African art 1

African art

Mask from Gabon

Mambila figure, Nigeria

African art is a term typically used for the art ofSub-Saharan Africa, as the art of the North Africanareas along the Mediterranean coast has long been partof different traditions and for more than a millenniumhas mostly formed part of Islamic art, although withmany particular characteristics. The Art of Ethiopia,with a long Christian tradition, is also different fromthat of most of Africa, where animist religion (withIslam in the north) was dominant until relativelyrecently. Often, casual observers tend to generalize"traditional" African art, but the continent is full ofpeople, societies and civilizations, each with a uniquevisual culture. The definition may also include the artof the African Diasporas, such as the art of AfricanAmericans. Despite this diversity, there are someunifying artistic themes when considering the totalityof the visual culture from the continent of Africa.[1]

Most African sculpture was historically in wood andother organic materials that have not survived fromearlier than, at most, a few centuries ago; older potteryfigures can be found from a number of areas. Masks areimportant elements in the art of many peoples, alongwith human figures, often highly stylized. There is avast variety of styles, often varying within the samecontext of origin depending on the use of the object,but wide regional trends are apparent; sculpture is mostcommon among "groups of settled cultivators in theareas drained by the Niger and Congo rivers" in WestAfrica.[2] Direct images of deities are relativelyinfrequent, but masks in particular are or were oftenmade for religious ceremonies; today many are madefor tourists as "airport art".[3] African masks were aninfluence on European Modernist art,[4] which wasinspired by their lack of concern for naturalisticdepiction.

Later West African cultures developed bronze castingfor reliefs, like the famous Benin Bronzes, to decoratepalaces and for very fine naturalistic royal heads fromaround the Yoruba town of Ife, in terracotta as well asmetal, from the 12th–14th centuries. Akan goldweightsare a form of small metal sculptures produced over the

African art 2

Yombe-sculpture, 19th century

period 1400–1900; some apparently represent proverbs, contributing anarrative element rare in African sculpture; and royal regalia includedimpressive gold sculptured elements.[5] Many West African figures areused in religious rituals and are often coated with materials placed onthem for ceremonial offerings. The Mande-speaking peoples of thesame region make pieces from wood with broad, flat surfaces and armsand legs shaped like cylinders. In Central Africa, however, the maindistinguishing characteristics include heart-shaped faces that arecurved inward and display patterns of circles and dots.

Eastern Africans, in many areas shorter of large timber to carve, areknown for Tinga Tinga paintings and Makonde sculptures. There isalso tradition of producing textile art,.[6] The culture from GreatZimbabwe left more impressive buildings than sculpture, but the eightsoapstone Zimbabwe Birds appear to have had a special significanceand were presumably mounted on monoliths. Modern Zimbabweansculptors in soapstone have achieved considerable internationalsuccess. Southern Africa’s oldest known clay figures date from 400 to600 AD and have cylindrical heads with a mixture of human and animal features.

Thematic elements

Yoruba bronze head sculpture, Ife, Nigeria c. 12th century A.D.

• Emphasis on the human figure: The human figurehas always been the primary subject matter for mostAfrican art, and this emphasis even influencedcertain European traditions. [7] For example, in thefifteenth century Portugal traded with the Sapiculture near Côte d'Ivoire in West Africa, whocreated elaborate ivory saltcellars that were hybridsof African and European designs, most notably inthe addition of the human figure (the human figuretypically did not appear in Portuguese saltcellars).The human figure may symbolize the living or thedead, may reference chiefs, dancers, or varioustrades such as drummers or hunters, or even may bean anthropomorphic representation of a god or haveother votive function. Another common theme is theinter-morphosis of human and animal.

• Visual abstraction: African artworks tend to favorvisual abstraction over naturalistic representation.This is because many African artworks generalizestylistic norms.[8] Ancient Egyptian art, also usuallythought of as naturalistically depictive, makes use ofhighly abstracted and regimented visual canons, especially in painting, as well as the use of different colors torepresent the qualities and characteristics of an individual being depicted.[9]

• Emphasis on sculpture: African artists tend to favor three-dimensional artworks over two-dimensional works. Even many African paintings or cloth works were meant to be experienced three-dimensionally. House paintings

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are often seen as a continuous design wrapped around a house, forcing the viewer to walk around the work toexperience it fully; while decorated cloths are worn as decorative or ceremonial garments, transforming thewearer into a living sculpture. Distinct from the static form of traditional Western sculpture African art displaysanimation, a readiness to move.[10]

Makonde carving c.1974

• Emphasis on performance art: An extension of the utilitarianism andthree-dimensionality of traditional African art is the fact that muchof it is crafted for use in performance contexts, rather than in staticones. For example, traditional African masks and costumes veryoften are used in communal, ceremonial contexts, where they are"danced." Most societies in Africa have names for their masks, butthis single name incorporates not only the sculpture, but also themeanings of the mask, the dance associated with it, and the spiritsthat reside within. In African thought, the three cannot bedifferentiated.

