African American Male Students Perceptions of Factors That Contr
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Transcript of African American Male Students Perceptions of Factors That Contr
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Georgia Southern UniversityDigital Commons@Georgia Southern
Electronic Theses & Dissertations Jack N. Averitt College of Graduate Studies(COGS)
Fall 2011
African American Male Students' Perceptions ofFactors That Contribute to Their Academic SuccessGertrude RollandGeorgia Southern University
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Recommended CitationRolland, Gertrude, "African American Male Students' Perceptions of Factors That Contribute to Their Academic Success" (2011).Electronic Theses & Dissertations. Paper 386.
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AFRICANAMERICANMALESTUDENTSPERCEPTIONSOFFACTORSTHATCONTRIBUTETOTHEIRACADEMICSUCCESS
by
GERTRUDEROLLAND
(UndertheDirectionofCordeliaZinskie)
ABSTRACT
ThisstudysoughttounderstandAfricanAmericanhighschoolmalesperceptions
offactorscontributingtoacademicsuccess.Theresearchergatheredinformationby
interviewingstudentsandcollectingtheirdemographicprofiledata.Thisqualitative
researchmethodenabledtheresearchertolearndirectlyfromstudentswhatfactors
AfricanAmericanmalestudentsassociatedwithacademicsuccessaswellaschallenges
toacademicsuccessandsolutionsforachievingacademicsuccess.Participantswere
threejuniorandthreeseniorAfricanAmericanhighschoolmalestudentsattendinga
ruralhighschoolinGeorgia.Datacollectionoccurredduringthespringsemesterof
2011.Eachparticipantwasasked16questionstodeterminehisperspectivesonfactors
contributingtoacademicsuccessandwhatsolutionsandchallengesheperceived
necessaryforAfricanAmericanmalestoachieveacademicsuccess.
Amongfactorsinfluencingstudentsuccesswere:(a)supportiveparents,
(b)caringteachers,(c)positiveschoolenvironment,(d)peersupport,and(e)community
initiatives.DatasuggestedthattosupporttheacademicsuccessofAfricanAmerican
malestudentsmoreAfricanAmericanmaleteachersandmentorsareneededinschools.
Inaddition,AfricanAmericanmalesdesiredforeducatorstounderstandtheircultural
backgroundandavoidlabelingthem.Somechallengesperceivedbyparticipants
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included:(a)lackofafterschoolcommunityactivities,(b)negativestereotypes,(c)lack
ofself-initiative,(d)negativeimages,and(e)lackofbeliefinself.
Amongsolutionscitedwere:(a)self-motivation,(b)role-models,and(c)mentors.
Overall,participantshadaneedtofeelcaredabout,understood,andsupported.Findings
fromthisresearchstudycanassistinthedevelopmentofteachereducationprograms,
school-basedinterventionsandcommunityprogramsforAfricanAmericanmale
adolescents.Thisresearchstudyisanattempttoprovideadditiveinformationwithinthe
educationalliterature.
INDEXWORDS:Academicachievement,Academicsuccess,Blackmales,AfricanAmericanmales,Solutionsforacademicsuccess,Highschool,Factors,Challengesforacademicsuccess
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AFRICANAMERICANMALESTUDENTSPERCEPTIONSOFFACTORSTHAT
CONTRIBUTETOTHEIRACADEMICSUCCESS
by
GERTRUDEROLLAND
B.S.,SavannahStateCollege,1970
M.Ed.,UniversityofGeorgia,1973
ED.S.,UniversityofGeorgia,1982
ADissertationSubmittedtotheGraduateFacultyofGeorgiaSouthernUniversityin
PartialFulfillmentoftheRequirementsfortheDegree
DOCTOROfEDUCATION
STATESBORO,GEORGIA
2011
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2011
GERTRUDEROLLAND
AllRightsReserved
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AFRICANAMERICANMALESTUDENTSPERCEPTIONSOFFACTORSTHAT
CONTRIBUTETOTHEIRACADEMICSUCCESS
by
GERTRUDEROLLAND
MajorProfessor: CordeliaZinskieCommittee: DorothyBattle RussellMays
ElectronicVersionApproved:December2011
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DEDICATION
IwouldliketodedicatethisdissertationtomymotherwhopassedawayAugust
26,2007.Ithankherforherbeliefinmeandmakingmebelieveinmyself.Although,she
didnotsurvivetoseemecompletemyjourney,Iknowsheiswatchingovermeand
smilingforajobwelldone.Withoutherearlyencouragementduringmyeducational
journey,thistaskwouldhavebeenimpossible.Whentheroadbecamealittlerough,itis
hervoiceandthesincerityinhereyesIrememberedtellingmetopresson.Thanksfor
yourencouragement.
