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AGRI-ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY OF THE LOCAL

KNOWLEDGE SYSTEMS AND ADAPTATION PRACTICES

OF THE ABAKNONS TO CLIMATE CHANGE1

INTRODUCTION

Small islands are the least likely to contribute to climate change but they are

the most vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change. Capul is one of the many

small islands in the Philippines. It is located in Northern Samar with a land area of

only 3,500 ha.

Culture plays an important role in the livelihood and adaptation practices of

the Abaknons. The locals are still bounded by their strong beliefs and respect for

supernatural beings that they believe are residing on specific areas of the island. These

sacred places have become fish sanctuaries because they have remained undisturbed

for a long time. The locals’ knowledge on the island’s biophysical environment and

farming systems has helped them conserve the natural resources of the island. The

local and indigenous practices were in response to their observations of differences in

the climate, occurrences of rains, monsoons and typhoons. The farmers have

developed a traditional calendar of agricultural activities based on the local

knowledge of the biophysical environment and their experiences of the natural cycles.

The indigenous practices helped them adapt to the changing environment and

made their farming and fishing activities more sustainable. Sustainable farm produce

can be attributed to the farmers’ knowledge of soil types and the suitability of the

crops. These farming practices and indigenous knowledge, beliefs and traditions are

1 A thesis outline submitted by Ms. Anna Gale C. Vallez to the School of Environmental Science and

Management (SESAM), University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) as part of the completion of

requirements for MS Environmental Science under the guidance of Dr. Oscar B. Zamora (adviser).

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important inputs to the management of natural resources in small islands and similar

ecosystems. Thus, it is imperative that the climate change adaptation strategies of the

indigenous peoples be documented and assessed in order come up with a concrete

program and policy so that other small islands and similar ecosystems can benefit

from it.

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OBJECTIVES

The overall objective of the study is to assess the local knowledge, beliefs, and

adaptation practices of the Abaknons for the sustainable use and management of

resources under the changing climate. Specifically, it aims to:

1. Document the local knowledge, beliefs and practices in relation to the

farming and fishing activities of the Abaknons;

2. Identify the link between cultural practices and the sustainable use and

management of the agri-fishery resources;

3. Document local organic agriculture practices; and

4. Analyze the sustainability of the cultural and climate change adaptation

practices.

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EXPECTED OUTPUTS

The study intends to produce the following outputs:

1. Documentation of the local knowledge, beliefs and practices in relation to

the farming and fishing activities of the Abaknons.

2. Identification of the link between cultural practices and the sustainable use

and management of agri-fishery resources.

3. Documentation of local organic agriculture practices; and

4. Analysis of the sustainability of the cultural and climate change adaptation

practices.

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REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Small Island Ecosystems

The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED)

held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 recognized the Small Island Developing States (SIDS)

as a distinct group; “… a special case for the environment and development due to

their small size, limited resources, geographic dispersion and isolation from markets,

which place them at a disadvantage economically and prevent economies of scale”.

The SIDS are usually located in the Caribbean and South Pacific Regions,

90% of these are in the tropics. Climate change has negative impacts and risks to low-

lying islands, especially in the Pacific Island countries (Le Cornu, et al, 2017).

According to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

(UNFCCC), 41 SIDS are currently parties to the convention while 29 are also

signatories to the Kyoto Protocol. The island countries included here are the

following: Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Cuba, Dominica, Fiji,

Grenada, Guyana, Jamaica, Marshall, Mauritius, Micronesia, Palau, Papua New

Guinea, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines,

Seychelles, Singapore, Suriname, Tonga and Trinidad and Trobago, including

Bahrain and Dominican Republic.

Eleven of these countries are categorized as least developed countries (LDCs)

while some are also members of the Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS). The

countries belonging to the LDCs are Kiribati, Tuval, Cape Verde, Comoros, Guinea-

Bissau, Haiti, Maldives, Samoa, Sao Tome and Principe, Solomon and Vanuatu;

while the member countries of AOSIS are Cook, Cyprus, Malta, Nauru and Niue.

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The SIDS have sea areas larger than their land areas. For example, the

Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of Nauru (21 km2) and Samoa (2,842 km2) are

15,000 and 8 times larger than its land area, respectively. Additionally, these islands

have varied terrain with mountainous areas and low-lying areas.

Vulnerability of Small Islands to Climate Change

The Fifth Assessment Report of the IPCC (2014) defines vulnerability as “the

propensity or pre-disposition to be adversely affected, including sensitivity or

susceptibility to harm and lack capacity to cope and adapt” (Scandurra et al., 2017).

Island vulnerability is a function of the following factors: physical, socio-economic,

socio-ecological and climate-induced (IPCC, 2014).

The factors that contribute to the overall vulnerability of small islands to

climate change are as follows: limited natural resources; concentration of population;

socio-economic activities and infrastructure along the coastline; high susceptibility to

tropical cyclones, droughts, tsunamis and flooding; dependence on water resources for

freshwater supply; isolation and proximity to markets; high population densities and

growth rates; small physical size; and not enough financial, technical and institutional

capacities(UNFCCC, 2005).

These countries experienced most environmental problems, such as land

degradation and biodiversity losses (Scandurra et al., 2017). These problems are

usually coupled with increasing population and urbanization.

Due to its small size, natural resources are obviously limited. Most often than

not, the natural resources have already been degraded because of the massive and

unsustainable anthropogenic activities in the area. The concentration of population,

socioeconomic activities and infrastructure along the coastal zones also makes the

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small islands vulnerable to climate change simply because of its nearness to the sea

which is understandable to be more prone to damages brought about by natural

hazards.

Also because of geographic location and the oceanic circulation systems, there

are observed variations in the natural precipitation from one year to another as

compared to other countries. This eventually leads to extreme rainfall events and can

bring damages to the human and natural systems.

Also according to the AR5 of IPCC, small islands are highly vulnerable to

both climate and non-climate stressors. Some of the specific vulnerabilities of small

islands to climate change are the following: (1) almost all foods, fuels, construction

materials and other goods are imported in Barbados and many other islands; (2) 50-

80% of the land areas in Maldives and Papua New Guinea are less than one meter

above sea level; (3) about 80% of the infrastructure and the population are

concentrated along the coasts of Seychelles; (4) limited resources are used to address

the environmental problems in Grenada; (5) prolonged droughts are experienced in

Palau; and (6) intense rainfall and tropical cyclones in the South Pacific region

(UNFCCC, 2005).

Small island nations with a rapidly increasing population are at risk against the

effects of climate change. The risks include loss of adaptive capacity of the islanders

and reduced ecosystem services. Additionally, the increasing population density

reduces the adaptive capacity in small islands (Hernandez-Delgado, 2015). Small

populations are relatively more prone to risks of extinction than larger population

because of demographic and environmental differences. Anthropogenic activities also

increase the threats of climate change to small islands (Harter et al., 2015).

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The islands of the Caribbean have common characteristics that make them

more sensitive and vulnerable to extreme weather events such as droughts, flooding

and hurricanes. The islands are characterized with small size, steep topography and a

high dependence on the coastal zone for the socio-economic development, and limited

resources (Karmalkar, et al., 2013).

In Trinidad and Tobago, it was identified that there is high vulnerability of

climate change impacts along the coasts because the population and most of the

economic activities of both islands are located there. Additionally, the coastal and

marine resources sustain the productive sectors such as oil and gas, tourism and

fisheries (Hassanali, 2017).

Impacts of Climate Change on Small Islands

Climate change impacts the water resources, coastal environment, agriculture,

fisheries, food security, biodiversity, human settlement, infrastructure, human health,

and the economic and socio-cultural resources of the small island ecosystems

(UNFCCC, 2005).

A. Water Resources

Climate change in the islands will affect not only the water quality but also its

quantity (Santamarta et al., 2014). Additionally, the perceived intensity and frequency

of extreme weather events such as floods and droughts are expected to increase. It is

anticipated that climate change will affect water quality, which includes pollution

from wastewater and inadequate supply of water (Santamarta et al., 2014). Freshwater

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sources are limited in small islands and the corresponding changes in its quality and

quantity can also affect the tourism industry (IPCC, 2014).