• Nonlinear scaling: Often a small part of an African design will looksimilar to a larger part, such as the diamonds at different scales inthe Kasai pattern at right. Louis Senghor, Senegal’s first president,referred to this as "dynamic symmetry." William Fagg, the Britishart historian, compared it to the logarithmic mapping of naturalgrowth by biologist D’Arcy Thompson. More recently it has beendescribed in terms of fractal geometry.[11]

Scope

Ethiopia: Cross of Emperor Tewodros, early 19thCentury

Until recently, the designation "African" was usually only bestowed onthe arts of "Black Africa", the peoples living in Sub-Saharan Africa.The non-black peoples of North Africa, the people of the Horn ofAfrica, as well as the art of ancient Egypt, generally were not includedunder the rubric of African art. Recently, however, there has been amovement among African art historians and other scholars to includethe visual culture of these areas, since all the cultures that producedthem, in fact, are located within the geographic boundaries of theAfrican continent. The notion is that by including all African culturesand their visual culture in African art, laypersons will gain a greaterunderstanding of the continent's cultural diversity. Since there wasoften a confluence of traditional African, Islamic and Mediterraneancultures, scholars have found that drawing distinct divisions betweenMuslim areas, ancient Egypt, the Mediterranean and indigenous blackAfrican societies makes little sense. Finally, the arts of the people ofthe African diaspora, in Brazil, the Caribbean and the southeasternUnited States, have also begun to be included in the study of Africanart.

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Materials

Nok terracotta, 6th century BC–6th century CE

A bronze ceremonial vessel made around the 9thcentury, one of the bronzes found at Igbo Ukwu.

African art takes many forms and as such is made frommany different materials. Jewelry is a popular art formand is used to indicate rank, affiliation with a group, orpurely for aesthetics.[12] African jewelry is made fromsuch diverse materials as Tiger's eye stone, haematite,sisal, coconut shell, beads and ebony wood. Sculpturescan be wooden, ceramic or carved out of stone like thefamous Shona sculptures.[13] Various forms of textilesare made including chitenge, mud cloth and kente cloth.Mosaics made of butterfly wings or colored sand arepopular in west Africa.

History

The origins of African art lie long before recordedhistory. African rock art in the Sahara in Niger preserves6000-year-old carvings.[14] Along with sub-SaharanAfrica, the cultural arts of the western tribes, ancientEgyptian paintings and artifacts, and indigenoussouthern crafts also contributed greatly to African art.Often depicting the abundance of surrounding nature, theart was often abstract interpretations of animals, plantlife, or natural designs and shapes. The Nubian Kingdomof Kush in modern Sudan was in close and often hostilecontact with Egypt, and produced monumental sculpturemostly derivative of styles to the north. In West Africa,the earliest known sculptures are from the Nok culturewhich thrived between 500 BC and 500 AD in modernNigeria, with clay figures typically with elongatedbodies and angular shapes.

More complex methods of producing art were developedin sub-Saharan Africa around the 10th century, some ofthe most notable advancements include the bronzeworkof Igbo Ukwu and the terracottas and metalworks of IleIfe Bronze and brass castings, often ornamented withivory and precious stones, became highly prestigious in much of West Africa, sometimes being limited to the workof court artisans and identified with royalty, as with the Benin Bronzes.

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Influence on Western artWesterners had long misunderstood African art as "primitive." The term carries with it negative connotations ofunderdevelopment and poverty. Colonization and the slave trade in Africa during the nineteenth century set up aWestern understanding hinged on the belief that African art lacked technical ability due to its low socioeconomicstatus.At the start of the twentieth century, artists like Picasso, Matisse, Vincent van Gogh, Paul Gauguin and Modiglianibecame aware of, and inspired by, African art.[15] In a situation where the established avant garde was strainingagainst the constraints imposed by serving the world of appearances, African Art demonstrated the power ofsupremely well organised forms; produced not only by responding to the faculty of sight, but also and oftenprimarily, the faculty of imagination, emotion and mystical and religious experience. These artists saw in African Arta formal perfection and sophistication unified with phenomenal expressive power. The study of and response toAfrican Art, by artists at the beginning of the twentieth century facilitated an explosion of interest in the abstraction,organisation and reorganisation of forms, and the exploration of emotional and psychological areas hitherto unseenin Western Art. By these means, the status of visual art was changed. Art ceased to be merely and primarilyaesthetic, but became also a true medium for philosophic and intellectual discourse, and hence more truly andprofoundly aesthetic than ever before.

