Inventory reporting

5. Collection of Data for Emission Inventory

For collecting data from various sources questionnaires are often used.

Formats of questionnaire for collecting information from Industrial and vehicular sources are described in Annexures II and III. Information sources includes following: a. Major Point Source Emissions (i) National/regional/local pollution regulatory agencies (ii) Planning authorities (iii) Plant operators

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b. Area Sources (i) Planning authorities (ii) Census authorities (iii) Chambers of commerce (iv) Pollution regulatory agencies (v) Fuel suppliers

c. Mobile Sources (i) National/regional/local highways authorities (ii) Planning agencies (iii) Fuel suppliers (iv) Railway department (v) Airport authorities (vi) Ship operators (vii) Port and marine operators

The final report of emission inventory studies should include: (i) Introduction describing the purpose of the inventory (ii) Executive summary of the inventory results (iii) Base year of the inventory (iv) Geographic area (v) Summary of the emissions data, presented in graphical as well as a matrix

format to include pollutant, source and geographic area (vi) Procedures used to collect data (vii) Sources of the data, including citations for all emissions factors and activity

data (viii) Methods used to calculate emissions, including example calculations (ix) Complete explanation of all assumptions made in the estimation process (x) QA/QC checklists and all audit reports (xi) Sample copies of questionnaires and information concerning number sent,

responses received, etc. (xii) Identification of sources of emissions not included in the inventory (xiii) Recommendations for follow-up work to improve the inventory

6. Action Points for Emission Inventory Study (i) Guidelines for emission inventory study should be developed by CPCB (ii) Various air polluting sources should be categorized by SPCB (iii) Data from representatives/coordinators of various agencies through

questionnaires should be collected by SPCB and CPCB after quality control check of the data for reliability and accuracy

(iv) Emission factors for various polluting sources based on emission data should be developed

(v) Emission inventory study through use of different models (PREIS, IVEM, etc.) should be regularly carried out

E. Dispersion Model

A dispersion model allows us to simplify our airshed into a series of mathematical algorithms and assumption, providing a link between emission and

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ambient concentration so that we can assess these impacts more effectively. The objectives of the dispersion model are:

(i) Assessment of new sources of air emission (ii) Assessment of source contribution to ambient air quality concentrations (iii) Evaluation of control options (iv) Emergency planning (v) Scientific research (vi) Air quality forecasting (vii) To supplement monitoring data over larger spatial scales

1. The Key Input Dispersion Model (i) Emission (sources location, height of release, temperature of release, velocity

of release, pollutant emission rate.) (ii) Receptor location (monitoring point, receptor point) (iii) Meteorology and topographic (wind speed, wind direction, stability, lapse rate,

mixing height, ground terrain, etc.)

2. Type of Models Various types of dispersion model available are: (i) Proportional rollback model (ii) Fixed-box model (iii) Gaussian plume models (iv) Puff models (v) Roadway model (vi) Urban airshed models

Proportional Rollback Model. It is the simplest form of model that relates

measured ambient air quality and emissions. This is not really a dispersion model but provides a very simple and crude technique for assessing control option in an airshed. The rollback model essentially assumes that changes in emissions from a source results in direct, proportional reductions in ambient concentrations. This is a very simple approach that does not take account of meteorology, the nature of emission release, location of sources, etc.

Fixed-box Model. In the fixed-box model we place a box over the city or

region that we wish to model. We make a series of assumptions and then use the mass balance equation to determine pollutant concentrations with the box.

Gaussian Plume Models. Gaussian plume models are perhaps the most

widely used type of air quality dispersion model. They are particularly useful in predicting ambient concentrations of non-reactive pollutants down wind from a point source. Assumptions made for this model are:

(i) Plume spread has a Gaussian distribution (ii) Emission rate is constant and continuous (iii) Pollutants are transported in a straight line instantly (iv) Point source emissions (v) Wind speed and wind direction is constant and Gaussian plume model breaks

down with low wind speeds<1 m/s).

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Various types of Gaussian plume models available are ISC3, AERMOD, AUSPLUME, and SCREEN3.

US EPA ISC3. The US EPA’s Industrial Source Complex (ISC) model is

perhaps the most widely used Gaussian plume dispersion model. It is available free of charge from the US EPA SCRAM site. Two types of ISC have been developed: ISCST3 which uses hourly met data and can accommodate hourly changes in emissions to predict concentrations as hourly average; and ISCLT3 which uses a specially constructed met file that details the frequency of occurrence of various met conditions over longer-term periods.

Puff Models. The PUFF model represents pollutant releases as a series of

puffs. Each puff contains a discrete amount of pollutants with increasing volume due to turbulent mixing. Each puff is frozen at particular time intervals and the concentration of pollution at the receptor point due to the puff is calculated. The puff is then allowed to move, growing in size until the next sampling step. The total concentration at the receptor is the sum of the concentrations contributed by each puff over the averaging period. The distribution of pollutant concentrations inside each puff is still assumed to be Gaussian and therefore, these models are often referred to as Gaussian PUFF models. Various types of puff models available are CALPUFF and AUSPUFF.

3. Action Points for Dispersion Modeling

(i) Uniform method/guidelines to be prepared for using different types of

dispersion models for assessment of source contribution and for other purposes

(ii) Models from other countries need to be reviewed for Indian conditions (iii) Regular training for use and validation of dispersion model to be given to

SPCB F. Source Apportionment

The source apportionment study is an important component of air quality management studies, which determined the relative contribution of various source categories to the ambient concentration of a pollutant. It is typically applied to PM10, PM25, and VOC. The source apportionment technique required chemical characteristic of PM matter at source and/or at receptor point. Source profile can be dependent on the operation characteristic, fuel quality, and the local factory. Therefore, in many source apportionment studies source profiles are measured from actual local sources. Unfortunately, there has been limited work carried out on source profiles in Asia and most studies tend to use those from other countries.

1. Chemical Analysis

Chemical analysis of particulates requires sophisticated instruments and skilled manpower. The various methods used for physical and chemical analysis are: (i) Gravimetric analysis (ii) Atomic absorption spectrophotometry (for element analysis) (iii) Photon induced X-Ray fluoroscopy (for element analysis) (iv) Proton induced X- Ray emission (for element analysis) (v) Thermal optical reflectance/transmission (for elemental and organic carbon) (vi) Optical absorption or light transmission (for black carbon)

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(vii) Ion chromatography (for sulphate, nitrate, ammonium, phosphate, chloride, fluoride)

(viii) Gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) (organic analysis)

2. Receptor Modeling Technique

After selecting potential sources and their profiles and collection or PM samples for chemical characterization the next step is to use the data to apportion source contribution to ambient PM sample. This process is typically known as receptor modeling. Various receptor modeling used are: (i) Unique chemical tracer analysis (ii) Chemical mass balance model (iii) Bilinear statistical models (iv) Principal component analysis (v) Positive matrix factorization

Unique Chemical Tracer Analysis. It is the simplest way to quantify source

contributions to PM. This method makes use of specific chemical compounds that are present in only one of the possible source categories contributing to PM at the receptor site. Most unique chemical tracers are trace organic species, identified through GC/MS analysis. Examples are levoglucosan, a unique tracer for wood combustion, hopanes and steranes, markers for lubricating oil emissions from motor vehicles and Picene, a unique tracer for coal combustion. This method can also be used to investigate individual emission sources.

Chemical Mass Balance Model. The CMB model uses the chemical

composition of ambient pollution samples to estimate the concentration of different source types to the measured pollutant concentrations. The model quantifies contributions from chemically distinct source types rather than contributions from individual emitters. Sources, which have similar chemical composition, cannot be separated by the model. The particle characteristics must be such that they are present in different proportions in different source emissions. These proportions remain relatively constant for each source type. Change in these proportions between sources and receptor are negligible, chemical species do not react with each other, i.e., they add linearly, and the number of sources is less than or equal to the number of chemical species.

US EPA CMB8 Model. The Desert Research Institute and the US EPA have developed a chemical mass balance receptor model. The current version of the model is known as CMB8. It can be used to carry out model runs for source apportionment of PM10, PM2.5 and VOCs. Source profile files are created by the user or can be imported from the special package. The user also enters receptor concentration files. The model then applies the effective variance weighted least squares solution to solve for source contributions. Uncertainties associated with the source and receptor measurements need to be inputted into the model.

Bilinear Statistical Models. Bilinear models use multiple observations of PM

concentration data sets to determine the number of sources with unique chemical profiles that contribute to airborne PM concentrations at the receptor. It does not require source profile information. Common bilinear analysis models include Principle Component Analysis (PCA) and Positive Matrix Factorization (PMF).

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Action Points for Source Apportionment Study (i) Guidelines for carrying out source apportionment need to be prepared by

agencies like CPCB. (ii) There should be regular demonstration cum-field-training needs to be

conducted for SPCB for carrying out source apportionment study. (iii) The source profiles need to be developed through appropriate agencies. (iv) Separate budget may be allocated for such type of study. (v) Source apportionment technique should be effectively used for developing air

quality management strategy. (vi) Data on source apportionment studies carried out should be compiled for

developing database at central agencies like CPCB. G. Air Pollution Exposure and Damage Assessment

1. Air Pollution Exposure

The air pollution exposure is defined as the product of the local air pollution concentration and the number of objects within that location. A simple equation would be as follows:

Exposure = Population x Concentration

This calculation determines the number of people exposed to concentration

above the permissible limits. Exposure module (Figure 5) provides data on the impact of air pollution on

human health and damage to ecosystem, buildings and material.