Many of the countries belonging to the SIDS depend primarily on rainwater as

source of supply, making it a limiting factor for the economic and social development

of small islands. The availability of water is thus very sensitive to changing rainfall

patterns and changes in storm and typhoon tracks. Climate change, coupled with sea

level rise can harm freshwater resources through saltwater intrusion (UNFCCC,

2005).

Specific examples of the impacts of climate change in the SIDS are the

following: (1) the Bahamas and Barbados will be greatly affected because these

countries depend on groundwater supplies; (2) Mauritius also depends on

groundwater for some of its domestic use; however, the boreholes along the coast are

prone to saltwater intrusion (UNFCCC, 2005).

B. Coastal Environment

Coastal erosion due to sea level rise poses a serious threat to the social and

economic sectors, and also to the tourism industry and infrastructure. In Papua New

Guinea, 25% of the shoreline is already destroyed. In Maldives, a one-meter rise in

the sea level would vanish the whole island. In Grenada, if the sea level rises by 50

cm, 60% of the beaches would disappear (UNFCCC, 2005). In the Philippines, low-

lying islands are likely to experience permanent inundation due to sea level rise,

temperature increases, changes in rainfall and occurrences of typhoons (PAGASA,

2011).

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Coral reefs are also threatened by climate change. Coral reefs are sources of

food, and provide habitats for marine animals and reef fish. They also play a role in

reducing erosion by supplying sediment to inland shore. The effects of coral reef

habitat loss can be disadvantageous also for coastal fisheries and the tourism industry

of small islands (IPCC, 2014).

Coral reefs are highly sensitive to temperature stress. The projected increases

in sea surface temperature can cause coral bleaching. In the case of Dominica, 15% of

the coral reefs show signs of bleaching. In Palau, the 1998 El Niño phenomenon

brought a 1.0-1.250 C increase in the sea water temperature which eventually caused a

99% decline in some coral species (UNFCCC, 2005). The destruction of coastal

habitats and coral reefs will bring a substantial problem to the fish stocks (Dey et al.,

2016a).

Mangroves serve as the first line of defense for the coastal resources. They

provide protection against cyclones, storms, tides and storm surges. They also prevent

the introduction of pests and exotic species to the coastal environment. However, due

to the rise in the sea level, mangroves are facing a serious problem of exploitation.

The mangrove forest ecosystems of Antigua and Barbuda are being lost at a rate of

1.5 - 2% every year, with a 3-4 mm rise in sea level annually. Given these figures, it is

projected that there will be no (or a few species left of) mangroves to be seen in the

countries in year 2075. Another scenario shows that if the sea level rise at the rate of

10 mm per year, the mangroves will be gone by 2030 or 2035 (UNFCCC, 2005).

Seagrasses have inconsistent and different responses to climate change. Sea

grass growth can be limited by sedimentation due to light reduction and increased

water depth (IPCC, 2014). An increase in sea level by 20 cm will increase the

turbidity of water and the amount of total suspended solids, and will, in turn, affect

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the photosynthetic capacity of sea grasses. Temperature stress also has a negative

impact on seagrass communities (IPCC, 2014).

C. Agriculture, Fisheries and Food Security

Agriculture plays an important role in the economy, health and social sectors

of the SIDS. Subsistence agriculture can be affected by climate change because of

water shortage. Thus, water shortage can lead to heat stress and changes in soil

moisture and evapotranspiration, which are crucial to crop production. In addition,

saltwater intrusion because of the rise in sea levels will likely affect crop production,

especially along the coasts (UNFCCC, 2005).

The banana and agriculture sector of St. Vincent and the Grenadines could

suffer from the adverse effects and impacts of climate change. Changes in rainfall and

the carbon dioxide concentration will lead to changes in altitude zonation, species

type, vegetation type and location (UNFCCC, 2005).

There is a worldwide consensus that the effects of climate change on the

biophysical and economic aspects will especially be on the aquaculture and fisheries

sectors. The fisheries sector is very important for many island nations in terms of its

economic development, livelihood, and food and nutrition security. Also, the fisheries

resources are responsible for providing nutrition, employment and foreign exchange

of a country. In Vanuatu, the fisheries sector is a major source of livelihood, income

and protein nutrient for the islanders. It is also considered as the country’s biggest

export (Dey et al., 2016b).

Climate change is expected to pose serious stress on the fisheries and

aquaculture sector, specifically in Fiji. The fisheries sector in Fiji promotes food and

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nutrition security and is also a source of livelihood and income for coastal rural

inhabitants (Dey et al., 2016a). In Grenadine and the Marshall Islands, fish production

decreased by up to 60% during El Niño (UNFCCC, 2005). In Solomon Islands, the

increase in sea surface temperature, acidification of ocean and the rise in sea level,

directly impacts the fisheries (and aquaculture) sector by reducing its output (yield)

(Dey et al., 2016b).

In a statement delivered by the representative of Seychelles in November 1998

at the COP 4 held in Argentina, it was mentioned that the extreme rainfall they

experienced in 1997 had cost the country several million dollars of losses in the

agriculture and infrastructure sectors. Another problem is the coral bleaching brought

about by the rise in sea surface temperature (UNFCCC, 2005).

Overtime, overfishing will occur in coastal areas due to the growing

population, loss of fish habitat and urbanization. In case of the Solomon Islands, it

was reported that food security might be of great concern for the country in the future

due to the likelihood of reduction of fish supply from coastal capture fisheries and the

continuously increasing population (Dey et al., 2016b).

In the same way, in the Philippines, crop yields would decrease when

temperatures go beyond the threshold values and may cause spikelet sterility (in rice).

In the fisheries sector, fishes tend to migrate to cooler and deeper waters. Hence,

fisherfolks would travel further from the coasts in order to increase their catch

(PAGASA, 2011).

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D. Biodiversity

Climate change can cause damage to the forest ecosystem (Sapta et al., 2015).

The damages include mangrove forest destruction, loss of endemic species, and

change in land cover and can also reduce the quality and quantity of spring waters.

Anthropogenic activities such as pollution, overexploitation and poor

management of natural resources have lead to the loss of biodiversity in small islands.

Different climate change events also impacts the biodiversity of SIDS. The increase

of carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere may have adverse effects on the

diversity of coral reefs, habitats of endangered species and breeding sites of sea birds

(UNFCCC, 2005).

AR5 of the IPCC reported that climate change affects small island biodiversity

under the following categories: (1) decline in horizontal shifts and range of the

ecosystem and species; (2) shifts and decline of altitudinal species range due to

temperature increase on high islands; and (3) increase in exotic and pest species range

and invasions mainly due to temperature increase in high latitude islands. Because of

its relative small size and isolation to major islands and countries, the effects of

climate-related impacts are overstated and may cause species loss, most especially for

the tropical islands where the number of endemic species is high.

In several studies conducted in Bahamas, it was found that the reduction in

rainfall makes the freshwater collapse and shrinks towards the land area such that

seawater enters the inland water, which then threatens the coastal strand vegetation

(Sapta et al., 2015). Sea level rise also threatens the ecosystems dependent on

freshwater resources. Specifically, the fine forest in Sugarloaf Key has declined from

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88 to 33 ha (1935-1991) due to increasing salinization and rising groundwater (IPCC,

2014).

E. Human Settlements and Infrastructure

Human settlements and other important infrastructures such as social services,

tourism facilities, air and sea ports and roads will be severely affected by the

projected occurrence of extreme weather events and sea level rise. The population

along the coastline of Dominica, which comprises about 90% of the total population,

is considered to be at high risk to hurricanes. The same is true for the case of other

island nations such as Kiribati, Maldives, Marshall Islands and Tuvalu (UNFCCC,

2005).