Influence on Western architectureEuropean architecture was strongly influenced by African Art. Pioneers like Antonio Sant'Elia, Le Corbusier, PierLuigi Nervi, Theo Van Doesburg and Erich Mendelsohn were also sculptures and painters; Futurist, Rationalist andExpressionist architecture discovered in Africa a new repertoire of proto-symbols; in a formal level, the space is nowcomposed by single forms that do not only refer to human proportions and scale, but to its psychology; surfaces aremodelled by geometric patterns. During the 50's, European architects transformed buildings into big-scale sculptures,replacing unnecessary decoration (so criticized by Adolf Loos), by integrating textured murals and large bas-reliefsin walls. During the 60's, African Art influenced Brutalism, both in language and symbolism, particularly in the lateLe Corbusier, Oscar Niemeyer and Paul Rudolph. The powerful work of John Lautner reminds of artifacts from theYoruba; the sensual projects of Patricio Pouchulu honour the bare wooden sculptures of the Dogon and Baoulé.Unlike Europe, African art never established boundaries between body art, painting, sculpture and architecture;thanks to this, Western architects can now extend towards different art expressions.

Traditional artTraditional art describes the most popular and studied forms of African art which are typically found in museumcollections.Wooden masks, which might either be human or animal or of mythical creatures, are one of the most commonlyfound forms of art in western Africa. In their original contexts, ceremonial masks are used for celebrations,initiations, crop harvesting, and war preparation. The masks are worn by a chosen or initiated dancer. During themask ceremony the dancer goes into deep trance, and during this state of mind he "communicates" with hisancestors. The masks can be worn in three different ways: vertically covering the face: as helmets, encasing theentire head, and as crest, resting upon the head, which was commonly covered by material as part of the disguise.African masks often represent a spirit and it is strongly believed that the spirit of the ancestors possesses the wearer.Most African masks are made with wood, and can be decorated with: Ivory, animal hair, plant fibers (such as raffia),pigments (like kaolin), stones, and semi-precious gems also are included in the masks.Statues, usually of wood or ivory, are often inlaid with cowrie shells, metal studs and nails. Decorative clothing isalso commonplace and comprises another large part of African art. Among the most complex of African textiles isthe colorful, strip-woven Kente cloth of Ghana. Boldly patterned mudcloth is another well known technique.

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Contemporary African art

Wood sculpture attributed to Zimbabweanartist Gideon Chidongo, 4th quarter of 20th

century.

Africa is home to a thriving contemporary art fine art culture. This hasbeen sadly understudied until recently, due to scholars' and art collectors'emphasis on traditional art. Notable modern artists include El Anatsui,Marlene Dumas, William Kentridge, Karel Nel, Kendell Geers, YinkaShonibare, Zerihun Yetmgeta, Odhiambo Siangla, Olu Oguibe, LubainaHimid, and Bili Bidjocka, Henry Tayali. Art bienniales are held inDakar, Senegal, and Johannesburg, South Africa. Many contemporaryAfrican artists are represented in museum collections, and their art maysell for high prices at art auctions. Despite this, many contemporaryAfrican artists tend to have difficult times finding a market for theirwork. Many contemporary African arts borrow heavily from traditionalpredecessors. Ironically, this emphasis on abstraction is seen byWesterners as an imitation of European and American cubist and totemicartists, such as Pablo Picasso, Amedeo Modigliani and Henri Matisse,who, in the early twentieth century, were heavily influenced bytraditional African art. This period was critical to the evolution ofWestern modernism in visual arts, symbolized by Picasso's breakthroughpainting "Les Demoiselles d'Avignon."[16]

Contemporary African art was pioneered in the 1950s and 1960s inSouth Africa by artists like Irma Stern, Cyril Fradan, Walter Battiss andthrough galleries like the Goodman Gallery in Johannesburg. Morerecently European galleries like the October Gallery in London andcollectors such as Jean Pigozzi,[17] Artur Walther[18] and GianniBaiocchi in Rome have helped expand the interest in the subject.Numerous exhibitions at the Museum for African Art in New York andthe African Pavilion at the 2007 Venice Biennale, which showcased theSindika Dokolo African Collection of Contemporary Art, have gone a long way to countering many of the myths andprejudices that haunt Contemporary African Art. The appointment of Nigerian Okwui Enwezor as artistic director ofDocumenta 11 and his African centred vision of art propelled the careers of countless African artists onto theinternational stage.

A wide range of more-or-less traditional forms of art, or adaptations of traditional style to contemporary taste aremade for sale to tourists and others, including so-called "airport art". A number of vigorous popular traditionsassimilate Western influences into African styles such as the elaborate fantasy coffins in shapes such as airplanes,cars or animals of West African cities, and the banners of clubs.