Assessment of air pollution exposure involves the following steps:

Identify areas with concentration above standards. Areas where air pollution levels persistently exceed the national ambient air quality standards may be designated "nonattainment”. By assessing ambient air concentration we can identify the areas with concentration above standards by comparing ambient data with air quality standards. After identifying non- attainment areas we can further segregate these areas on the basis of pollutants with respect of which these areas are non-attaining.

Inventory of people at risk in nonattainment areas. Population at risk is

that part of the population that is exposed to enhanced concentrations of air pollution. Assessing the effects of air pollution on a city and its people is complicated. It is necessary to combine geographic distribution of air pollution concentration with the corresponding geographical distribution of population, built environment and vegetation. Various techniques are used to assess individual and population exposure. These include the following:

(i) Personal samplers to measure actual individual exposure; (ii) Calculating long-term average exposure by combining residential distribution

in nonattainment area with calculated or measured spatial distribution of long-term average pollutant concentrations;

(iii) Calculating short-term (hourly) and long-term (annual) population exposure distribution by combining knowledge of an individual’s movements in the

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nonattainment area with calculated distribution of short-term average pollutant concentration.

Figure 5: Exposure Module Comparison

Calculated air pollution concentration in the grid net, function of space and time

Air Pollution Monitoring

Air Pollution Concentrations

Input data Population. Materials Monuments/Buildi

ngs V t ti

Exposure Data Population Materials Monuments/Buildings Vegetation

To comparison with air quality guidelines

To damage assessment

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2. Assessment of Environmental Damages Air pollution imposes serious health-related social costs in the form of illness

(morbidity) and premature deaths (mortality). Increased expenditure on medical care, loss of productivity and pain and sufferings are all components of air pollution’s social costs. Other physical impacts of air pollution include damage to the ecosystems on which humans depend for their livelihood; damage to the physical infrastructure, and dirtying of facades and other physical materials.

Identifying areas with ambient concentration above standards and population

in those areas provides a preliminary indication of the seriousness of possible health damage through air pollution. Further, we can assess damage in physical terms, or it can be extended to monetary assessment. By this we can assess damage to all relevant categories that includes health, material buildings and monuments.

For assessment of damage in physical terms, it is necessary to have dose-effect relationships and exposure distribution of buildings, monuments and vegetation (Figure 6). For health damage assessment dose-response relationships are used to identify the impact of pollution levels of several pollutants on various aspects of public health. Air pollution related premature deaths, respiratory hospital admissions, emergency room admissions, restricted activity days, cases of chronic bronchitis, asthma attacks, respiratory symptom days and lower respiratory tract infection in children can all be estimated.

Productivity losses to vegetation and crops can be assessed by estimating

crop yield loss and by the selling price of the crop, while damage to non- commercial vegetation is much harder to value. For buildings and monuments, direct costs for cleaning soiled buildings and costs for repairing and maintenance can be assessed and valued.

In assessing damages in monetary terms, considerable amount of valuation uncertainty is added to the uncertainty of dose–response relationships. However, this step is necessary for conducting a full cost-benefit analysis of possible abatement measures.

The general procedures for environmental damage assessment involve following steps:

(i) Identify the population and stock at risk due to pollution. (ii) Determine the number of people and objects that are exposed to ambient

pollution that exceeds standards or guidelines. (iii) Identify relevant dose-response function that relates ambient levels of

pollutants to impacts on specific assets or certain aspects of health. (iv) Calculate marginal physical impact. (v) Determine monetary values per unit of physical impact. (vi) Calculate the monetary value of damage due to the change in air quality.

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Figure 6: Damage Assessment Module

Exposure Data

Air Quality guidelines

State Country WHO and

others

Dose–Effect Relations

Health Materials Buildings Monuments Vegetation

Comparison with Air Quality Guidelines ( AQGs)

No. of people above AQGs Where How often

Damage Assessment

Health Material, buildings,

monuments Vegetation

Damage Value

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3. Monetary Valuation of Health Impacts While assessing the economic valuation of health impacts it may not be

possible to measure all the costs of air pollution with precision, even approximate estimates may help to increase support for pollution control measures. Although it is clear that pollution-related illness results in financial and nonfinancial welfare losses, valuing this loss in monetary terms is uncertain and difficult. Estimating the monetary value of risk of excess mortality is often the most difficult part of health damage assessment. The lack of dose-response functions or willingness-to-pay data for developing countries makes the task even harder. Yet, such estimates are essential in order to calculate the cost and benefits of various air pollution abatement strategies.

Air pollution imposes serious health–related costs in the form of illness (morbidity) and premature death (mortality). Once these physical health impacts are estimated, then the next step involves imputing monetary values to these health impacts. This step gives us the economic benefits of reducing air pollution.

a. Economic Valuation of Morbidity Effects

Here two different approaches have been adopted for monetary valuation of morbidity effect, namely:

The cost of illness approach: This incorporates direct costs of medical

treatment as well as lost income due to illness. Although the cost of illness approach only provides lower bound values, it has several advantages. The data required for this approach can be obtained with moderate ease in most countries and estimates can easily be communicated because they are based on the costs that people easily understand.

Willingness-to-pay approach: A more theoretically sound measure of health damage is an estimate of the individuals willingness to pay to avoid the illness. There are two ways in which WTP can be estimated. It can be inferred from an individual’s averting behavior, or from an explicit expression of what the individual is willing to avoid the illness (contingent valuation). Early WTP studies did not bring income constraints to the respondent’s attention, as result of which the WTP estimates obtained were very large. Recently, more carefully done studies take into account the size of income.

b. Economic Valuation of Mortality Effects

The value of premature death caused by air pollution is based on establishing the valuation of a statistical life (VSL). Two broad alternative approaches are used to estimate VSL as:

Human capital approach: This is based on the economic productivity of an individual, and uses the individual’s discounts lifetime income as a measure of lost production due to premature mortality. Assumption made is that the value of an individual is based on what he produces which in turn is reflected in his earnings. The life years lost is multiplied by the average wage rate in the country to get the value of a premature death.

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Willingness–to-pay approach: The principle underlying WTP is the belief that in market economics, the social cost of a change in economic outcomes is measured by the sum of individuals WTP or that change. Unlike human capital approach that measure tangible changes in productivity, WTP measures capture many intangible aspects (e.g. pain, suffering, discomforts). There are two basic methods used to measure WTP for reducing mortality risks. (i) Compensating wage differential: In compensating wage differential approach,

the basic assumption is that other things being equal, workers in riskier jobs must be compensated with higher wages than workers in the safer jobs. The differential in wages reflects what individual is willing to give up if he moves to safer jobs.

(ii) Contingent valuation: Here WTP is obtained by asking people directly what they would be willing to pay for reduced risk of increased mortality.

4. Action Points for Air Pollution Exposure and Damage

Assessment (i) Guidelines for carrying out air pollution exposure and damage assessment

needs to be developed by appropriate agencies. (ii) Agencies should be identified for carrying out air pollution exposure and

damage assessment studies. (iii) Epidemiological studies should be undertaken to develop dose-response

relationship which will help in developing appropriate air quality standards. (iv) Various health-related studies carried out should be compiled and database

generated and central agencies like CPCB. (v) Health-related studies effectively used as a tool for developing strategy. (vi) Regular training on health-related studies should be imparted to SPCB. H. Common Control Strategies for Control of Air Pollution

1. Control of Point Sources

a. Siting and Planning

The most powerful and cost-effective air quality management options occur during the planning stages of a new facility, whereas options involving changes in existing production processes or pollution control technology are more limited in scope. Planning options involve careful site selection, to maximize dispersion, and location of the proposed facility away from sensitive receptors, such as residential areas or areas of natural or commercial sensitivity.

b. Source Emissions Reduction

The most cost-effective approaches to controlling existing air pollution sources are those that entail source emissions reduction. There are four major approaches, each of which requires an understanding of the processes and activities that give rise to the emissions.

Management and operational changes. Management audits of emissions, sources, and source strength, and subsequent changes in operation to reduce emissions, offer a cost-effective way of reducing emissions.

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Process optimization. This approach seeks to achieve emissions reductions by altering the production process without loss of product quality or production volume.

Combustion modification. Changes to the way in which combustion occurs can substantially reduce emissions. Increasing fuel flow in burners, by taking some burners out of service and increasing fuel flow to those remaining, can substantially reduce emissions of NOx.

Fuel modifications. Another alternative for reducing emissions is to reduce the amount of fuel used or to change the type of fuel. The simplest approach is to change the fuel from a relatively dirty fuel, such as coal, to a cleaner fuel such as natural gas.

c. Emissions Control

Tall stacks have traditionally been used to reduce ground-level concentrations of air pollutants at minimum cost to the producer.

Before a system for collecting emissions can be planned, some information is needed to identify, quantify and characterize the chemical and physical properties of the emissions, both under average and extreme conditions. This enables the optimum type and capacity of collection system to be designed. There are many forms of emissions control systems available. Following common techniques are used for controlling emissions from stationary sources. These are not comprehensive and represent only some of the more commonly used methods.

Techniques Commonly Used to Control Particle Emissions

Particle Collection System

Action

Cyclone collectors The waste gas swirls in a vessel and particles are removed by inertial impaction on the walls of a cylindrical vessel.

Filters The waste gas is forced through a fabric bag or filter beds on which particles are physically collected.

Electrostatic precipitation A negative charge is imparted to particles in the waste gas, which are attracted to positively charged collection plates.

Wet scrubbers Liquids are brought into contact with particles to form agglomerates, which are removed from the waste stream by impaction on plates or on the walls of vessels.