Small islands are also threatened by the unsustainable urban sprawling activity

that often lead to construction of residential and tourism facilities on vulnerable

habitats and construction of roads in steep slopes. These activities will result in

massive soil erosion and sediment runoff to coastal waters (Hernandez-Delgado,

2015). Additionally, shoreline reclamation without enough resources and planning

will also pose increased risk to island communities and infrastructure (Duvat et al.,

2013; IPCC, 2014).

AR5 reported that all populations, infrastructure, agricultural areas, and fresh

groundwater supplies have become more vulnerable to extreme climate events such as

tides, wave and surge events and sea level rises (IPCC, 2014). The shift of population

from both outer and inner land, together with the fast-growing growth of population

and the lack of housing facilities and spaces, brings the population into more

vulnerable locations (IPCC, 2014).

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Flooding is one of the most common effects of sea level rise on small islands.

In Bohol, Philippines, small island communities have experienced flooding events

since 2013 after the earthquake which caused land subsidence and sea level rise due to

climate change. It was reported that the islands have started to experience partial and

complete flooding during high tides. According to the locals, the depth and extent of

the inundation depended on the tide level and local weather (Jamero et al., 2017).

F. Human Health

Changes in temperature and rainfall have been attributed to the increase and

spread of both vector- and water-borne diseases. These changes were then linked to

the climate events such as droughts, floods and El Niño. Warm climate and lack of

water supply and proper sanitation facilities can increase the incidence of diseases

because this creates an environment conducive as breeding sites for vectors of

diseases (UNFCCC, 2005). Temperature increases can cause outbreak and spread of

diseases, both water- and vector-borne, which in turn leads to higher rates of

morbidity and mortality, increased incidences of pulmonary and cardiovascular

diseases for children and elderly, respectively (PAGASA, 2011).

The impacts of climate change on public health increases the vulnerability of

islanders to climate-related risks such as changes in weather patterns, water

availability, crop and fisheries productivity, food security, sea level rise, biodiversity

loss, socio-economic and political significance. Poor island nations, that have

undergone huge deforestation and disintegrated fisheries, such as Haiti, combined

with high occurrences of hunger and endemic diseases, are vulnerable to impacts of

climate change. These countries have undergone (Hernandez-Delgado, 2015).

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Changes in climate will have impacts on human health around the world and

are expected to aggravate the current health risks on vulnerable communities and the

small islands where occurrences of diseases are already high (IPCC, 2014). Extreme

weather and climate events like tropical cyclones, storm surges, flooding and drought

have negative impacts on human health because of drowning, injuries, transmission of

diseases and health-related problems. Such diseases include malaria, dengue, filariasis

and schistosomiasis.

The Caribbean islands such as Trinidad and Tobago, Barbados and Jamaica

have been recorded as a “highly endemic zone for leptospirosis”. Additionally, it was

proven in several studies conducted in Trinidad that there are more cases of

leptospirosis during the wet season from 1996-2007. In the Pacific Islands (Samoa,

Tonga and Kiribati), increases in the incidences of malaria and dengue have also been

recorded. Human health will suffer due to lack of access to sufficient, safe water and

nutrition (IPCC, 2014).

G. Economic and Socio-cultural Resources

The negative issues linked with climate change also affect food security and

employment, which are the major sources of economic gains of the island nations.

Tourism, which is considered to be one of the most important sectors of the economy,

is linked to transportation, which in turn is vital to the SIDS because of its isolation to

major islands (Scandurra et al., 2017).

The tourism industry can be negatively affected by climate change through

loss of beaches, coastal erosion and degradation of coastal ecosystems, saltwater

intrusion and coral bleaching. It was reported that the harsh climate events such as

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heavy rainfall and hurricanes influence the visitors’ perception in choosing the

location as vacation destination (UNFCCC, 2005).

Beach erosion and coral bleaching also have negative impacts on the tourism

industry, and the effects are mostly felt by tourism operators and resort owners. Beach

erosion may effect changes in accommodation prices in some destinations (UNFCCC,

2005).

The cultural aspect of an island nation is affected by climate change by putting

to risks certain traditions, community structure, and coastal villages and settlements. It

was noted that climate change and other environmental events have brought damages

to some of the important and unique cultural and spiritual sites, coastal protected areas

and traditional and heritage sites in many Pacific Islands (UNFCCC, 2005).

Climate Change Adaptation

Adaptation refers to the modifications done in the system to reduce the

negative impacts of climate change (Tripathi & Mishra, 2017). According to the

UNFCCC, adaptation is a way to find and implement strategies to adjust and respond

to climate change risks and uncertainties (AIPP, 2012). In the same manner, the IPCC

(2007) defined adaptation as: “the adjustment in natural or human systems in

response to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects” (Audefroy & Sanchez,

2017).

Adaptation is categorized as autonomous or planned and as short- medium-

and long-term (AIPP, 2012). Adaptation is to be planned when the actions taken are

meant to lessen the risks and develop new opportunities resulting from the global

climate change (Elum et al., 2017). It is further classified in different levels of

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government such regional, national, sub-national and local levels. Adaptation at the

local level is the most crucial because the locals are those experiencing the serious

effects of climate change (UNFCCC, 2005; Tripathi & Mishra, 2017).

Farmers’ Observations and Perceptions on Climate Change

Farmers’ perceptions on climate change are influenced by personal beliefs and

are human-induced. Perceptions of climate change have direct relationship with a high

belief of the incidence and a high concern towards its future impacts (Niles &

Mueller, 2016). Correct perceptions about climate change are dependent on the

knowledge and the availability and access to information of the indigenous people.

Knowledge, however, is dependent on the educational attainment and experience of a

person. Perception, therefore, is being able to receive process and interpret sensory

information (Tripathi & Mishra, 2017).

Perception must be correct to make necessary actions against climate change;

otherwise, it could have adverse effect on the environment and the locals.

Additionally, perception is a requirement for adaptation (Tripathi & Mishra, 2017).

There are two types of perceptions – experienced-based and description-based.

Experience-based perceptions include availability of information and affective

heuristics. People tend to estimate the risk of uncertainties based on the information

that remained in their memories. Hence, estimation of the risk of climate change, for

this case, relies on the most extreme weather and climatic events that are still clear in

their memories. On the other hand, description-based perceptions comprise of

information coming from the experts and individual knowledge (Hitayezu et al.,

2017).

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It was found out that the beliefs in climate change considerably predicted the

adaptation attitudes and behaviors of the farmers (Mase et al., 2017). In addition,

identifying evidence of the impacts is the first step in order to take adaptation and

mitigation practices.

Adaptation is a significant strategy to lessen the impacts of climate change in

agriculture and food production, but adaptation strategies are ineffective without

having a grasp of the farmers’ perception on climate change (Alam et al.,2017). In

Bangladesh, it was shown that the respondents observed changes in the climate and

extreme weather events such as increased drought events, reduced availability of

groundwater and surface water, increased severity of riverbank erosion and increased

frequency of floods and cyclones (Alam et al., 2017).

Farmers’ perceptions on climate change reflect the meteorological data in

Southwestern Nigeria (Ayanlade et al., 2017). Results also showed that farmers

observed a remarkable change in the climate. It was found out that many of the

farmers perceived a recent prolonged dry spell and drought and that the start of the

rainy season starts later in the last 10 years as compared to the rainfall 20 years ago.

According to the farmers, the rainfall becomes “unreliable” in the last 10 years.

Additionally, some livestock farmers reported an increase in the incidence of pests

and diseases due to the prolonged drought and delays in the onset of rainfall.

One’s perception takes form from experience and indigenous knowledge of

the climate and the observed impacts of climate change (Elum et al., 2017). Most of

the farmers get information about climate change from different news media. They

also pointed out that they had experienced higher temperatures, drought, and decrease

in average rainfall. The reported effects of such events were reduced crop yields, and

in some cases, leads to crop failure, and higher incidence of pests and diseases.

