African Institute for Agrarian Studies

Land Issues, Agriculture and Poverty

Sam Moyo

29 June 2009

Presented at CASS Conference on “Zimbabwe: Toward Poverty Focused Reconstruction and Development”, (25-26 August), Wild Geese Lodge, Harare

1.0 PERSPECTIVES ON ZIMBABWE’S AGRARIAN REFORM

1.1 Perspectives on Zimbabwe’s Pre-2000 Agrarian Situat ionCOMMON PERCEPTIONS REALITY

Smallholders “subsistence” producers • 80% national food

• 70% marketed maize, pulses, etc

Most food supplied by large farmers • Mainly high value foods

• High nutrition foods (milk, fruit)

Little smallholder exports • Cotton; Tobacco; Paprika;

• Beef via LSCF

Rural employment mainly on large farms • LSCF: 320,000 (50% FT)

• Com. Areas: 2 million+

Food production was adequate

(“bread basket to basket case”)

• Output declines from 1995+

• High malnutrition levels throughout

Customary Tenure Bad and

Freehold Tenure good

• Mixed performance results

- LSCF land underutilization

- High smallholder productivity

• Historic state investment bias

• Wider non-tenure financing issues

Environmental “crisis”

in C. Areas

- Overcrowding/resilience

- Low inputs system

- Low water/rainfall resources

1.2 Perceived post Fast Track land and agrarian outcome s

COMMON PERCEPTIONS REALITY

All large framers displaced • Many remaining

Mostly elites got land (Zanu PF) • Non-elites 140,000 (A1)

• 15,500 (A2) – includes ‘petty’ elites

Total agricultural output collapse • Declined overall but complex

• Less for some (eg cotton, beans)

Main problem is lost/lack of skills • Inputs supply is key

Production declines ‘irreversible’ • Slow upward turn (beans, tobac)

All new farmers unproductive • Differentiated investment patterns

• New output focus

No investments on farms

(tenure/banks)

• Financing constraint

• Mixed investment pattern

Support systems dead (inputs/services) • Inadequate/new finance forms

Environment destroyed (trees/animals) • New clearance/regulation!

Land tenure insecurity • Complex interrelated factors

Farm types/numbers Farm type: Area

2.0 AGRARIAN STRUCTURE: ASSET DISTRIBUTION

2.1b The emerging agrarian structure

2.2a Farm size allocations by model type

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200

1-20

21-50

51-120

121-250

251+

No. beneficiaries

farm

siz

e ra

nges

(ha)

A2

A1

2.4 BIPPAs Farm size (ha) Ranges (2007; n=266)

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

< 50

100-299

500-999

2000-2999

5000-9999

20000-50000

No. BIPPAs

Fa

rm s

ize

s

2.5 Large Estates: farm size range (ha) (2007; n= 105)

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

2000-2,999

3,000- 4,999

5,000- 5,999

6,000- 9,999

10,000- 14,999

15,000- 29,000

30,000- 50,000

>50,000

No. Large Estates

Fa

rm s

ize

s

2.6 Remaining white farms: Farm sizes ranges (Ha) (2007; n= 725)

0 50 100 150 200

<50

100-299

500-999

2000-2999

5000-9999

> 50000

No. Remaining White Farms

Fa

rm s

ize

2.7 Labour Patterns in Newly Redistributed Areas

2.7a Structure of Rural Labour in New Resettlement Area s (A1 & A2)

Level of

labour use

No. of

HH

% of

HH

Average labour used (No. persons)

Hired In Family* Family

+Full

Time

Hired

Out*Full

time

Part

Time

Low1 1351 64.67 0.0 5.52 3.61 3.61 0.13

Medium2 195 9.33 1.0 7.69 3.53 4.53 0.14

High3 543 25.99 7.55 12.87 3.77 11.31 0.10

Total 2089 100.00 2.05 7.64 3.64 5.70 0.12

1. Household utilises family labour in combination with part time labour hired in; 2. Household hires in one fulltime worker plus some part time workers; 3. Household hires in at least two fulltime workers plus some part time w orkers *not statistically different across labour classes