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By country or people

MaliThe art of Mali is somewhat more abstract than that of Kenya. Artwork focuses significantly on the genital area,whereby the male and female forms are artistically compared through an abstract perception. The penis is also asymbolisation and celebration of the male figure, which is culturally, the dominant sex in Mali.

Bambara

Two Bambara Chiwara c. late 19th early 20th centuries, Art Institute ofChicago. Female (left) and male Vertical styles

The Bambara people (Bambara: Bamanankaw)adapted many artistic traditions and began to createdisplay pieces. Before money was the main drive ofcreation of their artworks these tribes used theirabilities solely as a sacred craft for display ofspiritual pride, religious beliefs and display of tribalcustoms. Example artworks include the Bamanan’tomo mask. Other statues were created for peoplesuch as hunters and farmers so other tribe memberscould leave offerings after long farming seasons orgroup hunts. The stylistic variations in Bambara artare extreme sculptures, masks and headdressesdisplay either stylized or realistic features, and eitherweathered or encrusted patinas. Until quite recently,the function of Bambara pieces was shrouded inmystery, but in the last twenty years field studieshave revealed that certain types of figures andheaddresses were associated with a number of thesocieties that structure Bambara life. During the 1970s a group of approximately twenty figures, masks and TjiWaraheaddresses belonging to the so-called 'Segou style' were identified. The style is distinct and recognizable by itstypical flat faces, arrow-shaped noses, all-over body triangular scarifications and, on the figures, splayed hands.

MasksThere are three major and one minor type of Bambara mask. The first type, used by the N'tomo society, has a typicalcomb-like structure above the face, is worn during dances and may be covered with cowrie shells. The second typeof mask, associated with the Komo society, has a spherical head with two antelope horns on the top and an enlarged,flattened mouth. They are used during dances, but some have a thick encrusted patina acquired during otherceremonies in which libations are poured over them.The third type has connections with the Nama society and is carved in the form of an articulated bird's head, whilethe fourth, minor type, represents a stylized animal head and is used by the Kore society. Other Bambara masks areknown to exist, but unlike those described above, they cannot be linked to specific societies or ceremonies. Bambaracarvers have established a reputation for the zoomorphic headdresses worn by Tji-Wara society members]. Althoughthey are all different, they all display a highly abstract body, often incorporating a zig-zag motif, which representsthe sun's course from east to west, and a head with two large horns. Bambara members of the Tji-Wara society wearthe headdress while dancing in their fields at sowing time, hoping to increase the crop yield.StatuettesBambara statuettes are primarily used during the annual ceremonies of the Guan society. During these ceremonies, a group of up to seven figures, measuring from 80 to 130 cm in height, are removed from their sanctuaries by the elder

African art 8

members of the society. The sculptures are washed, re-oiled and sacrifices are offered to them at their shrines. Thesefigures - some of which date from between the 14th and 16th centuries - usually display a typical crested coiffure,often adorned with a talisman.Two of these figures were ascribed great significance: a seated or standing maternity figure called Guandousou -known in the West as 'Bambara Queen' - and a male figure called Guantigui, who usually appears holding a knife.The two figures were surrounded by Guannyeni attendant figures standing or seated in various positions, holding avessel, or a musical instrument, or their breasts. During the 1970s, numerous fakes from Bamako which were basedon these sculptures entered the market. They were produced in Bamako.Other Bambara figures, called Dyonyeni, are thought to be associated with either the southern Dyo society or theKwore society. These female or hermaphrodite figures usually appear with geometric features such as large conicalbreasts and measure between 40 and 85 cm in height. The blacksmith members of the Dyo society used them duringdances to celebrate the end of their initiation ceremonies. They were handled, held by dancers and placed in themiddle of the ceremonial circle.Among the corpus of Bambara figures, Boh sculptures are perhaps the best known. These statues represent a highlystylized animal or human figure, and are made of wood which is repeatedly covered in thick layers of earthimpregnated with sacrificial materials such as millet, chicken or goat blood, kola nuts and alcoholic drinks. Theywere employed by the Kono and the Komo societies and served as receptacles for spiritual forces, and could in turnbe used for apotropaic purposes.Each special creative trait a person obtained was seen as a different way to please higher spirits.

Dogon

12th Century Yoruba (Ife) bronze casting of a King

Dogon art is primarily sculpture. Dogon art revolves aroundreligious values, ideals, and freedoms (Laude, 19). Dogonsculptures are not made to be seen publicly, and arecommonly hidden from the public eye within the houses offamilies, sanctuaries, or kept with the Hogon (Laude, 20).The importance of secrecy is due to the symbolic meaningbehind the pieces and the process by which they are made.