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Public perception of climate risk and adaptation in the United Kingdom

predicted that climate change will increase the frequency and the gravity of extreme

weather events such as flooding, heat waves and drought (Taylor et al., 2014). Also, it

was noted that perceived and experienced changes in the local weather are highly

associated with stronger climate change beliefs.

Indigenous, Traditional and Local Knowledge Systems

Towards attaining sustainability, the different knowledge types (indigenous,

vernacular, traditional and local), in combination with science, are needed to support

island innovation in response to climate change. Studies conducted in small islands

used different knowledge types to deal with the current social and environmental

changes. However, each knowledge type can only cover a specific aspect or issue and

therefore cannot cover sustainability as a whole. Climate change modifies the

environment swiftly such that traditional and local knowledge becomes outdated

(Kelman et al., 2015).

Indigenous peoples make up 4-5% (350-400 million) of the world’s population

and they live in almost 22% of the global land surface, thus maintaining 80% of the

world’s biodiversity (AIPP, 2012; Abate & Kronk, 2013). In the Philippines, the

estimated population of the indigenous peoples is between 12-15 million, consisting

10-15% of the total population and can be found in 65 out of the 78 provinces

(Cariño, 2012). The indigenous peoples’ communities in the country are commonly

found in the forests, mountains, lowlands and coastal areas and differed in the levels

of socio-economic development. Indigenous peoples are considered “ecosystem

peoples” because of their sound knowledge and intimate relationship with their

environment. Indigenous knowledge is exclusive to a given culture and environment

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(AIPP, 2012). A common view on their land as “land is life” is inherent to their

culture (Cariño, 2012). In addition, the indigenous communities ensure the

conservation and sustainable use of their natural resources (IASG, 2014).

Most of the indigenous communities are located in areas where a majority of

the world’s genetic resources can be found. Some of their practices enhanced

promoted biodiversity at the local level. The skills and techniques possessed by the

indigenous peoples are valuable inputs to the global community as model for

biodiversity policies. (IASG, 2014). They are engaged in several production systems

such as swidden farming, settled agriculture, hunting and gathering, livestock raising,

fishing and production and trade in local handicrafts (Cariño, 2012).

Several researches on local knowledge and adaptation to climate change have

been conducted during the first decade of the 21st century (Audefroy & Sanchez,

2017). Climate change modifies the environment swiftly such that traditional and

local knowledge becomes outdated (Kelman et al., 2015).

Indigenous knowledge and practices have been widely used as strategies for

climate change adaptation, disaster risk reduction, biodiversity conservation, food

security and agrobiodiversity and natural resources management. Indigenous peoples

rely mainly on their vulnerable ecosystems that make them observe and experience

the effects of climate change on-hand. Traditional agricultural knowledge has been an

important adaptation tool for indigenous peoples (Chianese, 2016).

Indigenous knowledge includes the norms of the society living in harmony

with nature through generations. It also includes classification systems of the natural

resources, observations and perceptions about their environment and management

systems that regulate the sustainable use of natural resources (Kanene, 2016).

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Climate Change Adaptation of Indigenous Peoples

The recognition of indigenous traditional knowledge in climate change studies

has been significant in understanding local-level impacts of climate change and a

wide range of alternatives for adaptation strategies that are deemed proper to its

ecological and socio-cultural environments. Proper documentation and research is

fundamental in responding to climate change impacts (UNFCCC, 2013). The

corresponding responses to hazard, disasters and other forms of extreme weather

events may also impart inputs from pertinent indigenous knowledge and adaptation

practices and strategies.

Climate change can be damaging to poor agricultural communities in

developing countries. They are the most likely to be affected by climate change

despite the fact that they only contribute 10% of the annual global carbon dioxide

emission (Ali & Erenstein, 2017).

Climate change has direct effects on the food systems specifically on crop

production, changes in market, food prices and the supply chain. Indigenous

knowledge and traditional practices related to agriculture have sustainable and

adaptive systems, which are capable of mitigating climate impacts. Some of the

adaptation strategies by indigenous peoples include: (1) adjusting crop varieties and

planting dates; (2) relocating crops; (3) changing hunting and gathering periods; (4)

improving agricultural techniques; (5) crop diversification; (6) increasing food

preservation methods and techniques; (7) introduction of food and seed banking; (8)

changing food habits; (9) altering land use and settlement patterns; and (10) raising

awareness and solidarity actions to address concerns of the indigenous peoples

(Chianese, 2016; AIPP, 2012).

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Additionally, the indigenous peoples’ knowledge on the weather is being used

to predict extreme weather events and is considered to be one of the best strategies to

minimize the negative effects of such events. Indigenous peoples have a closed

knowledge on their climate (rainfall, temperature and frequency of extreme weather

events) and plant and animal cycles. They used their knowledge to know the

connection between the natural and climatic events (Chianese, 2016). Indigenous

peoples religiously follow the weather and climatic patterns for their agriculture,

forestry and other livelihood activities (AIPP, 2012).

In terms of natural resources management systems, indigenous peoples are

responsible for the sustainable use and management of natural resources, which are

reflected and imposed in their rules, beliefs and practices. They are knowledgeable of

the plants, animals and natural cycles in their environment. This knowledge has

helped indigenous peoples live in accordance with nature (Chianese, 2016). The

natural resources management systems employed by the indigenous peoples are done

with the involvement of all members of the community, including women and the

youth (AIPP, 2012).

The Role of Culture in Environmental Sustainability

Culture refers to the “complex whole which includes knowledge, beliefs, arts,

morals, law, customs and any other capabilities acquired by humans as members of

the society” (Tylor, 1871). It defines the human needs and interests towards

sustainability (Opoku, 2015). It is also defined as: “a set of unique spiritual, material,

intellectual and emotional features of a society or a social group” (Chiarini, 2015).

24

On the other hand, sustainability is the ability of the system to meet the needs

of the present generation without sacrificing the needs of the future generation (World

Commission on Environment and Development, 1987). Sustainable development

needs a fourth pillar – aside from the three pillars mentioned by governing bodies:

environmental balance, social inclusion and economic growth – the culture (Opoku,

2015).

The connection of culture in sustainable development is that it defines how the

members of the society understand and appreciate the natural resources and therefore

aids in the promotion of economic growth of the society. The inclusion of the culture

component in the sustainable development context provides a “cultural lens” to

evaluate the impacts of environmental, economic and social strategies being

implemented (Opoku, 2015).

A study conducted in Tonga revealed that culture (including the peoples’

taboos, farming practices, and other traditional practices), plays an important role in

environmental conservation. Additionally, the continuous exploitation of the

resources and the degradation of the environment have reached an alarming point

where interdisciplinary efforts are needed to enhance environmental sustainability

(Kanene, 2016).

Cultural Practices of the Abaknons in Capul Island

Farming and fishing are the predominant livelihood activities and sources of

income of the Abaknons. Other sources of income include shellfish gathering and

other on-farm and off-farm activities (Cabili, 2011).

Coconut-based cropping systems are the most common practice of the farmers

in Capul Island. Coconut farms covers 76% of the total agricultural land (2,945 ha).

25

Rainfed rice (367.8 ha) and irrigated rice (136 ha) covers 12.5% and 4.6%,

respectively. Other crops planted include corn, vegetables, root crops and banana

(Figure 1). These crops are used to compensate income when fishing is not feasible.

Fishing is the major source of income for the islanders since most of the lands

have sloping and steep slopes. In some cases, farming and fishing activities are

combined when copra demands a higher price or when the family needs additional

income for enrollment, graduation, and employment or for special occasions (fiesta,

festival, etc.) (Cabili & Cuevas, 2016).

Copra making (paglugit) is done every three months. In the meantime, while

waiting for the coconuts to mature, cassava and other root crops are planted. Coastal

activities, such as shellfish gathering and subsistence or commercial fishing, are done

simultaneously with copra-making and other upland activities (Cabili, 2011).

Figure 1. Share of agricultural crops planted in Capul ( Cabili, 2008).