Techniques Commonly Used to Control Gaseous Emissions

Technique Action

Combustion Incineration is used to oxidize combustible air pollutants. It may involve open-ended combustion units such as flares, high-temperature thermal incineration involving specific retention times, and catalytic incineration.

Adsorption Solid collecting media with large surface-to-volume ratios, such as activated charcoal, are used to remove contaminants from

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waste gas streams.

Absorption This involves the use of liquids (commonly water with additives) to scrub contaminants from waste gas streams.

Condensation Condensers operate by removing heat from the gas stream, enabling the condensation of volatile liquids.

2. Integrated control strategies from Traffic Sources

a. Pollution Due to Mobile Sources Pollutants: The main air pollutants emitted by 2-wheelers, 3-wheelers, car,

trucks and buses are CO, NOx , VOC, particulates, lead and SO2. In addition PAH (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon) either volatile or as a component of suspended particles are also emitted.

Smoke and Particulates: Diesel engines in buses and trucks emit black smoke (suspended particles containing PAH). White smoke consists of atomized oil from mixed lubrication used in 2-stroke 2-wheelers and 3- wheelers. Black smoke results from inadequate mixing of air and fuel in the cylinder, with locally over-rich zones in the combustion chamber caused by higher fuel injection rates, dirty injectors, and nozzle tip wear. Adulteration with heavier fuel also increases in cylinder deposits and foul injectors. Particulate emission from gasoline vehicles and natural gas fuel vehicles tend to be much lower in mass than those from diesel vehicles, except in case of 2-stroke engine gasoline vehicles. Non-exhaust particles can also contribute significantly to particulate emission from transport sector. The factors include:

Tires and their Interaction with Different Roads

Break pad/shoe dust Operating characteristics of vehicles (speed, acceleration and loading) Type of road (paved or unpaved) Ambient weather conditions (temperature, rain and wind) Type of goods carried (in case of trucks) Re-suspension of dust due to vehicle movement

Lead: Lead originates from TEL (tetra ethyl lead) found in leaded gasoline. It

accumulates in roadside dust which, when swirled (secondary emission), exceed standard for maximal allowable lead contents.

CO: CO emissions from idling automotive engines are very large in congested traffic. In addition they increase sharply due to the maladjustment of engines. Although CO is rapidly dispersed in comparisons with other pollutants mentioned above, emissions may be large enough to exceed standards for concentration at the roadside level.

SO2: SO2 originates from sulphur in diesel oil used for automotive purposes and from fuel oils used in industries.

NOx: NOx is a collective term used to refer to two species of oxides of nitrogen: nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen oxide (NO2). NOx like SO2 contributes to soil acidification.

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VOC: VOC is a collective term for various organic compounds. Benzene, a carcinogenic compounds, and of the constituents of VOC, is released through gasoline use. In urban areas, vehicles are a major source of both NOx and VOC pollution. NOx and VOC may react photochemically with each other, producing ozone, and causing a major environmental problem. Under sunny and stagnant and weather conditions NOx and VOC cause photochemical smog.

The emission of CO, NOx, particulates and hydrocarbons varies with speed. Broadly speaking, engine emission increases, and CO, particulates and hydrocarbon decrease with increased engine temperature or increase in vehicle speed. The driving cycle has significant influence on emission levels; fuel consumption and pollutant emissions are higher per vehicle km during acceleration and deceleration than during cruise. Cold start enrichment of gasoline engine increases CO emission than in warm operation as cat converters are less effective at cold start.

b. Strategies for Reducing Emissions from Mobile Sources

i. Vehicle Emission-controlled Technologies

Historically North America, Europe, and Japan have led the world in pursuing

the best available technology for further reducing emissions from new vehicles. This has been achieved largely through regulations requiring vehicle manufacturer to meet extremely low emission standards and the use of fuel to match state-of-art vehicle technologies. There are a number of options for improvement of internal combustion engine performance, for which technologies are known. Some of these technology options have been adopted in various segments of automotive vehicles. Others must be considered by industries for adoption on the basis of techno economic considerations and cost- benefit analysis. The decision for these technological options should be taken by the industry according to their core competence when they cannot only achieve the clean emission goals, but surpass them.

Passenger Car Petrol Engines. Following are some of the technologies that

can be used to meet the specified norms:

(i) Multi-port injection system to completely replace carburetors (ii) Electronic engine management to accurately regulate fuel supply to cylinders

by sensing various engine parameters (iii) 4-valve systems to replace 2-valve system, improved combustion chambers

design, and improved inlet manifold design for axial stratification of charge (iv) Turbo-charged and turbo-charged after-cooled engines (v) Turbo compounded engines; they are found to be up to 18% better than the

conventional engines (vi) After treatment, catalytic converter and exhaust gas recycling (vii) Positive crankcase ventilation valve to reduce the total hydrocarbon emission (viii) Carbon canister (carbon filter) for controlling evaporative emission (ix) Lean burn technology, air-fuel ratio as lean as 22:1 is possible with 4- valves,

high swirl and squish generated turbulence (x) Use of ceramic piston pins, valves, blades in turbochargers (xi) Variable valve activation providing improved charged control of SI engines,

reducing fuel consumption by 5% at low/medium speed and 13% at full engine speed.

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Commercial Diesel Vehicles

(i) Improvement in fuel injection system and use of higher injection pressure; common-rail system unit injections instead of multi cylinder injection pumps

(ii) Electronically controlled injection system to provide variable injection timing with good dynamic response to engine load, speed and temperature

(iii) Improved cylinder head design, inlet port, re-entrant combustion chambers (iv) 4-valve system to improve volumetric efficiency and provide better mixing of

air and fuel (v) Turbo-charged and turbo-charged after-cooled engines to provide higher

specific power, better fuel economy and less emission pollution (vi) After treatment particulate traps and catalytic converters

Passenger Car Diesel Engines

(i) HC emission control requires: low sac volume nozzle, complete combustion of injection fuel, and minimum lube consumption

(ii) NOx emission control is helped by: cooling of intake air before entering the engine, retarded combustion, and moderate air motion

(iii) Particulate emission control is helped by high injection pressure (iv) Fine fuel atomization: intensive air motion, high air excess, and minimum lube

consumption

2- and 3-wheelers

(i) Intake, exhaust, combustion optimization (ii) Secondary air injection (iii) Fuel injection (iv) 4-stroke engine technology (v) Catalytic converter (vi) Lean burn

Vehicle Design

(i) New light material should replace the conventional materials, as weight

reduction is essential for fuel economy and emission load reduction. (ii) Reduction in air resistance (aerodynamically designed) significantly saves the

fuel and reduces emission. (iii) Reduction in rolling resistance of tires (fuel efficient or green tires) and good

road surface can save fuel to the order of 10-20%.

Retrofitting of Emission Control Devices for In-use Vehicles

The successful implementation of a retrofit program for reducing emission would depend on the following:

(i) Necessary engine modification, if any, in conjunction with the retro fitment of

emission control devices which have adequate durability (ii) The sustainable and widespread availability of the required quality of fuel (iii) Active participation of various regional transport authorities, vehicle

manufacturers and fleet operators

Available Options for Heavy-duty Diesel Engines

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(i) Base metal oxidation catalyst (ii) Base metal oxidizing PM filter (iii) Highly oxidizing precious metal PM filter (iv) 2-way catalyst (Active Lean NOx Cat+ PM filter) (v) Selective catalyst reduction

ii. Emission Standard for New Vehicles

Standards for new vehicles need to be made stringent every 5 years. The rationale behind allowing the time frame of 4-5 years is to allow the automobile industry and oil industry to take required steps for upgrading the technology and to execute projects which involve creation of new facilities, particularly at refineries besides allowing the society and the government to absorb the cost. The leapfrogging to Euro IV vehicle technologies auto fuel quality to bring the country at par with the EU may be a noble target. However, in the Indian situation, considering the investment priorities the country has to follow, a view on this need should be based on the experience of faceted drive being launched in the country for improvement in air quality including progressive introduction of Bharat Stage II norms in the entire country and Bharat Stage III norms in cities having substantial vehicle population. In respect of 2- and 3-wheeler norms India is already ahead of most of the advanced world as far as emission norms are concerned. However, there is need for tightening of norms for 2- and 3-wheelers on account of their large population.

CI Engine Control Technologies for Compliance with Emission Norms

Level of

Emission Norms Technology Option

Euro 1/India 2000 Retarded injection timings Open/re-entrant bowl Intake, exhaust and combustion optimization FIP ~ 700-800 bar, low sac injectors Naturally

Euro II/Bharat Stage II Turbo charging Injection pressure more than 800 bar, moderate swirl High pressure inline/rotary pumps, injection rate control Vo nozzle Re-entrant combustion chamber Lube oil combustion control Intercooling (optional, depends on specific power) Exhaust gas recirculating (EGR) valves (may be required for high-

speed engine car) Conversion to compressed natural gas (CNG) with catalytic

converter Euro III/Bharat Stage III Multi valve

Low swirl-high injection pressure >210 bar Rotary pumps, pilot injection rate shaping Electronic fuel shaping Electronic fuel injection Critical lube oil consumption control Variable geometry turbocharger Inter cooling Oxycat & EGR CNG/liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) High specific power output

Euro IV/ Bharat Stage IV Particulate trap NOx trap On-board diagnostic system Common rail injection-injection pressure>1,600 bar Fuel cell CNG/LPG

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SI Engine Control Technologies for Compliance with Emission Norms

2-/3-Wheelers 4-Wheelers Level of Emission Norms 2-Stroke 4-Stroke 4-Stroke

Euro I/India 2000 Intake, exhaust, combustion, optimization

Catalytic converter

4-stroke engine technology Intake, exhaust, combustion, optimization

Carburator optimization

Euro II/Bharat Stage II norms

Secondary air injection

Catalytic converter

CNG/LPG (3-wheelers only)

Hot tube Secondary air injection CNG/LPG (3- wheelers

only)

Fuel injection Catalytic converter Fixed EGR Multi valve CNG/LPG

Euro III/Bharat Stage III norms

Fuel injection Catalytic

converter

Fuel injection Carburator+catalytic

converter

Fuel injection + catalytic convertor

Variable EGR Variable valve

timing Multi valve On-board

diagnostics system CNG/LPG

Euro IV/Bharat Stage IV norms

To be developed Lean burn Fuel injection +catalytic

convertor

Direct cylinder injection

Multi brick catalytic convertor

On-board diagnostics system

iii. Road Map for Vehicle Emission Standards for India

The road map for vehicle emission standards was recommended by the expert committee on auto fuel policy and accepted by the Government in October 2003. The road map is given in Annexure III of Chapter I.

iv. Availability of Clean Fuel

Substantial improvements in air quality can be obtained through the

introduction of cleaner fuel and vehicle technology treated as a system. Regulations on vehicle emission need to be set in harmony with regulations on fuel standard.