Iwouldliketothank,LillieNewsomeforbeingthesisterIneverhadandthebest
friendapersoncouldhave.Thanksforallthecountlesshoursyoudedicatedtoreviewing,
listening,advisingandencouragingmetocompletethisdissertation.Youkepthopealive
throughoutthisjourneybyconstantlyremindingmethatanticipationofthetaskisgreater
thanthetaskitself.Ithankyouforhelpingmefulfillmydream.
Finally,IthankDr.Brooksforherassistancewiththisdissertation.Thankyoufor
yourdedicationandtimeyouassistedmeoverandbeyondyournormalduty.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
IwouldliketothankmyChair,Dr.CordeliaZinskie,forherpatienceinguiding
methroughthisprocess.Yourhighexpectationsandhighstandardsencouragedmeto
continueworkingtocompletethefinishedproduct.Thisfinishedproductisprooftoyour
abilitiesasamagnificentdissertationchair.
Ithankmycommitteemembers,Dr.DorothyBattleandDr.RussellMays,for
theirexpertiseandpatiencewithmethroughoutthewritingofthisdissertation.I
appreciateyourwisdomandprofessionalism.Allofyoumadethewritingofthe
dissertationaveryvaluableexperience.
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TABLEOFCONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS...................................................................................................7
LISTOFTABLES............................................................................................................11
CHAPTER
1 INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................12
RoleofEducatorsinToday'sDiverseSchools...............................................12
NoChildLeftBehindandAfricanAmericanAchievementinGeorgia.........14
DisconnectedAfricanAmericanMales..........................................................16
StatementoftheProblem................................................................................20
ResearchQuestions.........................................................................................21
SignificanceofStudy......................................................................................21
Procedures.......................................................................................................22
Limitation........................................................................................................22
Delimitation.....................................................................................................23
DefinitionofTerms.........................................................................................23
Summary.........................................................................................................25
2 REVIEWOFLITERATURE.................................................................................26
HistoricalPerspectiveofAfricanAmericanEducationintheSouth..............26
ImportanceofAcademicSuccessforAfricanAmericanMaleStudents........30
AfricanAmericanMaleStudents'PerceptionsaboutAcademicSuccess.......34
FactorsContributingtoAfricanAmericanMalesAcademicSuccess............36
ProgramsDesignedtoHelpAfricanAmericanMalesAchieveAcademic
Success.........................................................................................................49
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SolutionsBelievedtobeNecessaryforAcademicSuccess............................52
Summary.........................................................................................................54
CHAPTER
3 METHODOLOGY.................................................................................................55
ResearchDesign..............................................................................................55
DataCollectionProcedures.............................................................................60
DataAnalysis..................................................................................................62
Summary.........................................................................................................63
CHAPTER
4 REPORTOFDATAANDDATAANALYSIS....................................................64
DemographicProfiles......................................................................................65
Findings...........................................................................................................69
Summary.........................................................................................................97
CHAPTER
5 SUMMARY,CONCLUSIONS,ANDIMPLICATIONS......................................98
Summary.........................................................................................................98
DiscussionofResearchFindings....................................................................99
Conclusion.....................................................................................................117
Implications...................................................................................................119
RecommendationsforFutureResearch........................................................122
Dissemination................................................................................................124
ConcludingThoughts....................................................................................124
REFERENCES................................................................................................................126
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APPENDICES
ADEMOGRAPHICPROFILE.........................................................................144
BINFORMEDCONSENT...............................................................................145
CMINOR'SASSENT.......................................................................................148
DSEMI-STRUCTUREDINTERVIEWGUIDE.............................................149
ELITERATUREMATRIX..............................................................................150
FINSTITUTIONALREVIEWBOARDAPPROVALLETTER....................151
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ListOfTables
Table1:DropoutRates/GraduationRatesbyRace..........................................................16
Table2:PercentofMiddleandHighSchoolStudentsTaughtbyOut-of-FieldTeachers,
1999-2000...........................................................................................................38
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Chapter1
Amajorobjectiveofaschoolsystemistoprovideallstudentswithaqualityeducationto
sustaintheminschoolandlife(Ferguson&Mehta,2004).DecadesfollowingtheUnitedStates
SupremeCourtsdecisioninBrownv.BoardofEducation,academicsuccessremainsa
challengeinpubliceducationforAfricanAmericanstudents(Bali&Alvarez,2004;Ferguson&
Mehta,2004;Frankenberg,Lee&Orfield,2003;Lee,Olszewski-Kubilius,&Peternel,2009;
Orfield&Lee,2004;Somers,Owens,&Piliawsky,2008).Manyscholarsindicatethe
educationalsystemshouldshoulderpartoftheblameforthisdilemma(Ferguson&Mehta,
2004;Haycock,2005;Woodson,1990).