Coconut (75%) Rainfed rice (12.5%) Irrigated rice (4.5%)

Corn (2%) Vegetables (1%) Root crops (3%)

Banana (2%)

26

The locals are still bounded by their strong beliefs and respect for supernatural

beings that they believe are residing on specific areas of the island. These sacred

places have become fish sanctuaries because they have remained undisturbed for a

long time. The locals’ knowledge on the island’s biophysical environment and

farming systems has helped them conserve the natural resources of the island (Cabili,

2008; Cabili, 2011).

Some of the sacred places in Capul include the following: (1) Timon-timon

Rock; (2) Moroporo Islet; (3) Makaraha Grassland; and (4) Bito Caves, among

others. Timon-timon Rock is a stiff cliff in the island engraved with the word

“Acapulco” where the name of the island is derived. Land cultivation and fishing

activities are prohibited in its surrounding because it is believed that black and white

fairies and other unseen spirits are residing in the area. Because of this, the area has

become fish sanctuaries where the fishes stay during spawning period and to protect

themselves from natural enemies. The Moroporo Islet is also believed to be the home

of fairies such that cutting of trees, over-gathering of shellfishes and the use of

poisonous wild plants are prohibited in the area and its surrounding. The Makaraha

Grassland, mounds which are shaped like frying pans (karaha) is dominated by

grasses, hence the name. It is believed to be enchanted and the abode of supernatural

beings. Cutting of trees are not usually done in the place (Cabili, 2008; Cabili &

Cuevas, 2016).

There are no activities (farming and fishing) done in these ‘sacred’ places.

Should an activity be unavoidable, rituals are done and prayers are said in order to ask

permission and calm down the spirits residing on these places. These activities

showed how the islanders respect their natural resource, which leads to the

conservation of the resources, specifically those of fisheries (Cabili & Cuevas, 2016).

27

The local and indigenous practices were matched with the observations and

differences in the climate and occurrences of rains, monsoons and typhoons. The

farmers have developed a calendar of activities (Figure 3) in response to the weather

and based on the locals’ knowledge on the biophysical environment and their

experiences on the natural disturbances and perturbations. The indigenous practices

helped them adapt to the changing environment and made their farming and fishing

activities more sustainable. Sustainable farm produce can be attributed to the farmers’

knowledge on soil type and the corresponding suitability of the crop (Cabili, 2011).

The fishing activities are matched with the season (tuig) and the direction of

the flow of current in the region (landos). The dry season (May to August) are

considered most fit for fishing while the typhoon season (October to February) is also

good for fishing (Cabili & Cuevas, 2016).

The fisherfolks also looked into the low tide (humugot) and the direction of

the flow of current as indicators of good catch. It was noted that the good current flow

is fit for fishing twice in a day (afternoon and evening). The phase of the moon is also

an indicator of good catch. According to the locals, the perfect time is usually few

days before the last quarter (katallo luyo si kawara) and few days before the full

moon (kaodto si kadayaw) (Cabili & Cuevas, 2016).

Similarly, the farmers also have adapted their farming practices with the

season. The root crops are planted on the side of the hill opposite the direction of the

habagat (southwest monsoon) in order to protect the crops. Site selection for planting

crops differs from the traditional to conventional practices. The older farmers still

practice the traditional way of site selection, which is to consider the color of the soil,

the primary cover and vegetation of the soil and its slope. During the –ber months, the

land facing the northeast monsoon wind is planted with creeping (viny) crops such as

28

sweet potato to minimize soil erosion and to make sure that nutrients remain in the

soil. It is also noted that these crops must be harvested before the start of the rainy

season (Cabili, 2011).

Figure 2. The livelihood calendar made by the locals (Abaknons) in response to

the changing climate (Cabili, 2008).

Traditional beliefs are also being considered in deciding when to plant. Full

moon and low tide are considered to be the best time to plant crops because they

believe that these events are correlated with bountiful harvest. Additionally, planting

must be done in the morning but the first day of planting must not be done during

Tuesday, Friday or when the moon is about to fade because they believe that these

might bring bad luck and low yield (Cabili, 2011).

29

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

The proposed conceptual framework (Figure 3) highlights the interaction of

the culture, socio-economic and ecological factors and the environment. Cultural

factors involve the indigenous knowledge, beliefs and practices in agriculture,

fisheries and other livelihood activities. Meanwhile, the ecological factors highlight

the ecosystem services provided to the indigenous peoples. The interaction of these

factors will help improve food security, resiliency and increase the adaptive capacity

of the locals.

The interaction of all the factors will also aid in the analysis of climate change

adaptation practices. This will also aid on how the cultural practices and climate

change adaptation practices be integrated in the existing programs and policies of the

island community.

Figure 3. Conceptual framework of the study.

30

METHODOLOGY

Description of the Study Area

Capul is a small island in Northern Samar located at 12°25’ 22’’ N and 124°

10’ 50’’ E. It is bounded by the San Bernardino Strait in the North, municipality of

Allen in the East, province of Masbate in the West and San Vicente in the South

(Figure 4). It is a fifth class municipality with a total land area of 3,500 ha. The island

has a total population of 12,679 (Philippine Statistics Authority [PSA], 2015).

The local and indigenous group residing in Capul is called Abaknon. The

language spoken by the locals is different from all the Visayan language and is

considered more of a Sama language of Mindanao, called Inabaknon, hence the locals

are called Abaknon.

The island is often a path of tropical cyclones during the northeast and

southwest monsoons. Being a small island, Capul has limited natural resources; it is

highly susceptible to tropical cyclones, droughts, tsunamis and flooding; have high

population densities and growth rates; with small physical size; and insufficient

financial, technical and institutional capacities.

31

Figure 4. Location map of Capul Island, Northern Samar.

The land is a primary resource for small islands as it provides subsistence

crops and cash for the everyday needs of the family whereas the forests are sources of

fuel wood and raw materials for the construction and repair of houses. However, the

forests are no longer available to date due to the massive conversion of forestlands to

agricultural lands in the past. The coastal and marine resources are home to the

aquatic species, i.e. fish, corals, etc. (Cabili, 2008).

Capul is habitually visited by typhoons during the northeast and southwest

monsoons. PAGASA has recorded a total of 28 tropical cyclones within the 50-km

radius during the 12-year period (from 1991-2007). The most number of typhoons

recorded during the period is 6 in 2006 with widespread heavy damage. The years

1993, 1999, 2003 and 2004 have recorded 3 typhoons each year with widespread

heavy damage. The remaining years have recorded one typhoon per year with

considerable damage.

32

Tools and Methods

Both qualitative and quantitative methods will be used to assess the agri-

environmental sustainability of the local beliefs and practices. Qualitative method

includes ethnography, which involves the researcher’s observation and inquiry on the

life of the Abaknons regarding their interaction with the environment, also known in

anthropology as “participant observation”. As such, the study will involve spending

time with the local people as they go through their daily life to develop a better

understanding of their indigenous environmental sustainability practices in relation t

their farming and fishing activities (Kanene, 2016).

The indicators for the environmental sustainability of agriculture developed by

the World Resources Institute (Reytar et al., 2014) and the Organization for Economic

Cooperation and Development (OECD, 1999b) (Appendix 1) will be used for the

assessment. As stated by Reytar et al. (2014), these quantifiable indicators are

important for policy-makers, farmers, businesses and the society in understanding the

current conditions, identifying the trends, setting targets, monitoring the progress and

comparing the performance among regions and countries towards a sustainable future.

Each indicator will be scored individually on a scale of 0 to 6, with the

following metrics (Manning & Soon, 2016): (0) = no available data; (1) = very low

sustainability (VLS), the indicator shows a need for urgent improvement; (2) = low

sustainability (LS), the indicator shows a need for evaluation to determine areas for

improvement and the prioritization for action is high priority; (3) = fair sustainability

(FS), the indicator shows improvements are required with medium priority; (4) =

average sustainability (AS), the indicator shows a need for evaluation to determine

areas for improvements but this is of low priority; (5) = good sustainability (GS), the

33

indicator shows this area is under control but continuous improvement can still be

made to achieve excellent status; (6) = excellent sustainability (ES), sustainability is

achieved. Equal weights will be given to each indicator for the overall assessment of

the sustainability.