Petrol Quality and its Impact on Emission

(i) Lead content: Health effects associated with the emission of lead and

poisoning of catalytic converter has led to the emission of leaded petrol. (ii) Sulphur content: Reducing sulphur content reduces SO2 and particulate

emission directly and reduces CO, HC and NOx indirectly through reduced poisoning effect on catalyst.

(iii) Benzene content: Evaporative and exhaust emission of benzene can be directly controlled through controlling benzene levels in petrol.

(iv) Olefin content: Higher olefin content in petrol may lead to deposit formation and emissions of reactive hydrocarbon contributing towards ozone formation in atmosphere.

(v) Aromatic content: Higher aromatics content increases engine deposit and increases tail pipe emission including CO2.

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(vi) Volatility: Vapor pressure needs to be controlled to reduce evaporative emission and vapor lock problem.

(vii) Oxygenate content: Increase in oxygenate content to some extent reduces CO emission.

Diesel Quality and its Impact on Emission

(i) Cetane number: Increase in cetane number to some extent reduces

particulate emission. (ii) Density: Reduced density to a certain extent reduces PM emission from all

diesel vehicles and NOx from heavy duty diesel vehicles. (iii) Sulphur content: Reducing sulphur content reduces SO2 and particulate

emission directly and reduces CO, HC and NOx indirectly through reduced poisoning effect on catalyst.

(iv) Distillation characteristics: Higher T95 can reduce NOx and HC emission in heavy-duty vehicles and PM and NOx in light duty vehicles.

v. Road Map for Fuel Quality Standard for India

The road map for fuel quality standards was recommended by the expert

committee on auto fuel policy and accepted by the Government in October 2003. The road map is given in Annexure III of Chapter I.

vi. Checking Fuel Adulteration

(i) Reducing price differential among solvents (ii) Appropriate monitoring and surveillance system for checking adulteration (iii) Anti-adulteration program to be backed by sound financial and legal

framework (iv) Use of appropriate markers for detecting adulteration (v) Use of alternative fuels like CNG/LPG, etc. can prove effective in dealing with

adulteration (vi) Responsibility for dispensing right quality of fuel to be made obligatory to oil

companies (vii) Consumer organizations at city/town level with necessary support from

concerned authorities serve as watchdogs to check adulteration

vii. Alternative Fuel Vehicles CNG and LPG Gaseous fuels like CNG and LPG lower particulate emission compared with

conventional diesel and lower CO and NMHC compared with conventional gasoline vehicles. For successful fuel switching, however, it is necessary to consider fuel availability and distribution network, refueling infrastructure and costs related to vehicle modification, maintenance and operation.

A switchover to gaseous fuel can be achieved either by conversion of existing

vehicle running on liquid fuels or by purchase of new dedicated vehicle manufacturer to use gaseous fuel. Engine converted to manufacture to operate on a single fuel can be optimized for that fuel for best performance and least emission. If they are designed to operate on two fuels then performance emission would be suboptimal with regard to one or both fuels.

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Motor Vehicle Technologies and Emission Benefit for CNG and LPG Vehicles

(i) For New Vehicles New generation engine technologies for cars and 3-wheelers using either

liquid or gaseous fuels have resulted in reducing pollution from auto exhaust. Gaseous fuels have an advantage over liquid fuels in respect of some of the emission parameters, whereas liquid fuels have advantage in respect of others. Engines for buses, designed and manufactured for operation on CNG, offer

benefit in terms of lower oxides of nitrogen and particulate matter. CO emissions from CNG engines are, however, higher as compared to emissions from diesel engines. The particulate matter emission benefits derived from EURO II and higher diesel technology buses are as high as 85% compared to particulate matter emission from pre-EURO technology on road buses. (ii) For Conversion of Old Vehicles In case of older model petrol passenger cars, change-over to gaseous fuel in

most cases results in reduction in CO emission, however, NOx in some cases may go up. Particulates are low in both cases. In case of old generation diesel cars and 3-wheeler conversion/

retrofitment/replacement of the engine to 4-stroke engine on gaseous fuel gives benefit in terms of reduced particulate emission. In case of diesel buses a change-over to CNG results in benefits in terms of

particulate matter emissions, with disadvantage on CO and other emissions. In case of old generation 2-stroke petrol 3-wheelers, a change-over to 4-stroke

engine with gaseous fuel provides particulate emission benefits but there may be a penalty on CO and NOx emission.

Safety Related Issues on Use of Gaseous Fuel (CNG and LPG) as Auto Fuel

(i) Refueling: Leakage from filling nozzle or CNG kit and its connected piping needs to be stopped. (ii) Servicing of CNG vehicles: Servicing/maintenance of CNG vehicles needs to be carried out only by authorized garages or workshops equipped with proper facilities and trained manpower. (iii) Conversion of petrol/diesel vehicles to CNG: Conversion to be carried out at authorized agencies. (iv) Periodic inspections: It is essential to carry out periodic checks to ascertain the integrity of the CNG kit through a third party. (v) Training of drivers/passengers: Special training of drivers needs to be carried out about the safety aspects.

In places where infrastructure for CNG fuel is not available LPG can be a good option. An LPG kit has to be approved by a government-authorized department. A static cylinder as in case of CNG is safer than replacable cylinder. The propane content of LPG is also important.

Biofuels

The most commonly used bio-fuels are ethanol and bio-diesel. Bio-fuels can be used for diversifying energy sources as well as reducing emissions including GHG.

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Ethanol blended gasoline (5-10%) can reduce emission of CO and HC in old engines but has little advantage in modern gasoline engines equipped with an oxygen sensor. Ethanol addition can cause increase in fuel volatility and higher emission of aldehydes, which is an ozone precursor. In India 5% ethanol blended gasoline has been introduced in many states from 2003.

Bio-diesel refers to ester of vegetable oils. India has a large potential for production of non-edible oil seeds. Use of bio-diesel in diesel vehicles can lower particulate CO and HC emission. 5% bio-diesel is widely accepted by vehicle manufacturers. Bio-diesel seems to increase NOx emission and at low temperature plugs the filter.

Electric Vehicles

Electric vehicles are least polluting compared to other vehicles. Electric trains and trolley buses are cost-effective for fixed route public transport on high volume routes. For private vehicles hybrid technology would be more promising than battery-operated electric vehicles. Hybrid electric vehicles use the combination of engine of a conventional vehicle with electric motor powered by traction batteries and/or fuel cell.

Hydrogen Vehicles

Hydrogen is receiving worldwide attention as a clean fuel and efficient energy storage medium for automobiles. Hydrogen from water and solar energy can be produced through several ways. Hydrogen as metal hydrides is capable of storing and releasing hydrogen in a safe and environmentally clean manner.

viii. Two-stroke Engine Lubricant

Lubricants added to 2-stroke gasoline 2-wheelers and 3-wheelers cause high particulate emissions. They should be smokeless type meeting Japanese Automotive Standard Organisation (JASO) FC specifications. Their use in vehicles should be restricted to the amount recommended by the manufacturers by having premix 2T oil facility at refilling station.

ix. Restricting Gross Polluters

Elimination of gross can be an important instrument for reducing transport

generated air pollution because of their high contribution of pollution and lesser safety due to older vehicle technology. Age-based scrapage scheme are especially problematic if a given vehicle category has a large number of owners with different maintenance behavior and driving patterns. The decision to impose an age limit as well as the age to be selected should take into account available data on emission, vehicle ownership pattern, fast history of emission standard for new vehicles and financial state fleet operators where fleets are involved.

x. Encouragement of Nonmotorized Transport

Provision for safe and comfortable walking and other forms of nonmotorized

transport like bicycle, cycle rickshaws, etc. should be an integral part of an urban air quality strategy. Dedicated pathways or segregation of roads for nonmotorized transport can reduce environmental impacts and accidents when motorized and nonmotorized traffic share road space.