Themes found throughout Dogon sculpture consist offigures with raised arms, superimposed bearded figures,horsemen, stools with caryatids, women with children,figures covering their faces, women grinding pearl millet,women bearing vessels on their heads, donkeys bearingcups, musicians, dogs, quadruped-shaped troughs orbenches, figures bending from the waist, mirror-images,aproned figures, and standing figures (Laude, 46-52). Signsof other contacts and origins are evident in Dogon art. TheDogon people were not the first inhabitants of the cliffs ofBandiagara. Influence from Tellem art is evident in Dogonart because of its rectilinear designs (Laude, 24).Dogon art is extremely versatile, although common stylisticcharacteristics – such as a tendency towards stylization –are apparent on the statues. Their art deals with the mythswhose complex ensemble regulates the life of the

African art 9

individual. The sculptures are preserved in innumerable sites of worship, personal or family altars, altars for rain,altars to protect hunters, in market. As a general characterization of Dogon statues, one could say that they render thehuman body in a simplified way, reducing it to its essentials. Some are extremely elongated with emphasis ongeometric forms. The subjective impression is one of immobility with a mysterious sense of a solemn gravity andserene majesty, although conveying at the same time a latent movement. Dogon sculpture recreates thehermaphroditic silhouettes of the Tellem, featuring raised arms and a thick patina made of blood and millet beer. Thefour Nommo couples, the mythical ancestors born of the god Amma, ornament stools, pillars or men’s meetinghouses, door locks, and granary doors. The primordial couple is represented sitting on a stool, the base of whichdepicts the earth while the upper surface represents the sky; the two are interconnected by the Nommo. The seatedfemale figures, their hands on their abdomen, are linked to the fertility cult, incarnating the first ancestor who died inchildbirth, and are the object of offerings of food and sacrifices by women who are expecting a child. Kneelingstatues of protective spirits are placed at the head of the dead to absorb their spiritual strength and to be theirintermediaries with the world of the dead, into which they accompany the deceased before once again being placedon the shrines of the ancestors. Horsemen are remainders of the fact that, according to myth, the horse was the firstanimal present on earth. The Dogon style has evolved into a kind of cubism: ovoid head, squared shoulders, taperedextremities, pointed breasts, forearms, and thighs on a parallel plane, hairdos stylized by three or four incised lines.Dogon sculptures serve as a physical medium in initiations and as an explanation of the world. They serve totransmit an understanding to the initiated, who will decipher the statue according to the level of their knowledge.Carved animal figures, such as dogs and ostriches, are placed on village foundation altars to commemorate sacrificedanimals, while granary doors, stools and house posts are also adorned with figures and symbols.There are nearly eighty styles of masks, but their basic characteristic is great boldness in the use of geometric shapes,independent of the various animals they are supposed to represent. The structure of a large number of masks is basedon the interplay of vertical and horizontal lines and shapes. Another large group has triangular, conic shapes. Allmasks have large geometric eyes and stylized features. The masks are often polychrome, but on many the color islost; after the ceremonies they were left on the ground and quickly deteriorated because of termites and otherconditions. The Dogon continue an ancient masquerading tradition, which commemorates the origin of death.According to their myths, death came into the world as a result of primeval man’s transgressions against the divineorder. Dama memorial ceremonies are held to accompany the dead into the ancestral realm and restore order to theuniverse. The performance of masqueraders – sometimes as many as 400 – at these ceremonies is consideredabsolutely necessary. In the case of the dama, the timing, types of masks involved, and other ritual elements are oftenspecific to one or two villages and may not resemble those seen in locations only several miles distant. The masksalso appear during baga-bundo rites performed by small numbers of masqueraders before the burial of a maleDogon. Dogon masks evoke the form of animals associated with their mythology, yet their significance is onlyunderstood by the highest ranking cult members whose role is to explain the meaning of each mask to a captivatedaudience.

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Kenya

A modern fantasy coffin in the shape of a redrooster (cock), Ghana

Kenyan art has changed much in the post colonial years. Paintersemerged in the 1950s after training in Makerere University College;they include such artists as Elimo Njau Elizabeth Karuga. The 1970ssaw the self-taught African painters mostly inspired by the demand fororiginal African paintings. These include the Ancient Soi, MacuaNgethe, and Moses Gichuiri. Kenyatta University also produced artistsbut more so taught in western art styles of painting. Among theseinclude John Dianga and Moses Gichuiri. Others include the late Dr.Sylvester Maina, Stephen Mayienga and others. The ‘80s was theproduced many contemporary artists. From Teachers Training collegescame Stephen Mbatia, Rix Butama, Shake Makelele, and Meube to