Data Gathering

Primary and secondary data will be gathered. Primary data includes the

farmers’ profile, agricultural profile, environmental profile and the socio-economic

profile of the municipality (Table 1). These data will be obtained through

observations and semi-structured interviews. Key informant interviews (KII) will be

gathered from the elders of the community who are knowledgeable of the cultural

practices and beliefs. Participant observation will be used to confirm the responses

about the conservation and to identify some environmental sustainability practices

that may not have been stated by the respondents (Kanene, 2016).

Meanwhile, the secondary data such as the biophysical characteristics, agro-

meteorological data and socio-economic status will be obtained from records of

government offices and other reference materials (Table 2). The schedule of activities

is listed in Table 3. A guide questionnaire will be used during the actual interview

(Appendix 2).

The Respondents

The respondents will be the farmers and fisherfolks of Brgy. Oson in Capul

Island. Purposive sampling will be done in identifying the respondents. The list of

34

respondents for the household interviews will be obtained from the municipal and

barangay offices. Key informant interviews will be done through interviews with the

elders of the community or those with knowledge on the traditional practices relating

to agriculture, fisheries and the environmental management.

Table 1. Primary data that will be gathered in the study site and the methods to

be used.

Data to be Gathered Tools Participants /

Purpose

I. Farmers’ / Fisherfolks’

Profile

1. Name

2. Age

3. Gender

4. Civil Status

5. Name of Spouse

6. Number of Children

7. Educational

Attainment

8. Household Size

9. Farm Household

10. Off-farm and Non-

farm Activities

Household Interview (HHI)

– closed and open ended

questionnaires, photographs,

observation

Specific questions to

be administered to

farmer-respondents

II. Agricultural Profile

1. Farm location

2. Average Farm Size

3. Farm Layout

4. Crop and Animal

Diversity

5. Sources of Water

6. Land Tenure

7. Cropping Pattern

8. Farming and other

Cultural Practices

9. Conservation

Practices

10. Marketing of

Produce

Household Interview (HHI)

– including farm sketches,

photographs, cropping

calendar and resource flow

diagram

Specific questions to

be administered to

farmer-respondents;

for documentation of

the agricultural

practices

III. Fisheries Profile

1. Total Catch

2. List of Fishing gears

used

3. Regulations on

Household Interview (HHI)

(of fisherfolks)

35

fishing

4. Coastal population

5. Fisheries revenue

6. Marine Protected

Areas (MPA)

7. Coastal biodiversity

IV. Environmental Profile

1. Climate (typhoons,

heavy rains, drought,

flooding, landslide,

increasing or

decreasing

temperature, etc.)

2. Perception on

Climate Change

3. Climate Change

Adaptation

Strategies

Household Interview (HHI)

– including SWOT Analysis

and

Knowledge, Attitude and

Practices (KAP)

Specific questions to

be administered to

farmer-respondents

V. Organizational (Social)

Profile

1. Identification of

Problems

2. Recognition of

Needs and Priorities

of Farmers

3. Nature and

Activities of the

Organization and/or

Community

Key Informant Interview

(KII)

Skilled persons, local

traditional leaders,

elderly persons

interviewed for

detailed information

and other related

issues

VI. Economic Profile

1. Source of Capital

2. Crop Yield per

hectare per parcel

3. Destination of

Produce

4. Income per

Cropping Season

Household Interview (HHI)

Cost and Return Analysis

Specific questions to

be administered to

farmer-respondents

Table 2. Secondary data to be collected from provincial, municipal and barangay

profiles of Oson, Capul Island, Northern Samar.

Data to be Collected Sources of Data

I. Biophysical Characteristics

1. Land and Land Use

2. Soil Type

3. Soil Fertility

4. Topography

5. Water and Hydrology

Comprehensive Land Use Plan (CLUP)

Provincial and Municipal Profile

36

II. Agrometeorological Data

1. Rainfall

2. Temperature

3. Humidity

4. Typhoon Occurrences and other

Natural Calamities

Agrometeorological Stations

PAGASA

III. Socio-economic Status

1. History

2. Population

3. Indigenous People and

Knowledge

4. Current Agricultural Situation

5. Health

6. Infrastructure and Road

Networks

7. Education

8. Existing Programs and Plans

Provincial and Municipal Profile

Provincial Development and Physical

Framework Plans (PDPFP)

Comprehensive Land Use Plan (CLUP)

Table 3. Proposed schedule of activities during the community immersion and

data collection in Brgy. Oson, Capul Island, Northern Samar.

Date Activities Objectives Tools and

Methods

Instruments

First Week

Courtesy call

to local

officials/

elders of the

community

To conduct

courtesy call

and to discuss

the purpose of

the study.

Formal

discussion

Record

notebook,

audio recorder

Gathering of

secondary

data

To collect

pertinent data

needed in the

study.

Research Copy of the

thesis outline

Second –Third

Week

Personal

interview with

the

respondents

To familiarize

and build

rapport with the

community

members.

To gather

primary data on

farmers’/

fishers’ profile,

agricultural,

fisheries,

environmental,

social and

economic

profiles of the

respondents.

Farm visits /

Photo

documentation

One-on-one

interview /HII

/KAP / KII

Sketch Map /

Camera

Guide

questionnaire

37

Fourth Week

Compilation

of data

gathered

To check

completeness of

data gathered.

Informal

discussions

Collated Data

Validation of

data

To check

validity and

correctness of

data gathered

FGD/ Informal

discussions /

SWOT

Analysis /

Resource Flow

Diagram /

Cropping

Calendar /

Photo

documentation

Collated Data /

Camera

38

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Management 4-5, 1-16. Retrieved from

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.crm.2014.09.001

TYLOR, E. B. (1871). Primitive Culture: Researches into the Development of

Mythology, Philosophy, Religion, Language, Art, and Customs. London:

Cambridge University Press.

TRIPATHI, A. & MISHRA, A. K. (2017). Knowledge and passive adaptation to

climate change: An example from Indian farmers. Climate Risk Management

16, 195-207. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.crm.2016.11.002

43

UNITED NATIONS FRAMEWORK CONVENTION ON CLIMATE CHANGE

(UNFCCC).(2005). Climate Change, Small Island Developing States. Bonn,

Germany.

UNITED NATIONS FRAMEWORK CONVENTION ON CLIMATE CHANGE

(UNFCCC). (2013). Best practices and available tools for the use of

indigenous and traditional knowledge and practices for adaptation, and the

application of gender-sensitive approaches and tools for understanding and

assessing impacts, vulnerability and adaptation to climate change. Technical

Paper.

UNITED NATIONS INTER-AGENCY SUPPORT GROUP (IASG) ON

INDIGENOUS ISSUES. (2014). Thematic Paper on the Knowledge of

Indigenous Peoples and Policies for Sustainable Development: Updates and

trends in the Second Decade of the World’s Indigenous Peoples.

WORLD COMMISSION ON ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT

(WCED). (1987). Our Common Future. New York: Oxford University Press.

44

APPENDIX 1

INIDICATORS FOR THE ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY OF AGRICULTURE AND FISHERIES

ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUE INDICATORS

(unit of measure) METHOD OF CALCULATION INTERPRETATION

ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY OF AGRICULTURE

1. Land use and

agricultural landscape

(1) Area of land retired from

production and maintained for

conservation purposes (ha or %);

(2) Total agricultural land area in

relation to the total land area (%);

(3) Area of agricultural land

shifted to non-agricultural uses

(ha):

(4) Conversion of natural

ecosystems to agricultural land (ha

of converted land per year);

(5) Share of agricultural land over

X years that was stable, share that

shifted to natural land, and share

that grew from natural land

conversion (%)

Land use describes the functional

aspects of land, characterised by

some identifiable purpose or

function (such as land used for

agricultural, forestry or urban

purposes), leading to tangible

(food) or intangible products

(landscape). Land cover is the

description of the physical surface,

which for agricultural land can

encompass different crops and

pasture, and the physical features

such as rivers and buildings.