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xi. Traffic Management

Traffic management has been estimated to reduce emission by 2-5% overall, but by much greater proportion in specific corridors or areas, by making traffic flow smoothly. A number of devices such as one-way street system, linked traffic signal systems and traffic control systems can contribute to smoothing traffic flow. The adverse affects of new traffic generated by improved traffic management are offset by simultaneous introduction of demand management instruments to limit traffic growth and protect areas where exposure is greatest.

xii. Road System Design

Improved radial or ring road performance or bypasses increase the number

and length of trips made to such an extent that total traffic and total emission actual increase. Therefore new infrastructure should be designed to minimize chances of creating hot spots. Thus an increase in infrastructure capacity will result in improved air quality only if embedded in a comprehensive urban transport strategy involving parallel restrain of vehicles and local environmental protection. Provision of adequate pedestrian facilities improves air quality by keeping traffic away from sensitive, high exposure locations and by encouraging walking as the preferred mode for short strips.

xiii. Control of Public Transport

Public transport affects urban air pollution both directly, through emission of

public transport vehicles and indirectly, by providing an alternative to a much larger number of private cars. However, provided that public transport is sufficiently attractive to draw passengers away from private vehicles to high occupancy public transport vehicles and is well-maintained, on balance public transport promotion can bring significant environmental benefits. Public transport priorities by dedication of lanes or total segregation of the bus ways will counteract the problems of mixed traffic. Institutional and regulatory reform to create orderly competition for franchises can improve performance of public transport. Imposing stringent vehicular emission standards without attention to the financial sustainability of public transport operations can undermine the viability of public transport and have a counter-productive effect.

xiv. Mass Transit

Electrically propelled transit modes are the least locally polluting form of mass

transit but are expensive. Rail mass transit subsidies are likely to have only weak influence on urban air quality and should be relied only in the context of comprehensive urban transport strategy. More affordable mass transit alternatives like electric trolleys or CNG buses can often yield substantial environmental benefits at much reduced cost.

xv. Land-use Policy

The establishment of land use and transport structure plan is the best basis for

the application of environmentally friendly transport development. The different dimensions in land use planning are increase in population density, creating monocentric structures like central business districts, judicious mixing of low pollution land uses, and good design of local facilities for nonmotorized transport.

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xvi. Road Pricing

Direct pricing of road use has a high potential in developing countries both as a means of generating local revenue and of reducing congestion and air pollution.

xvii. Parking Policies

Parking policies for discouraging private vehicle can affect air quality indirectly.

Strong regulation to limit on-street parking to locations where it has no effect on traffic flow is likely to ease traffic congestion.

c. Air Pollution due to Stationary Sources

Air pollution due to stationary combustion: The chemical composition of fuel

determines the type of pollutant that will be released when the fuel is combusted. An exception is NOx, which is formed from Oxygen and Nitrogen, both compounds in the air. The rate of NOx production is affected most by construction and operation of boilers, furnaces and other combustion equipments. A main parameter is the combustion temperature; higher flame temperatures lead to greater rates of Nox production.

SO2 is formed by combustion of sulfur which is a minor constituent of fuel. The

amount of SO2 emitted is directly related to the sulfur content of the fuel.

TSP (including PM10) pollution originates from the noncombustible matter in fuel (coal, fuel oil) or in the case of malfunctioning combustion equipment, from soot production. TSP is the carrier of heavy metal and PAHs.

PAHs are present in fuels and also arise from incomplete combustion of heavy

hydrocarbons (constituent of heavy fuel oils and coal).

VOCs and CO also result from incomplete combustion. As compared with traffic sources stationary combustion is a minor source of CO and VOC. Cooking on unvented or other stoves, without adequate ventilation, results in indoor air pollution and is a substantial threat to health. CO and carcinogenic soot are main pollutants.

i. Strategies to Control Air Pollution from Stationary

Sources

There are various technologies/strategies available to control air pollution from stationary sources. Some of these technologies are given below: (i) Technology/Strategies to Control SO2 Emission:

Using lower sulfur fuels Switching from coal or fuel to natural gas Flue gas desulfurization Sorbent injection of lime Increase in stack height

(ii) Technology/Strategies to Control NOx Emission:

Adjustment of burners (low NOx firing techniques) DeNOx selective catalytic reduction

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(iii) Technology/Strategies to Control Particulate Emission:

Cyclone Multiclone Wet scrubber Electrostatic precipitator (ESP) Fabric filters

ii. Air Pollution Control Technology/Strategies in

Specific Industries:

(i) Aluminum Industries

Reducing fluoride emission and particulates

Pre-baked technology Dry scrubbing technology Reducing fluoride consumption

(ii) Chlor-alkali Industries

Reducing mercury emission and particulates

Cell house with suction arrangement and scrubbing system Reducing mercury consumption Change over to membrane cell technology

(iii) Cement Industries

Recommended air pollution control equipment for different sections

Crusher: Bag filter Rawmill: Bag filter/ESP Kiln: Bag filter/ESP with GCT Clinker Cooler: ESP/Bag filter with heat exchanger Coal Mill: Bag filter/ESP Cement Mill: Bag filter/ESP Packing Plant: Bag filter

(iv) Fugitive Emission Control

Local exhaust ventilation system Water spray Proper housekeeping Enclosed storage facilities

(v) Greenhouse Gas Emission Control

Improvement of energy efficiency Conversion of wet and semi-dry to dry process Replacing high carbon fuels by low carbon fuels Applying lower clinker/cement ratio Recovery of waste heat for co-generation of power

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Removal/recovery of CO2 from the flue gases

(vi) Energy Efficiency Improvement Options

Conversion of wet process plant to dry process 5-6 stage preheaters with low pressure drop cyclones Cogeneration of powers utilizing waste heat Use of vertical roller mills Use of high pressure grinding rolls Use of high efficiency separators Use of gyratory crushers and mobile crushers Use of high efficiency fans Adoption of efficient material conveying system Adoption of online coal quality modulation system Usage of washed coal Utilization of alternative fuels like natural gas, lignite and waste fuel Reduction of false air infiltration Manufacture of blended cements Process optimization and maintenance management

(vii) Copper Industry

Reducing SO2 and particulate emission

Installation of scrubber with DCDA process Conversion of SCSA plant to DCDA process

(viii) Integrated Iron and Steel Industry

Coke Oven Plants

High pressure liquid aspiration Water sealed AP caps Hydro-jets cleaning for doors and door frame Hermetically sealed charging sleeves and screw feeder Charging with magnetic lid lifter along with lid and frame cleaning Computerized combustion control and moisture control system Air cooled self-sealing doors

Steel Melting Shop

Bag filters ESP BOS gas recovery through suppressed combustion, scrubbing and dry

ESP Centralized vacuum cleaner for dust deposition in upper floor of

converter Blast Furnace

Direct injection of reducing agents Use of tar-free runner linings Blast furnace gas cleaning with efficient de-dusting through scrubber or

wet ESP and reuse of coarse particulate matters

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Cast house deducting (tap holes, runners, skimmers, ladle charging points)

Suppression of fugitive emission using nitrogen gas Thermal Power Plants

ESP Bag filter

Lime and Dolomite Plant

Cyclone ESP Bag filter

(ix) Fertilizer Industries

Ammonia Plant

Process condensate with Stream stripper with recovery of ammonia Purge gas recovery unit for recovery of ammonia and tail gas Non-arsenic based absorbent solution for CO2 recovery

NPK Plant

Scrubbing and recycling of gases

Sulphuric Acid Plant

Use of DCDA system for controlling SO2

Nitric Acid Plant

Catalytic reduction of NOx

Phosphoric Acid Plant

Scrubbing of fluoride emission Dust control system at grinding plants

Urea Plant

Prilling towers with natural drafts Scrubbers

(x) Oil Refinery

SO2 Control

Use of low sulfur fuel Sulfur recovering unit with sulfur recovery of 99.0%

NOx Control

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Low /ultra low NOx burner in furnaces

VOC Control

Vapor recovery/closed loop ventilation system in fixed loop product tank

Tank bottom filling system with regulated vapor removal Flaring

Flaring should be minimized Acid gas flaring should be stopped

(xi) Petrochemical Industry VOC Control Technologies (Recovery/Destruction)

Condensation, Cryo condensation Adsorption regenerative Scrubber Selective membrane separation Flaring with or without steam/air Thermal incineration Catalytic oxidation

Cracking Unit

Low NOx burners Preheated air

Incineration

Double combustion chambers

Flaring

As a standby, no continuous releases to flare

(xii) Thermal Power Plants

Particulate Emission Control

Improving efficiencies of ESP Use of beneficiated coal with ash content not more than 34% Bag filters with ESP

SO2 Emission Control

Use of beneficiated coal Review of stack height Flue gas desulphurization Clean coal combustion technology like fluidized bed combustion,

integrated gasification combined cycle, etc.

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NOx Emission Control

Use of low NOx burners in gas-based plants Clean coal combustion technology like fluidized bed combustion,

integrated gasification combined cycle, etc.

d. Air Pollution from Area Sources

The options for controlling area sources can be classified as technical, regulatory, educational and market-based strategies.

Technical strategies involve investigating alternatives to existing polluting activities, and implementing cleaner production and pollution prevention technologies and best practices. They encourage the replacement of existing technologies with lower- or zero-emission technologies.

Regulatory strategies involve legal enforcement of regulations at local and national government levels. This could involve banning of some emissions, banning of some open burning, or burning of materials during certain periods, increasing penalties, control of fuel quality, and restrictions on the types of combustion equipment available.

Educational strategies involve informing the community about sources of emissions and the impact of air pollution on health and the environment, and informing them about practices such as open burning, use of poor quality fuels etc., which lead to pollution.

Market-based strategies may involve polluter pays concepts. They include changes in cost structures to provide financial incentives for using clean fuels. They also involve reducing the costs of emissions licenses for adopting best practices, load-based emission charges and true cost pricing of resources.

e. Education and Communication

Effective education and communication are important tools in raising public awareness of air quality issues. The successes of air quality management strategies have often involved action at all levels in the community.