name but a few. From the University of Nairobi School of Fine Art and Design came the following artists: BulinyaMartins and Sarah Shiundu. The two by virtue of having learned many basic techniques in design are highlyinnovative both in style, use of color and execution. Unlike most contemporary Kenyan artist they paint using oils,acrylics and watercolors and/or combination. Pure abstract art is rare in Kenya. Most artists paint semi-abstract withdistorted human figures. The initial paintings by Bulinya Martins were a combination of cubism and original Africanabstractions. The late Mainga’s abstractions were 2D and highly embellished on leather. As for material, the use ofAcrylics and oil is more frequent than watercolors. Oil paint is by far the preferred medium today and it lasts muchlonger. The art items in Kenya include sisal baskets, elephant hair bracelets, Maasai bead jewelry, musicalinstruments, silver and gold jewelry, soapstone sculptures, wooden carvings, tribal masks, Maasai figurines,paintings, prints and sculptures. These art items are available in the arts and craft markets and shops throughout themain tourist centers of Kenya.

Cloth in Kenya also represents interesting art, with batik cloth, kangas (women's wraparound skirts) with patternsand even Kenyan proverbs printed on them and kikois (type of sarong for men) that come in many different colorsand textiles. Kenya offers African jewelry containing cowry shells, and soapstone carvings from Western Kenya,carved by the Gusii and Abagusii ethnic groups in Kisii stone.

GabonThe Fang people make masks and basketry, carvings, and sculptures. Fang art is characterized by organized clarityand distinct lines and shapes. Bieri, boxes to hold the remains of ancestors, are carved with protective figures. Masksare worn in ceremonies and for hunting. The faces are painted white with black features. Myene art centers aroundMyene rituals for death. Female ancestors are represented by white painted masks worn by the male relatives. TheBekota use brass and copper to cover their carvings. They use baskets to hold ancestral remains. Tourism is rare inGabon, and unlike in other African countries, art is not spurred on by commerce.

BotswanaIn the northern part of Botswana, tribal women in the villages of Etsha and Gumare are noted for their skill atcrafting baskets from Mokola Palm and local dyes. The baskets are generally woven into three types: large, liddedbaskets used for storage large, open baskets for carrying objects on the head or for winnowing threshed grain, andsmaller plates for winnowing pounded grain. The artistry of these baskets is being steadily enhanced through coloruse and improved designs as they are increasingly produced for commercial use.The oldest evidence ancient paintings from both Botswana and South Africa. Depictions of hunting, both animal andhuman figures were made by the Khoisan (Kung San!/Bushmen dating before civilization over 20,000 years oldwithin the Kalahari desert.

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Côte d'Ivoire

"Childsoldier in the Ivory Coast", Gilbert G.Groud, 2007, mixed materials: tusche and wax

crayon

The Baoulé, the Senoufo and the Dan peoples are skilled at carvingwood and each culture produces wooden masks in wide variety. TheCôte d'Ivorian peoples use masks to represent animals in caricature todepict deities, or to represent the souls of the departed.

As the masks are held to be of great spiritual power, it is considered ataboo for anyone other than specially trained persons or chosen ones towear or possess certain masks. These ceremonial masks are eachthought to have a soul, or life force, and wearing these masks isthought to transform the wearer into the entity the mask represents.Côte d'Ivoire also has modern painters and illustrators. Gilbert G.Groud criticizes the ancient beliefs in black magic, as held with thespiritual masks mentioned above, in his illustrated book Magie Noire.

Tanzania

Modern Makonde carving in ebony

Tinga Tinga art has roots in decorating hut walls in central and southTanzania. It was first in 1968 when Edward Said Tingatinga started topaint on wooden sheets with enamel colours when Tinga Tinga artbecame known. The art of the Makonde must be subdivided intodifferent areas. The Makonde are known as master carvers throughoutEast Africa, and their statuary that can be found being sold in touristmarkets and in museums alike. They traditionally carve householdobjects, figures and masks. Since the 1950s years the socalled ModernMakonde Art has been developed. An essential step was the turning to abstract figures, mostly spirits (Shetani) thatplay a special role. Makonde are also part of the important contemporary artists of Africa today. An outstandingposition is taken by George Lilanga.

EgyptPersisting for 3,000 years and thirty dynasties, the "official" art of Ancient Egypt was centred on the state religion ofthe time. The art ranged from stone carvings of both massive statues and small statuettes, to wall art that depictedboth history and mythology. In 2600 BC the maturity of Egyptian carving reached a peak it did not reach again foranother 1,500 years during the reign of Rameses II.A lot of the art possesses a certain stiffness, with figures poised upright and rigid in a most regal fashion. Bodilyproportions also appear to be mathematically derived, giving rise to a sense of fantastic perfection in the figuresdepicted. This most likely was used to reinforce the godliness of the ruling caste.