Measuring agricultural land

use/cover changes usually entails

drawing data from regular

agricultural censuses and, more

recently, from satellite imagery,

which is widely available and

regularly updated.

2. Soil quality / health (1) Soil organic matter (carbon)

content (tons of carbon per ha)

Annual data from national

authorities or farm level

45

3. Greenhouse gases (1) Food production per unit of

GHG emissions (tons of food

produced / year / ton of CO2

equivalent)

4. Farm management Nutrient management

(1) Use and frequency of soil tests

(frequency);

(2) Share of farms using a nutrient

management plan (%)

(1) Number of farms conducting

soil tests and their frequency;

and/or

Annual data from national

authorities on field or farm

numbers reported by soil test

laboratories

(2) Share of farms, or area, with a

plan to balance the inputs of

nitrogen (N) and phosphorus

(P)with crop needs of these

nutrients (using average content of

N and P by analysis or from

literature);

and/or

Annual data from national

authorities (from national surveys,

or sampling of representative

farms).

(1) The greater the number of soil

tests, the greater the likelihood that

applications rates are matched to

crop needs. Target is one or more

soil tests per farm per year. An

indicator of interest and

awareness, even if

recommendations are not always

followed.

(2) Widespread use of nutrient

management plans suggests sound

nutrient management and requires

a good understanding of the

economics of different nutrient

sources and handling options (i.e.

understanding of crop needs and

nutrient requirements at different

growth stages, in order to match

nutrient applications efficiently to

absorption by the crop roots).

46

Pest management

(1) Use of non-chemical pest

control methods (% of total crop

area)

(1) Share of annual crop area

where non-chemical pest control

methods are used; and/or

Annual data from national

authorities in cropland area treated

with biological control agents (e.g.

parasitic organisms for control of

insect pests) or where weed

control is achieved with tillage or

non-chemical methods (e.g.

ploughdown of allelopathic

residues, that is plants whose roots

and residues can suppress the

growth of many other plants,

including weeds)

Non-chemical pest control

methods can be used to manage

pest pressures without affecting

the farm economic health. Use of

these alternative practices reduces

pesticide use, and the risks to man

and the environment.

Soil management

(1)Number of days per year that

soil is covered (frequency or %);

(1) The indicator can be sub-

divided by the percentage of soil

cover provided by vegetation and

crop residues;

and/or

Annual data from national

authorities on type of crop,

planting, tillage and harvesting

dates, residues remaining after

harvesting, residues remaining

after each tillage operation.

(1) Plant and crop residue cover

protects soils from erosion,

reduces run-off of nutrients and

pesticides and provides habitat for

biodiversity.

The greater the cumulative soil

cover, the greater the protection

from soil erosion, compaction and

run-off, and the greater the

contribution to biodiversity.

47

(2) Use of reduced and zero tillage

and other best land management

practices including crop rotations

(%)

(2) Share of crop area cultivated

using minimum and zero tillage

practices, crop rotations, grassed

waterways, contour strip cropping,

etc.

(2) Indicator of the use of best

management practices for crop

production to minimise soil

erosion, etc. The higher the

adoption of such practices on land

areas at risk that require them, the

lower the risks of soil erosion, etc.

Irrigation management

(1) Crop production per drop of

water withdrawn (kg of crop

produced / m3 water / year);

(2) Water stress ratio (water

demand/water supply in m3)

5. Farm financial

resources

(1) Net farm and off-farm income

(PhP);

(2) Average rate of return on

capital employed (ROI, %);

(3) Average debt/equity ratio, on a

per farm basis and adjusted for

inflation in real terms

Net farm income is calculated as

the difference between gross

output and all expenses, including

depreciation at the farm level

6. Socio-cultural issues Agricultural Income:

(1) Share of agricultural income in

relation to total income of rural

households (ratio)

(1) This indicator is related to the

indicators on farm financial

resources and the ratio shows the

degree of integration of

agricultural production and farm

(1) This indicator illustrates

changes in rural livelihood. If

agricultural household incomes are

significantly below rural incomes,

entering the agricultural sector will

48

Entry of New Farmers into

Agriculture:

(1) Number of farmers, according

to age and gender, entering the

agricultural sector

incomes in the rural economy.

Ratio = (median agricultural

household income / median rural

household income) * 100

(1) Demographic pyramids

showing new farmers by gender

and age at 5-10 year intervals.

Calculated at 5-year intervals,

drawing on data from national

authorities.

no longer be attractive. On the

other hand, agricultural incomes

may be higher than rural incomes

as a result of agricultural policy

transfers. Agricultural incomes

may also increase in line with rural

household incomes, thus further

complicating the interpretation.

(1) This indicator is used as a

proxy for the “attractiveness” of

career opportunities within

farming for young people. The

rationale for this indicator is that

any profession that does not appeal

to the young could become

unsustainable in the long term.

ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY OF FISHERIES

1. Fish Resources (1) Fish catches

(2) Catch by species

(3) Species value2

(1) Total catch can be estimated

by multiplying Catch-per-unit-

effort (CPUE) by estimated effort

[Catch = CPUE x Effort]

Where:

Catch (total) refers to all species

being put together;

2FAO. (nd). Concepts in estimating catch. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/docrep/004/y2790e/y2790e03.htm

49

CPUE (sample) is expressed by

how much fish is caught by unit

effort; and

Effort (estimated sample) is

expressed in total no. of boat-days

(2) Catch by species

[Species = SP x Catch]

Where:

Species catch is the estimated

catch for each species;

SP is a fraction of the total catch

corresponding to a species; and

Catch is the estimated total catch

(3) Species value

[Value = P x Species]

Where:

P is the sample first-sale price of a

landed species; and

Species is the estimated species

catch

2. Technological Issues (1) Lists of acceptable gear

(2) Gear regulations addressing

selectivity, by-catch of juveniles

and discards

50

3. Social / Institutional (1) Coastal populations

(2) Employment rate

(3) Sectoral emigration and

immigration

(4) Age of fisherfolks

(5) Frequency and violence of

conflicts (% per year)

(6) Ratio between fisheries and

other revenues (%)

(7) Rate of boat and life loss (%

loss per year)

4. Biological Diversity (1) Existence and Effectiveness of

Marine Protected Areas (MPAs)

(Yes or No)

and/or

(benefits derived from MPAs)

(2) Area of live and dead coral (ha

or %)

(1) Review local, regional and

national policies on the presence

of MPAs in the area

(2) Images of the coastal areas

across different time scales

(Remote sensing)

51

APPENDIX 2A.

GUIDE QUESTIONS FOR HOUSEHOLD INTERVIEWS

A. Personal Profile

Name:______________________________ Contact Number: ___________________________

Age:________________________________ Gender:__________________________________

Civil

Status:______________________________

Name of Spouse ___________________________

(if married):

Educational Attainment:________________

Number of Children:___________________ Household Size:___________________________

Farm Household: _____________________

Name of

Children Age

Educational

Attainment

Participation/involvement

in farm/fishing activities

Number of farming/fishing years: ________________________________________________ Off-farm and Non-farm Activities: _______________________________________________

B. Agricultural Profile

Farm Location:_______________________________________________________________ Average Farm Size:___________________________________________________________

Source of Water: _____________________________________________________________

Land Tenure: ___ owned ___ leased ___others (specify): ___________________ If leased or rented, what are the arrangement in payment? How much?