I. Evaluation of Control Options

The main objective of any air quality management program is to develop a strategy for improving urban air quality. Development of an optimal air quality improvement strategy requires evaluation of various available control options for air quality improvement. A systematic approach, therefore, is needed to formulate a strategy for improving air quality. Such an approach should:

(i) List various control options available. (ii) Evaluate various control options by taking into consideration environmental,

technical, social and financial factors. (iii) Use cost-effectiveness as the primary criteria for selecting optimal strategies

across various sources and sectors. (iv) Assess effectiveness of measures implemented in the past should also be

taken into consideration.

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(v) Development of optimal control strategy.

1. Guiding Principles in Evaluating Control Options

Industrial countries have made significant progress in improving their air quality by applying a combination of environmental and sectoral regulations, incentives and fiscal measures, and advanced technologies. In many developing countries, choices about the feasibility, sequencing, and timing of similar measures have serious fiscal and economic consequences. The guiding principles for selection of strategies and regulations should be balancing of costs and benefits and institutional feasibility of the measures. The transfer of advanced technology without consideration of their applicability, or the use or strictly sectoral approaches to improving air quality, may fail to produce desired effect if not based on comprehensive strategy.

a. Health and Environmental Concerns

This requires identification of the main environmental concerns on the basis of assessment of risks to human health and to environmental resources, and relative source contribution. This may involve use of dose-response relations, or risk assessment techniques. The costs and benefits of each option should be assessed for health and environmental factors.

b. Technical

There needs to be confidence that the selected options are technically practical within the resources of the region. It must be possible to bring a selected option into operation, and maintain the expected level of performance in the long term with the resources available.

c. Social

The costs and benefits of each option should be assessed for social equity in its effects on people's lifestyles, community structures and cultural traditions. Considerations may include, disruption or displacement of residents or land uses, impacts on community, culture, and recreation. Some impacts can be managed and resources substituted.

d. Financial

The selected options must be financially viable in the long term. This may require comparative cost-benefit assessments of options. These assessments must include not only the capital costs of bringing an option into operation, but also the costs of maintaining the expected level of performance in the long term.

2. Cost-Benefit Analysis

On the basis of identified currently used and potentially applicable instruments for implementing the technical measures, which abatement scenario to be implemented has to be estimated. We need to estimate damage reduction achieved by the implementing short-listed abatement scenarios. After that costs of abatement scenarios is compared with the benefits associated so as to select the best set of abatement measures Figure 7.

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Figure 7: Comparisons of Costs of Abatement Scenarios with Benefits

Abatement measures options

Change in the exposure data

Abatement Costs

Comparison with air quality guidelines

Cost-Effective Analysis Cost-Benefit Analysis

Reduced Damage Cost

Damage Assessment

Selected Air Pollution abatement measures and

regulations

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Cost-benefit analysis (CBA) and cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA) are analytical methods to select a “Best set” of policy measures. In order to conduct comprehensive costs and benefits, each control option needs to be identified, quantified, and valued in monetary terms. The comparison across measures helps to rank them in such a way that the measure with the largest net social benefit is selected.

The calculation of total benefits of a policy measure requires following four steps:

(i) Estimated reduction in emissions at source, (ii) Estimated reduction in ambient concentration as a result of reduction in

emissions, (iii) Estimated reduction in exposure to pollutants, and (iv) Assessment of increased health benefits.

In the final analysis, economic values of health benefits are compared with the monetary costs of measures. Although a complete cost benefit is theoretically possible, benefits can often be accurately assessed. This may be due to

(i) Comprehensive and reliable data are not available (ii) Some impacts of air pollution are not easy to quantify (iii) Due to particular uncertainties in dose-effect relationship (iv) Monetary evaluation methods

a. Cost-effectiveness Analysis

In CEA, only the costs of measures are considered, whereas the benefits are expressed in physical terms, such as reduced emissions or reduced concentration. The primary objective of CEA is to attain a given pollution reduction goal at the least cost. An analyst considering CEA would ask the following questions:

(i) What pollutants require priority attention in the city? (ii) By how much does the ambient concentration of these pollutants need to be

reduced in order to meet specified goals or standards? (iii) What are the available least cost options to reduce these levels?

In CEA, the benefits (i.e., the monetized reduced environmental damages) are not estimated but restrictions are set to emissions and/or concentration of one or more pollutants. For each set of measures it is determined whether the restriction are meant and at what cost. The set that meets them at lowest cost is then selected.

b. Cost-benefit Analysis

In CBA both the costs of air pollution reduction measures and their benefits (i.e., reduced air pollution damage) are expressed in monetary terms. CBA requires the estimation of the full benefit stream, something that is not required for CEA. The benefit/cost (B/C) ratio is a unit to assess if a set of measures is desirable or not. Only if the B/C exceeds the value of 1 is the set of measures worthwhile.

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The goal of CBA and CEA is to investigate and identify the best set of measures. Both methods must analyze three kinds of costs: investment, operation and maintenance.

3. Action Points for Evaluating Control Strategies

(i) Guidelines for study of evaluation of control options including CBA needs to be developed.

(ii) Training for use of such studies needs to be imparted to the State Pollution Control Board concerned by the appropriate agency.

(iii) These studies should be effectively used for implementing an air quality management strategy.

J. Development of an Integrated Air Quality Management Plan for Control of Air Pollution in India

An AQM plan presents the prioritized list of abatement and other measures to

improve air quality, and to maintain it within pre-described levels in the short and medium term. It outlines the steps required to implement a full air quality management system in any given city, consistent with that city’s circumstances, capabilities, and needs.

The AQM plan is developed using the air quality management system. The final aim of the action plan is to identify and implement a least-cost package of measures to improve air quality, such that the marginal costs equal the marginal benefits. Authorities responsible for preparing action plans regarding control of air pollution in their respective cities base their decisions on subjective assessment of economic and social costs, benefits, feasibility and other considerations.

While developing an integrated AQM plan, the following components should be at least taken into consideration: (i) Constitution of a working group for preparation of air quality management plan (ii) Development of a working strategy (iii) Air quality assessment (iv) Environment damage assessment (v) Evaluation of various control options (vi) Cost-benefit analysis or cost-effective analysis (vii) Selection of abatement measures (viii) Development of a time-bound optimum pollution control strategy, i.e., an

action plan

Assessment of air quality, environmental damage, and abatement options are inputs into cost-benefit analysis or cost-effective analysis. Establishment of air quality objectives also guides cost-benefit analysis and cost-effective analysis and economic objectives. The final result of such analysis is an optimum control strategy in the form of action plan, with prioritized abatement measures. All these components required for preparing an effective action plan.

Besides above said components other things that are required to be incorporated in an action plan is a background note on the city for which an action plan has to be prepared. Note on the city should take into consideration the topography, climatic conditions, land-use pattern, historical significance of the city (if any), prominent environmental problems, health status and steps taken so far for

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control of air pollution in the city. The background may also include the road network and infrastructure facilities available in the city/town. Any major environmental episode or any serious air pollution hazard being faced by the city/town, if any, should also find special mention in the background note.

There are three developmental phases in an action plan:

(i) Phase I: Immediate actions. Strategy for immediate control of most urgent problems

(ii) Phase II: Intermediate actions. Strategy for control in an intermediate time scale (about 5 years), based on current development trends

(iii) Phase III: Long-term action. Strategy for control over a long-time scale (more than 10 years), based on long-term projection

1. Steps for Preparing an Air Quality Management Plan

All the steps for the preparation of an action plan are mentioned in a

comprehensive tabulated form in Table 8.

Table 8: Approach Steps for Preparation of Action Plan for the Control of Air Pollution

S.No. Steps Remark

1. Constitution of working group A working group has to be constituted for preparation of an action plan. Working group may include representatives from CPCB, SPCB, local agencies, MoPNG, SIAM, MoRTH, development authorities, city planners, state transport department, educationalists and researchers of concerned field, representatives from public forum, NGOs, etc.

2. Development of work strategy for air quality management

Working group is required to develop a work strategy for air quality management at the local level by referring to successful air quality management strategies and practices at international and national levels

3. Assessment of air quality and environmental damage/ inventory

This Involves emission inventory of mobile and stationary sources, ambient air quality monitoring, identification of nonattainment areas, and ultimately identification of most important (priority) damage categories and priority pollutants.

4. Evaluation of control options This involves subjective verification and selection of all technical measures available for controlling pollution, air quality management strategies practised in India, and studying feasibility of implementation by considering social, environmental, health and finally financial issues.

5. Optimal control strategy Ultimately optimal control strategy, i.e., the action plan is formulated along with the time frame required for its implementation.

6. Constitution of air quality management and surveillance committees

Constitution of several committees is required for management and maintenance of good air quality and review of various actions initiated.

2. Components of an Air Quality Management Plan

The air quality management plans should include the following components:

(i) Geographic and demographic information of the area (ii) Air quality monitoring: location and frequency of monitoring, pollutants

monitored, QA/QC strategy, air quality trends, impact analysis, etc. (iii) Emission inventory study

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(iv) Description of the various air polluting sources (v) Source apportionment study (vi) Health impact/epidemiological study (vii) Emission control strategy implemented (viii) Cost-benefit analysis study (ix) Short-term, medium-term and long-term strategy proposed with time targets (x) Institutional mechanism

3. Constitution of Subcommittees for Implementation of an Air Quality Management Plan

Once air quality management plan for control of air pollution in a particular area has been prepared, there is need for some further work to be done for effective management of an air quality management plan. The working group or the inter-ministerial task force should constitute various subcommittees for coordination of various activities of air quality management system. Following subcommittees to be constituted at state level:

Subcommittee for air regulation: This subcommittee should coordinate the statewide air compliance and enforcement program among the state and local air programs. Its special projects should include the development of appropriate computer database, review of the data to recognize trends in noncompliance, and assistance to state and local air programs.