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Notes[1] Suzanne Blier: "Africa, Art, and History: An Introduction", A History of Art in Africa, pp. 15-19[2] Honour & Fleming, 557[3] Honour & Fleming, 559–561[4] Murrell, Denise. "African Influences in Modern Art" (http:/ / www. metmuseum. org/ toah/ hd/ aima/ hd_aima. htm), The Metropolitan

Museum of Art, April 2008. Retrieved on 31 January 2013.[5] Honour & Fleming, 556–561[6] Honour & Fleming, 557[7] Murrell, Denise. "African Influences in Modern Art" (http:/ / www. metmuseum. org/ toah/ hd/ aima/ hd_aima. htm), The Metropolitan

Museum of Art, April 2008. Retrieved on 31 January 2013.[8] Suzanne Blier, "Africa, Art, and History: An Introduction", A History of Art in Africa, p. 16[9] A History of Art in Africa, p. 49[10] O'Riley, Michael Kampen (2006).Art Beyond the West (2nd ed.). New Jersey: Pearson Education. ISBN 0-13-175152-2[11][11] Eglash, Ron: "African Fractals: Modern computing and indigenous design." Rutgers 1999[12] "The Use of Haematite, Tiger’s Eye Stone and Ebony Wood for African Jewelry" (http:/ / squinti. com/ ?page_id=648). Squinti African Art.

. Retrieved 2012-01-15.[13] "What is African Art" (http:/ / squinti. com/ ?page_id=728). Squinti African Art. . Retrieved 2012-01-15.[14] ""New" Giraffe Engravings Found" (http:/ / www. the153club. org/ giraffe. html). The 153 Club. Archived (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/

20070612211620/ http:/ / www. the153club. org/ giraffe. html) from the original on 12 June 2007. . Retrieved 2007-05-31.[15] Murrell, Denise. "African Influences in Modern Art" (http:/ / www. metmuseum. org/ toah/ hd/ aima/ hd_aima. htm), The Metropolitan

Museum of Art, April 2008. Retrieved on 31 January 2013.[16] Richardson, John (2007). A Life of Picasso: The Cubist Rebel, 1907-1916. New York: Knopf. ISBN 0-375-71150-3.[17] Magnin, André (2005). Arts of Africa: Jean Pigozzi's Contemporary Collection. Milan: Skira. ISBN 88-7624-296-1.[18] Enwezor, Okwui (2010). Events of the Self: Portraiture and Social Identity: Contemporary African Photography from the Walther

Collection. Göttingen: Steidl. ISBN 978-3-86930-157-0.

Sources• Hugh Honour and John Fleming, A World History of Art, 1st edn. 1982 (many later editions), Macmillan, London,

page refs to 1984 Macmillan 1st edn. paperback. ISBN 0333371852• A History of Art in Africa (2001) Monica Blackmun Visonà et al. Prentice Hall, New York ISBN 0-13-442187-6

External links• www.TingaTinga.info - Encyclopedic information about Tinga Tinga art (http:/ / www. tingatinga. info)• www.TingaTinga.org - The official website of Tinga Tinga Arts Co-operative Society from Tanzania (http:/ /

www. tingatinga. org)