___________________________________________________________________

Source of labor: ___ relatives ___ family member ___hired labor (How many and for how much?) ______________ others (specify):______________

Main crop(s) planted: _________________________________________________________

Source of planting material(s):__________________________________________________

If purchased, where and how much? _______________________________________ Other crops planted: __________________________________________________________

Reason(s) for planting: __________________________________________________

Livestock raised: ( ) chicken ( ) hogs ( ) goat ( ) carabao ( ) cow ( ) others

Reason(s) for choosing animals to raise: ____________________________________

Cropping Calendar:

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

52

C. Soil Quality and Land Degradation

How many different types of soil can you observe on your field?

Type of soil: ( ) sandy ( ) loamy ( ) loamy sand ( ) clay ( ) stony ( ) don’t know

( ) others, specify __________________

On average, how rich in soil organic matter is your soil? ( ) Not at all ( ) Very little ( )

Average( ) Quite rich ( ) A lot/very ( ) Don’t know

Is the soil in your fields fertile? ( ) No ( ) A little ( ) Average ( ) A lot ( ) Fully

Have you observed one or several of the following soil degradation processes these last five

years?

Type Yes / No Extent (% of

the land)

Degree ( Light,

Moderate, Severe)

Trend

(Increasing or decreasing)

Erosion from

wind (loss of

topsoil)

Erosion from

water (loss of

topsoil)

Diversity decline in species

composition

Increased pest and weed

competition

Soil salination

/alkalinisation (preventing crops

from growing)

Deforestation

Compaction (hard ground)

Soil pollution

Gully erosion

Landslides

Riverbank

erosion

Coastal erosion

Reduction of vegetative cover

Acidification

Waterlogging

Aridification (decreased soil

moisture)

Fertility decline

and reduced OM content

Others (specify)

53

D. Farm Management

Land Preparation

How do you prepare the land prior to planting? _____________________________________

Tools used in land preparation (if any): ___________________________________________

Start and end of land preparation: ________________________________________________ Number of laborers (per unit area): ______________________________________________

Water Management

When is the time of the year that you received the highest rainfall? _____________________

Rate of irrigation water used in agriculture (m3): ____________________________________

Sources of water:

Type of water source (e.g. borehole,

cistern, dam,

reservoir, river, water stream, lake, well,

others)

Distance to nearest water source from

your farm (in km)

Time needed to reach the water collection

point and collect

water (in minutes)

Have you seen any changes in water

quality or quantity

during the past 10 years? If so, please

describe.

Is your water access sufficient for the needs of your crops and livestock? ( ) Yes ( ) No

In your farming system and household consumption, do you use techniques and practices for water conservation? ( ) No ( ) water harvesting tanks ( ) water retention ditches/ stone

bunds/ vegetation strips/ contour lines and trenches ( ) water early morning or late at night

( ) mulching ( ) cover crops ( ) drip irrigation ( ) dams ( ) others, specify ________________________

Nutrient Management

How often do you test the soil (pH, N, P, K, OM, etc.)? ________________________ Presence of nutrient management plan: ( ) Yes ( ) No

Type of fertilizer or raw materials used: ___________________________________________

Application method and amount used per ha: _______________________________________ Other sources of fertilizer: _____________________________________________________

Transportation cost of fertilizer used: _____________________________________________

Soil Management

Number of days per year that soil is covered: _____________________________________

Soil cover material used: _____________________________________________________

Do you practice crop rotation? ( ) Yes ( ) No Do you practice zero tillage? ( ) Yes ( ) No

Other soil management practices employed: _______________________________________

Pest Management

Level of Infestation: (Rank which among the following pests are considered to be the most

destructive and state the reason why.)

___ weeds: ___________________________________________ ___ diseases: _________________________________________

___ insects: ____________________________________________

___vertebrate pests: _____________________________________

54

Control Measures

Type of Pests Species

Name

Control

Measure*

Pesticides

Used

(if any)

Rate of

Application

(per ha)

Cost of

Application

Weeds

Diseases

Insects

Vertebrate

Pests

*If organic, state the raw materials used, amount of materials and the procedure in making the

pesticide. ___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

Where did you learn the use of such inputs? ___________________________________________________________________________

Other cultural practices related to crop production:

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

Other problems encountered during the production: ___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

E. Farm Financial Resources

Yield per hectare (indicate area planted per crop):

Crop 1: Crop 2:

Wet Season: Wet Season:

Dry Season: Dry Season:

Crop 3: Crop 4:

Wet Season: Wet Season:

Dry Season: Dry Season:

Products’ Destination (%)

____market ____home consumption ____traders ____others (specify)

Distance to the nearest local farmers’ market (km): __________________________________

How much is the selling price?__________________________________________________ Source of capital: ( ) bank ( ) neighbors ( ) relatives ( ) owned

Amount of loan per season (if any): ______________________________________________

55

Cost and Return Analysis

Farm Operations Rate / Quantity Cost/ha

LABOR COSTS

Land Preparation

Sub-total (1)

Farm Management (cost/day)

Weeding (MD)

Application of Fertilizers (MD)

Application of Pesticides (MD)

Sub-total (2)

Other Major Operations (cost/day)

Harvesting (MD)

Drying (MD)

Others (specify)

Sub-total (3)

MATERIAL COSTS

Fertilizers

(1)

(2)

(3)

Pesticides

(1)

(2)

(3)

Sub-total (4)

TOTAL COSTS

GROSS INCOME

NET INCOME

RETURN ON INVESTMENT (%)

RETURN TO LABOR COST

RETURN TO MATERIAL COST

F. Fishing Activities:

Number of hours (per day) spent in fishing: ________________________________________

Total catch per hour spent in fishing (kg): __________________________________________ Kinds of fish/es caught: ________________________________________________________

Kinds of fishing gears used (specify and define its usage):

____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

How much is the selling price of each fish species?

(price/kg)____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________

Other coastal activities: ________________________________________________________

Reasons for coral death: ___________________________________________________________________________

G. Socio-cultural

Agricultural (including fishing) Income (monthly): __________________________________

Total Household Income (monthly): ______________________________________________

Membership in Organization(s): ( ) Yes ( ) No

56

If Yes, what organization?_____________________________ Year joined: ___________ Major activities of the organization: ______________________________________________

Benefits from the organization: __________________________________________________

Trainings attended (indicate title, date, and number of days):

____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________

Presence of ordinances or regulations on farming and fishing activities related to

environmental protection: ( ) Yes ( ) No

If Yes, what are those? _________________________________________________________

If none, what ordinances/regulations can you propose? ____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

Existence of MPAs: ( ) Yes ( ) No

If Yes, is this operational? ( ) Yes ( ) No Benefits derived from existence of MPAs?

____________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

H. Climate Change Perception

Over the last ten years, have you observed any changes relating to climate?

( ) Yes ( ) No

If yes, what are the signs that climate has changed?

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

Do you observe any specific sign to understand when seasons are about to change (e.g. specific animals/insects/etc that you use to predict seasonal changes)? ( ) Yes ( ) No

If yes, how?

_______________________________________________________________________

If no, why? ________________________________________________________________________

What are your sources of information about climate change? ( ) none ( ) radio

( ) TV ( ) ads/newspaper ( ) others, specify ________________

57

APPENDIX 2B.

GUIDE QUESTIONS FOR KEY INFORMANT INTERVIEWS

1. Observed changes in land use in terms of the following:

a. Land conversion (from production to conservation area)

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

b. Expansion or reduction of agricultural area

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

c. Conversion of natural ecosystems to agricultural area

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

2. Observed changes in climate in terms of the following:

a. Amount of rainfall

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

b. Frequency of strong typhoons

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

c. Wind velocity

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

d. Sea level

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

e. Temperature

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

58

3. Do you know any stories, tales or legends about past climate changes? If yes, how

were they passed on to you?

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

4. Climate change adaptation practices employed:

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

5. What agricultural / fishing activities being practiced before that are not practiced

today?

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

6. Reason(s) for the changes in practices:

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

7. Are you aware of any governmental policies or programs on climate change and

sustainable agriculture (and fishing) that affect you?

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________