Subcommittee for air monitoring and mobile sources: This subcommittee should hold the responsibility for coordinating the state-wide emissions monitoring programs and various activities related to control of air pollution emissions from motor vehicles and area sources.

Subcommittee for policy analysis and program management: This subcommittee should be responsible for developing air pollution rules; updating the state implementation plan as needed to ensure attainment and maintenance of national ambient air quality standards throughout the state; coordinating all activities related to compilation of statewide air pollutants emissions inventories; and assessing the effectiveness of the state pollution control strategy through trend analysis and air quality modeling.

Subcommittee for environmental education and public awareness: This subcommittee should help citizens learn about statewide environmental education activities through public outreach activities. Massive thrust is provided for mass awareness campaigns regarding air pollution involving community level organizations such as resident associations, students, senior citizens, voluntary bodies, local action groups and NGOs to look for innovative ways to solve health, transport, housing and environmental problems and strategic plans for their implementation. Public outreach activities may include activities like constitution of eco-clubs where the general public can become aware about air pollution, its harmful effects and what initiative an individual himself can take to get rid of pollution, further organizing environment education camps, organizing an eco-quiz and awarding prizes to most eco-friendly societies within the city can prove fruitful for public awareness regarding pollution control.

Subcommittee for assessment of public health: This subcommittee should be assigned with the duty of assessing public health within the state as public health

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status could prove to be the best indicator of effectiveness of the air pollution control strategy implemented in the state.

Subcommittee to structuring fiscal measure to control air pollution: This committee should look into fiscal measures for controlling air pollution like hiking taxation from interstate/intercity vehicles, parking charges, Congestion taxes, “polluters pay” charges from polluting industries and vehicles, etc. Further money collected this way can be used for the development of the area/city/state in an environment-friendly way.

4. Air Quality Information System for India

In order to ensure that an AQMS is having the desired impact, it is important to not only continuously monitor air quality, but to widely disseminate the monitoring results. An air quality information system (AQIS) has several significant uses. AQM authorities use it to enforce laws and regulations, issue permits, and develop strategies and policies. Polluters (i.e., industries) can use it to monitor the impacts of their activities. The public can refer to air quality information to understand the effects of each individual’s activities (traffic, cooking, refuse burning), change attitudes, the effects of the pollution, and the measures introduced by the authorities. An AQIS can ultimately be used in concert with all the players above for air pollution forecasting and alert measures during pollution episodes.

a. Objectives

To exchange information on AQM between different cities in India and SASEC countries

b. Functions of Air Management Information System (i) Storage of information and data pertaining to components of AQM system

(monitoring, inventory, source apportionment, health studies, etc.) (ii) Interpretation and dissemination of data (iii) Providing training courses and guidelines (iv) Networking with different AMISs of SPCB

c. Institutional Mechanism

Constitution of centralized AMIS at CPCB (upgradation of data bank) Constitution of AMIS at SPCBs (i) Online connection with AMISs (ii) Development of AMIS website (iii) Strengthened with proper manpower and infrastructure (iv) Networking with different AMISs of SPCB (v) Adequate funds allocated

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d. Characteristics of AMIS

(i) Timeliness of data (able to present the previous month’s data) (ii) Efficiency (working together of institutions involved in monitoring, chemical

analysis, enforcement, and reporting) (iii) Public reporting (polluters and public-at-large should have access to the most

up-to-date monitoring data) e. Features of AMIS Database

(i) Monitoring: daily, monthly and annual data, statistical data, graphs,

interpretation of data, meteorological data, guidelines, manuals (ii) Inventory: grid-wise polluting source data, emission inventory data, emission

factors, guidelines, models, manuals (iii) Source apportionment data: chemical profiles, models, guidelines, manuals,

instruments, source apportionment data (iv) Health impact studies: data of health studies, guidelines (v) Control strategies: control strategies data, evaluation data, impact study data,

cost-benefit analysis data (vi) AQM plans: guidelines, AQM plans of cities

4. Public Awareness in Air Quality Management

Sustained public awareness and concern over the effects of air pollution, the introduction of new sources of pollution and new pollutants, new responsibilities for pollution monitoring and control arising from legislation, all highlight a continuing need for up-to-date and reliable information on air pollution.

Public education programs have been successfully used to change the way people maintain their vehicles and support pollution control programs. They are used by air pollution regulators to inform the public of air quality conditions and health hazards. Programs developed for school children teach them the importance of a clean, healthy environment, and their role in protecting air quality.

Resource materials should be developed for effective public awareness. The resource materials should be intended to raise public awareness about the health effects of air pollution and possible actions that may be taken to reduce and prevent those effects. It should provide resources and ideas that can be modified to fit specific communities. The materials should be designed in a way to target

(i) General adult population (ii) Parents of children with asthma (iii) Seniors (iv) Health professionals (v) Minorities

Answers to frequently asked questions about air pollution, descriptions of its health effects, information about how various communities and employers are working to prevent pollution, personal clean air tips, and a variety of other information should be included so as to give complete knowhow of the problem and ways to mitigate it.

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Air quality forecast should be frequently given on the radio/TV to allow the community to keep track of air quality conditions in their region.

For example, in the wintertime, as cooler temperatures and reduced sunlight diminish ozone problems, particulate matter (PM) becomes the pollutant with the greatest impact on air quality. If morning forecast predicts unhealthy air quality the media should make effort to alert residents by refraining them from burning wood, by taking public transportation, and by trip-linking any necessary evening errands to avoid higher-polluting cold starts of their cars.

Banners and information boards placed by government and corporate along with media should play a role in giving clean air tips such as

(i) Break the wood burning habit this year and don't burn wood. Retrofit your fireplace to burn natural gas, a cleaner alternative to wood burning.

(ii) Never burn garbage, chemically treated or painted wood, or holiday wrapping paper─they can produce noxious smoke and fumes, and release toxic compounds into the air.

(iii) Maintain your vehicle regularly (iv) Air pollution can affect many body organs (v) The air that people breathe also affects the air of our pets, our livestock and

the many wildlife species we value.

The multi-media education program should be conducted in schools as well as different government-run health schemes to focus upon serious public health problems that can affect many organs and systems of the human body, including the heart, blood and skin, and the central nervous, immune, muscular and skeletal systems.

It should be used to educate a corps of physicians and their healthcare colleagues across the country and ask them to help educate the people in their communities. The goal of the public awareness program should be to increase public awareness about the potential risks posed by air pollution and the importance of preventing air pollution in the first place. Air pollution also affects special populations, including women, children, seniors and minorities.

The multi-media education program should consist of four parts:

(i) a slide show on the Internet (ii) a slide show on CD-ROM (iii) a slide show on diskette (iv) a traditional slide show with teaching text

The program should be developed after consulting a superb faculty of expert medical specialists, among others, who are leaders in their fields and have extensive research training and clinical experience and the general public who have worked for a comprehensive air pollution prevention campaign. It should be based on solid scientific information.

Role of State/Central Government: In order to enhance the public's awareness of air quality and public health relationships, air pollution control techniques, and ways in which the public can participate in regulatory and other efforts to improve the air quality, the Government should:

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(i) Provide information to the public via a government’s report; (ii) Publish prominent public notice in the news media of the Government’s

regulatory actions; (iii) Make itself available to the public via public forums, the news media, etc., to

involve the public in the Government’s ongoing efforts to improve air quality.

Role of NGOs: Local NGOs play important role in conducting public awareness programs. They should formulate courses for a broad spectrum of people including government inspectors and specialists at city and oblast levels, industry managers, NGO leaders, research and education professionals, and concerned citizens. The course material and training programs should:

(i) Provide courses in air and environmental management for public officials, NGOs, industry and business representatives, research institutions, and citizenry. Courses should be intended to utilize interactive teaching methodologies and incorporate local content, regulations, legislation and examples.

(ii) Institutionalize the training capacity within the city, to ensure that the lessons learned would continue to be understood and acted upon by future leaders.

(iii) Develop a pool of local facilitators trained to offer the courses and conduct continuing train-the-trainer sessions.

(iv) Ensure that the Center developed managerial ability to continue to serve the needs of the public even after the formal end.

(v) Share training courses and related information with other centers and institutions all over the country.

5. Action Points for Air Quality Management Plan

(i) Detailed guidelines for preparation of an integrated air quality management plan needs to be developed. A comprehensive urban air quality management strategy should be formulated using information related to urban planning, ambient air quality, an emission inventory, and air quality dispersion models. Strengthening the monitoring network and institutional capabilities would facilitate an improvement in the enforcement mechanism.

(ii) A working group or inter-ministerial task force headed by chief secretary of the State should be constituted for developing and implemented air quality management plan.

(iii) Experience of successful implementation of air quality management plan in one city may be shared by another city/town. State boards should also give stress on information exchange and better coordination among each other.

(iv) Concept of public participation should be always considered for developing an integrated air quality plan. As local experience of public can result in the development of a more efficient and socially acceptable action plan and further getting the public involved will make the public more concerned toward achieving the objective of clean air.

(v) The air quality management plan is a dynamic system and needs to be improved further based on up-to-date practices on various components of an air quality management system

(vi) Economic instruments need to be put in place to encourage industries to adopt cleaner technologies and other conservation practices and to discourage the overutilization of natural resources.

6. Action Points for Indoor Air pollution

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(i) Air quality guidelines for indoor pollution should be developed by CPCB based on indoor air quality data and guidelines of WHO and Australia.