Article Sources and Contributors 13

Article Sources and ContributorsAfrican art  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=540253936  Contributors: 1717, 3rdAlcove, 4halsop, A12n, AKeen, Achilles1963, Acmilan10italia, Afpromo, Africana2012,Alansohn, AllyUnion, Alphachimp, Amsaim, AprylMaybe, Aseyori, Avenged Eightfold, Aymatth2, Azalea pomp, BWatts1984, Balthazarduju, Beetstra, Belovedfreak, Bentogoa, Bill37212,Billinghurst, Bjh21, Black Falcon, Blobglob, Bobrayner, Bogdangiusca, Bongwarrior, Breidenstein, Bulinyamartins, BullRangifer, Burlywood, Bus stop, Buweosman, Caltas, Ceoil, CherryX,Chiwara, Chuunen Baka, CommonsDelinker, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Danny Sprinkle, Danski14, Darigan, Dassiebtekreuz, David R. Ingham, Davidwr, Dawn Bard, DeadEyeArrow, Deeceevoice,Deon Steyn, Deor, DerHexer, Dewritech, Disfunktatory, Docludi, Donner60, DrLTissle, Edward, Eekerz, Eglash, Ejdzej, ElizabethExecution, Emijrp, Enviroboy, Escdotdot, Everyking, Excirial,Eyewriter, F Anderssen, Farosdaughter, FayssalF, Feezo, FigureArtist, Fonzy, Formeruser-81, France3470, Franck2009, Freakofnurture, Futurebird, Gadfium, Gangle, Gilliam, Golbez,Golfandme, Gorrilainthehood, GraemeL, Grafen, Gregbard, Greybreaks, Grim23, GumTree, Gurch, Guyzero, Hajatvrc, Herbert Roese, Hi-its-me, Hibernian, Hmains, HollyAm, IRP, Igoldste,Inno.t, Innv, Insidoubt, Iopensa, Iste Praetor, J Di, J.delanoy, JYResearch, JaGa, Jagged, Jahiegel, Jamarenyo, Janothird, Jarble, Jebus989, Jiang, Joey1974, John of Reading, Johnbod, Joy,Jpbowen, Jurema Oliveira, Kakofonous, Karenjc, Kevinjarvis3, Khazar, Khoikhoi, Knuckster, Kontractor, Kozmonaut X, Krellis, Kristen Eriksen, Lexowgrant, Lgh, LittleDan, Llywrch,Louise287, Lugia2453, Luk, Lycaon, Lyctc, Maddie!, Madhero88, Magioladitis, Majorly, MakeRocketGoNow, Mandarax, Meelar, Mentifisto, Metadadaist, MetsFan76, Mgriff7, Michael Hardy,Michaelzeng7, Middayexpress, Mirachudasama, Mitoelias, Modernist, Modular, Mogism, Moreair15, Mouse Nightshirt, Moyogo, Mr.weedle, MsThos, Mwanner, Mxn, Neale Monks, Neelix,NeoNerd, NewEnglandYankee, Nick Number, Nigholith, Nikkimaria, Norm, NorwegianBlue, Od Mishehu, Oddbodz, Ohnoitsjamie, Olivier doria, Ottawa4ever, Ourima, Pauldavidgill,Pax:Vobiscum, Pedant, Peruvianllama, Peter Isotalo, Petropoxy (Lithoderm Proxy), Physicianartist, Possum, Premeditated Chaos, Prof saxx, Pswaniker, Pyromonkeykw, Quinwano, Raven inOrbit, RexNL, Rglong, Riverdale78, Rmhermen, Robo Cop, Robofish, Salvio giuliano, Sarpicaste, Schweetzy, Shalom Yechiel, Shii, Shoshonna, Shubinator, Siangla, Sluzzelin, Some jerk on theInternet, Sparkit, Struway2, Subash.chandran007, Subsume, TUF-KAT, Tabletop, Tallac, TastyPoutine, Tbhotch, Tedder, Tellyaddict, That Guy, From That Show!, Thatguyflint, The Thing ThatShould Not Be, TheDestitutionOfOrganizedReligion, Themfromspace, Tktktk, Tom99tom, Tommy2010, Triwbe, Tuptan, Uk-art-online, Ukabia, Unixer, UriBudnik, Urthogie, User A1,Versus22, Vestax05, Vincent Gray, Walkurax, Warofdreams, Wavelength, Wayland, WaynaQhapaq, Whitenoise666, Wiki alf, WikiPuppies, Wikiacc, Windhoek, Woody, Writ Keeper,Xanchester, Xiaoxiaoman9, Yellowfiver, Zach sauer, ZayZayEM, Zoe, Zunaid, 624 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile:Masque blanc Punu-Gabon.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Masque_blanc_Punu-Gabon.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Ji-ElleFile:Statuette Mambia Nigéria.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Statuette_Mambia_Nigéria.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:Siren-ComFile:African Art, Yombe sculpture, Louvre.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:African_Art,_Yombe_sculpture,_Louvre.jpg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: CherryXFile:Yoruba-bronze-head.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Yoruba-bronze-head.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: WaynaQhapaqFile:Makonde elephant.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Makonde_elephant.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:GadfiumFile:The Cross of Emperor Tewodros II colour.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_Cross_of_Emperor_Tewodros_II_colour.jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: Andro96, Concord, Gryffindor, MishaPanFile:Nok sculpture Louvre 70-1998-11-1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nok_sculpture_Louvre_70-1998-11-1.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:User:JastrowFile:Igbo Ukwu vessel.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Igbo_Ukwu_vessel.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: UkabiaFile:Chidongo.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chidongo.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: User:DeeceevoiceFile:Chiwara Chicago sculpture.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chiwara_Chicago_sculpture.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: Airelle, MaiellaFile:Ife Kings Head.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ife_Kings_Head.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:UkabiaFile:Ataa Oko and Kudjo Affutu with Oko's red coq coffin 2009. Foto Regula Tschumi.JPG  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ataa_Oko_and_Kudjo_Affutu_with_Oko's_red_coq_coffin_2009._Foto_Regula_Tschumi.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Regula TschumiFile:Child-soldier-afrika.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Child-soldier-afrika.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: Gilbert G.GroudFile:IMG 2267–77 b.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:IMG_2267–77_b.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: David R. Ingham

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