3.1 Social Differentiation of Beneficiaries and Exc lusion3.1.1 Origins of the beneficiaries

2.2 Social differentiation of beneficiaries (origins, jobs, labour)

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200

Other*

CA

LSCF

Urban area

Employment

elsewhere

No. beneficiaries

Origins

Female

Male

A2

A1

3.1.2 Gender dimensions of access to redistributed land

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400

Male

Female

No. beneficiaries

Sex of plot ownerA2

A1

3.1.3 Employment histories of beneficiaries: class background?

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600

Other

Security forces

CS unskilled

CS semi-skilled

CS managerial/skilled

Self employed

Pvt unskilled

Pvt semi-skilled

Pvt managerial/skilled

Not employed

Current

Past

*Pvt – Private, CS- Civil Servant ; **Other – Farm worker, domestic worker, informal,

student/diaspora

4.0 EMERGING LAND TENURE SYSTEM & SECURITY ISSUES

4.1 Emerging land tenure system: forms of tenure an d security issues

KEY ISSUES FREEHOLD LEASEHOLD PERMITS (old & new/A1)

CUSTOMARY STATE LAND

ILLEGAL SQUATTERS

Legal basis (laws)

√√√√ √√√√ √√√√ √√√√ √√√√ Adverse possession

Assigned Few remain Expanded (ca 20,000)

Expanded (ca 250,000)

1.2 million √√√√ Self

Duration Perpetual 25 to 99 years Perpetual Perpetual ? n /a

Records - Survey- Registration

√√√√ Few (116) registered or surveyed

Not yet n/a Few not recorded

No

Collaterable √√√√ Sometimes? No No √√√√ No

Transactable (sale)

√√√√ (CONPI) Yes on minister’s approval

Not in law (informally)

Informally √√√√ Yes

Inheritable Yes Yes Yes (customary law)

Yes (customary law)

n/a Yes

Gender rights (Spouse right)

Optional Right registrable (?)

Spouse right registrable

Customary practice (?)

n/a ?

4.2 Emerging land tenure system: land administratio n issuesKEY ADMIN ISSUES

FREEHOLD LEASEHOLD PERMITS (old & new/A1)

CUSTOMARY STATE LAND

ILLEGAL SQUATTERS

No. of claimants 1,000 (est) 17,000 (est) 300,000+ (official/other)

750,000-1 million households (census?)

- Forest areas- Park areas- Parastatal farms

20,000?

Land Area (ha) 1.5 million (est)

4.5 million (est)

9.5 million (est) 16.4 million 6.3 million

Assigned tenure documents

- Title- CONPI

- Offer letter- Lease (2007)- No documents

- Oral allocation- A1 offer letter- Draft permit- No offer/squatter

- No document- Written agreements

- Gazetted map- Title deed-Unallocated

n/a

Land register Deeds registry (central)

- Allocation list- Deeds (central)?

- Allocation list (district)

-Sabhuku’s list (local)

- No inventory- Titles

No

Authority (controls)

- Market- State- Courts

- State- Courts

- State- Family heads

- Trad Leaders- Family heads-State

State State

Dispute resolution Courts (?) - Courts- MLRR

- MLRR- Courts (?)

- Trad Leaders- Trad courts

Courts ?

Police powers (protection)

Yes (waning) Yes (limited) Limited Limited Yes (ignored)

?

Dispute intensity High Med Low Very low Some High Demand for conversion

n/a Med to high Some Very low n/a Doc

4.3 Land Tenure Security: Nature and SourcesSource of land conflicts A1 A2 Total

No. % No. % No. %No land conflicts 1 366 82.7 351 80.1 1 717 80.2Conflicts types 285 17.3 87 19.9 372 17.8

Boundary disputes 145 8.0 42 9.6 187 9.0

Access to natural resources 38 2.3 11 2.5 49 2.3

Access to infrastructure 40 2.4 9 2.1 49 2.3Animal disputes - - 1 0.2 1 0.1

Conflict over land/ownership of land

49 3.0 23 5.3 72 3.4

Double allocation 1 0.1 1 0.2 2 0.1Eviction 4 0.2 - - 4 0.2Exchanging plots 3 0.2 - - 3 0.1Fraud/forged documents 1 0.1 - - 1 0.0

Trespassers 3 0.2 - - 3 0.1Land re-planning issues 1 0.1 - - 1 0.0

Total 1 651 100.0 438 100.0 2089 100.0

Source: AIAS Survey; N=2089, A2=438

5.1 Agricultural Production Tendencies

5.1.1a Maize and total cereal production (tons) in Z imbabwe

5.1.1b Sub-sectoral maize Production Trends (1980 – 2009)