(ii) Indoor air quality data needs to be generated for different pollutants in urban cities by SPCB and other organizations.

(iii) Health impact studies of indoor air quality need to be carried out.

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REFERENCES

1. Guidelines for Air Quality Monitoring. CPCB publication. 2. WHO Air quality guidelines 1997 Website (www.euro.who.int/air/activities) 3. ETC Canada 1995 Website www.etc-cte.ec.ca/publication 4. IS 5182 (part 14:2000) Methods for measurement of air pollution: Part

14:Guidelines for planning the sampling of atmosphere (second revision).

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Annexure I

EMISSION FACTORS FOR DIFFERENT VEHICLES

Type Norm CO HC NOx PM Pre Euro Norms up to 1995 9.8 1.7 1.8 0.06 Pre Euro Norms 1996-2000 3.9 0.8 1.1 0.05 India Stage 2000 norms (Euro-I) 2.4 0.48 0.39 0.04 Bharat Stage-II (Euro-II) 1.98 0.25 0.2 0.03 Bharat Stage-III (Euro-III) 1.39 0.15 0.12 0.02

PCG/MUVG

Bharat Stage-IV (Euro-IV) 1.0 0.126 0.127 0.016 Pre Euro Norms up to 1995 7.3 0.37 2.77 0.84 Pre Euro Norms 1996-2000 1.2 0.37 0.69 0.42 India Stage 2000 norms (Euro-I) 1.0 0.25 0.59 0.14 Bharat Stage-II (Euro-II) 0.9 0.13 0.5 0.07 Bharat Stage-III (Euro-III) 0.58 0.05 0.45 0.05

PCD/MUVD

Bharat Stage-IV (Euro-IV) 0.50 0.056 0.5 0.05 Pre Euro Norms up to 1995 8.7 0.34 3.15 0.8 Pre Euro Norms 1996-2000 6.9 0.28 2.49 0.5 India Stage 2000 norms (Euro-I) 5.1 0.14 1.28 0.2 Bharat Stage-II (Euro-II) 0.72 0.063 0.59 0.07 Bharat Stage-III (Euro-III) 0.64 0.056 0.50 0.05

LCV

Bharat Stage-IV (Euro-IV) 0.50 0.030 0.025 0.025 Pre Euro Norms up to 1995 5.5 1.78 9.5 1.5 Pre Euro Norms 1996-2000 4.5 1.21 8.4 0.8 India Stage 2000 norms (Euro-I) 3.6 0.87 6.3 0.28 Bharat Stage-II (Euro-II) 3.2 0.97 5.5 0.12 Bharat Stage-III (Euro-III) 2.8 0.77 5 0.10

Trucks

Bharat Stage-IV (Euro-IV) 1.4 0.39 2.45 0.06 Pre Euro Norms up to 1995 5.5 1.78 19 3 Pre Euro Norms 1996-2000 4.5 1.21 16.8 1.6 India Stage 2000 norms (Euro-I) 3.6 0.87 12.6 0.56 Bharat Stage-II (Euro-II) 3.2 0.87 11 0.24 Bharat Stage-III (Euro-III) 2.8 0.77 10 0.24

Bus

Bharat Stage-IV (Euro-IV) 1.4 0.39 4.9 0.22 Pre 1995 Norms 6.5 3.9 0.03 0.23 1996-2000 Norms 4.0 3.3 0.06 0.1 2001-2005 norms (India Stage 2000 norms)

2.2 2.13 0.06 0.05

2-wheeler 2-stroke

2005-2010 norms (Bharat Stage-II norms 1.4 1.32 0.07 0.05 Pre 1995 Norms 3 0.8 0.31 0.07 1996-2000 Norms 2.6 0.7 0.3 0.06 2001-2005 norms (India Stage 2000 norms)

2.2 0.7 0.3 0.05

2-wheeler 4-stroke

2005-2010 norms (Bharat Stage-II norms 2.4 0.7 0.3 0.05 Pre 1995 Norms 14 8.3 0.05 0.35 1996-2000 Norms 8.6 7.7 0.09 0.15 2001-2005 norms (India Stage 2000 norms)

4.3 2.05 0.11 0.08

3-wheelers 2-stroke

2005-2010 norms (Bharat Stage-II norms) 2.45 0.75 0.12 0.08

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Annexure II

POLLUTION LOAD INVENTORY

Industrial Inventory 1.0 Summary Information 1.1 Name and location of the Industry : 1.2 Category : 1.3 Type : Large/Medium/Small Scale 1.4 Year of commissioning : 1.5 Name, designation and address :

of contact person regarding pollution matters in future :

1.6 Production Capacity : Installed………………….. Actual………………………

1.7 Type and quantity of fuel used : 1.8 Details of air pollution control system :

Note: Please write, “Not Applicable (NA)” wherever the item is not relevant.

INDUSTRIAL INVENTORY

Detailed Information

2.0 General 2.1 Name and location of the industrial unit/ :

premises for which the application is made. (Give revenue Survey Number/plot number, name of Taluka and District, also telephone and fax number)

2.2 Are you registered as a small-scale : Industrial unit?

2.3 Gross capital investment of the unit : without depreciation till the date of application (Cost of building, land, plant and machinery)

2.4 If the site is situated in notified industrial : estate, (a) whether effluent collection, treatment

and disposal system has been provided

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by the authority (b) will the applicant utilize the system, if

provided (c) if not provided, details of proposed arrangement

2.5 Number of workers and office staff : 2.6 (a) Do you have a residential colony within the premises in respect of which the present application is made? (b) If yes, please state population staying : (c ) Indicate its location and distance with reference to plant site 2.7 List of products and by-products : manufactured in tons/month, kl/month or numbers/month (Give figure corresponding to maximum installed production capacity) 2.8 List of raw materials and process

chemicals with annual consumption corresponding to above stated production figures, in tons/month or kl/month or numbers/month

2.9 Description of process of manufacture for each of the products showing input, output, quality and quantity of solid, liquid and gaseous wastes, if any from each unit process (To be supported by flow sheet and/or material balance and water balance sheet) : units)

3.0 Air Emission Aspects

3.1 Fuel Consumption:

Coal LSHS Furnace Oil Natural Gas Others (specify)

(a) Fuel consumption (TPD/KLD) (b) Calorific value (c) Ash content % (d) Sulphur content % (e) Other (specify)

3.2 (A) Details of stack (process and fuel stacks) :

(a) Stack numbers :

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(b) Attached to : (c) Capacity : (d) Fuel type : (e) Fuel quantity (TPD/KLD) : (f) Material of construction : (g) Shape (round/rectangular) : (h) Height, m (above ground level) : (i) Diameter/size, in meters : (j) Gas quantity, Nm3/hr : (k) Gas temperature, oC : (l) Exit gas velocity, m/sec : (m) Control equipment preceding the stack (Attach specifications including residue management systems of each of the control equipment indicating inlet/outlet concentrations of relevant pollutants) : 3.3 (B) Whether any release of odoriferous compounds such as Mercaptans, Phorate, etc. are coming out : 3.4 Quality of treated flue gas emissions and

process emissions (Specify concentration of criteria pollutants and industry/process-specific pollutants stack-wise. Enclose a copy of the latest report of analysis from the approved laboratory by State Board/Central Board/Central Government in the Ministry of Environment and Forests. For proposed units furnish the expected characteristics of the emission :

particulars of (i) &(iii) above : Other (specify) : 4.0 Additional Information 4.1 (a) Do you have any proposals to upgrade the present system for treatment and disposal of effluent/emissions and/or hazardous waste? : (b) If yes, give the details with time-schedule for the implementation and approximate

expenditure to be incurred on it. 4.2 Capital and recurring (O&M) expenditure on

various aspects of environmental protection such as mission, tree plantation, monitoring, data acquisition,

etc. (give figures separately for items implemented/ to be implemented)

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(Signature)

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Annexure III

QUESTIONNAIRE FOR AUTOMOBILE (VEHICULAR) INVENTORY

(i) Name of City/Town : (ii) Name of State (iii) Area of the city : (iv) Population : (v) Vehicles category & year-wise population : (a) % Urban (b) % Sub-urban

Type 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989………….1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2-Wheeler

3-Wheeler

Taxi (diesel)

Passenger Car (diesel)

Passenger Car (Petrol)

Trucks

Goods Vehicles

Jeeps

Multi-Utility Vehicles

Buses

Any CNG vehicle & type

Any other

Any other types as applicable for the concerned state may be given. Population may be given from the sales data or registration figures. Vehicle technology trends in the city:

Technology Year of Introduction Euro-I private cars

Euro-I commercial vehicles Euro-II/ Bharat Stage-II

Penetration of 4-stroke 2-wheelers CNG vehicles LPG vehicles

Stricter emission standards Fuel specification trends in the city:

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Fuel Specification Year of Introduction Unleaded gasoline

Low sulphur Sulphur contnent -0.25 Low sulphur 0.05

3% benzene gasoline 1% benzene gasoline

CNG as fuel LPG as fuel

Any other alternate fuel Growth of road length in the city (excluding rail):

1985 1986…….2000 2001 Road Length

Air quality trends in major traffic intersections of the city:

Place Air quality with respect to CO,NO2,SO2,SPM,RSPM,Lead & any other

X 1990 1991 1992 1993……………1999 2000 2001 Y Z

XX Annual mileage and vehicle life traveled by each category of vehicle in the city:

Vehicle Category Annual Mileage

(km) Expected Life of

Vehicle (year) 2-Wheelers 3-Wheelers Cars Jeeps Multi Utility Vehicles Trucks Buses Should include all categories of vehicles

Plying in the city Date: Place:

(Authorized Signature)