5.1.2 Soya beans, groundnuts, beans & sunflower outpu t trends

5.1.3 Key exports’ output trends

5.2 Commodity Production Constraints Matrix (2000-200 7)Commodity Sub

sector 1OutputTrend 4

Key production constraintsDrought Inputs Market2 Land3 Skill Finance

Main foods Maize SF -11.8 *** *** ** *** **Wheat MLF -2.6 *** * * ***Small grains SF -1 *** **Edible beans ALL -32 * *** **Ground nuts SF -3 * ***OilseedsSoya beans MLF -28 *** * ***Sunflower MLF -61 *** * **Key exportsTobacco MLF -77.6 * * *** ***Cotton SF 3.7 * *Estate cropsSugar ES 15.6 * **Tea ES 43.6 ** **coffee ES -51.6 ** **Citrus ES 36.9 ** *** ***LivestockBeef ALL *** ** *** ***Dairy MLF *** * * *** ***

1 Key: SF = Small farmers; MLF= Medium-Large farmers; ES = Estates; *-Severity of constraint4comparing 1990s average to 2005/6 output- pre—hyperinflation period; 2Output price control/market access; 3Combined effects of transfers;

tillage; use

5.4 Zimbabwe Fertilizer Production and Consumption: 1999

– 2008

6.0 MOVING FORWARD: LAND AND AGRARIAN REFORM

6.1 Dominant Perspectives on Agrarian Decline & Rec overy

COMMON PERCEPTIONS EMERGING REALITIESRecovery possible only if LSCF is reconstituted

- Dynamic/diverse forms of farming at play

Reproducing past output patterns is most beneficial

- Yes more food - Not other commodities- Why continue some exports

(e.g. tobacco)

Some exports are too complex for small farmers

- Exports contribution curve is growing

Investment only if “title” is provided to all farmers

- Non-freehold investment occurs

- Enabling new farmers works

Financing is limited by scale economies and title

- New market structures emerging

- New financing mechanisms emerging

Environmental “crisis” or tragedy is pending

- Land clearing can stabilize- New forms of environmental

stewardship

6.2 Policy matrix: factors affecting agricultural prod uctionPOLICY ARENA CONSTRAINING FACTOR/ PROCESSES SOURCE FAC TORWEATHER • Droughts, flooding

• Mitigation/irrigationExternal Technology

LAND TRANSFERS AND TENURE

• Reduced sizes/area planted (some crops)• Land disputes and conflicts• Tenure security

Wider policy

Land tenure

New resource & production structure; tenure

INPUTS USE

• Agro-industrial supply bottlenecks (Seed, fertilizer, agro-chemicals)

• Distribution bottlenecks (markets/transport)• Access/affordability (credit)

Macro-econ and agricultural policy

constraint

Technology &

capital

FARMER SKILLS AND ORGANIZATION

• Skills “deficit”• Extension services deficiency• New farmer organization

Micro-institutional Extension

Training

FARM INVESTMENTS AND FINANCING

• On-farm infrastructure/irrigation deficits• Domestic financing models/deficiency

- State (Credit/subsidies): inadequate- Private (credit/sub-contract):

inadequate• External financing (BoP loss)

- Retreat of merchants (tobacco, hort) - Bretton Woods/Bi-lateral loans loss

• Smallholder recovery aid deficits

Macro-econ policy

Deficiency & negative external policies (isolation/ratings)

Finance

System shift

Reduced lending

MARKETS LOSS

• Marketing channels control/monopolies (capacity, incoherence, infeasible)

• Price controls: Unviable/infeasible• External agricultural markets loss(horticulture; beef; etc)

• Tourists (image) and multipliers loss

• Trade restrictions, smuggling

External policies and economic policy incoherence

Roles of

state,

markets; external relations

6.3 Moving Forward: Framing1. Context• Political Aspect: National healing; Integration; De epen Democracy and Rights • Economic Policy Framework: Liberalised Prices, Trad e and Capital Account• Normalise international relations: isolation, finan cial sanctions and more aid

2. Land Reform Irreversibility and Accountability F ramework � Adapt new land holding structure to address exclusi ons/equity

(Gender, farm workers, ethnicity, landless poor, whites and foreign)

� Strengthen Tenure System Transformed: Diverse form s need security

(leases, permits; freeholds; C. areas)- Secure rights (use, transfer, exclusion and collate rability- Capable, equitable land administration/adjudication (protection)

� Sustainable Land Use Regulation

- Agricultural land use regulation and incentives- Natural resource management systems (conservancies, forestry)

� Compensation for acquired farms needs negotiation

3. Agrarian Reform: Bi-Modal Agrarian Strategy?

� Promote diverse production and marketing systems; n ational interests

- Liberalisation of inputs and outputs markets (less parastatal monopoly) - Reform of state interventions (marketing, new subsi dies; public support)- Mediate correlation of class forces and capital