Althoughsomeprogresshasbeenachievedwithpolicyfundamentalscenteredon
resources,accountability,andrequiredstandardizedtestingforstudents,academicsuccessforall
studentshasnotbeenattainedfully(Budge,2010;Ferguson&Mehta,2004;Hedges&Nowell,
1999;Ladson-Billings,2006).However,someresearcherssuggestedthatwiththerequirements
oftheNoChildLeftBehind(NCLB)Actof2001andadequateyearlyprogress(AYP)
accountabilitymeasures,increasedattentionhasbeenfocusedonimprovingthesuccessratefor
allstudents,especiallyAfricanAmericanmalestudents(Ladson-Billings,2006;McMillian,
2003;Powers,2004).
RoleofEducatorsinToday'sDiverseSchools
Therolesofprincipals,superintendents,andothereducationalleadershavewidenedto
includealargerfocusonteachingandlearning,professionaldevelopment,data-drivendecision
making,andaccountability.Withthespotlightonstudentlearning,instructionalleadershipcould
bedefinedaswhatleadersdoinschoolsanddistrictstoimprovestudentlearning(Institutefor
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EducationalLeadership,2000).Administratorsareexpectedtoleadschoolsinawaytoshow
greatimprovementsquickly,withfewerresourcesattheirdisposal.Leadersareexpectedto
motivateteachers,createasafeandinvitingenvironmentforlearning,andencourageparent
groupsandbusinesspartnerstobecomeactiveparticipantsintheschoolsystem.Leadersare
challengedtoleadandteachsimultaneously(King,2002).
Instructionalleadersmustfunctioninanenvironmentthatisconstantlychanging.The
studentpopulationatalllevels,whetheritisattheK-12,communitycollege,oruniversitylevel,
hasbecomeprogressivelymorediversesincethe1990s(Roach,2009).Accordingto2000
censusreport,33.6%ofBlackmalesintheUnitedStateswereunderage18,comparedto25.4%
ofAsianmalesand34.9%ofHispanicmales(U.S.CensusBureau,2000).HobbsandStoops
(2002)reportedasteadyincreaseinAfricanAmericanpopulationthroughoutthe20thcentury
from8.8millionin1900to34.7millionin2000.Reportsfromthe2009censusestimatesshow
thatBlackmalesundertheageof18accountfor32.2%oftotalciviliansthatarenot
institutionalized.Inaddition,accordingtothe2010censusreport,AfricanAmericansaccountfor
30.5%ofGeorgia'stotalpopulation,representinganincreaseof25.6%sincethe2000census
count.
Aseducatorsinpublicschoolsstruggletoprovideinstructionforincreasinglydiverse
populationsinschools,administratorsandteachersmusttakeanaggressiveroleinaddressing
schoolconditionsthatresultinlowacademicsuccessamongAfricanAmericanstudents.
Administratorsandteachersmustequipthemwiththeskillsnecessarytomakethebestofwhat
theirschoolshavetooffer(Braun,Wang,Jenkins,&Weinbaum,2006;Klauke,1989).School
officialsmustbecomeawareandacknowledgetheimportanceofmeetingtheeducationalneeds
ofdiversestudentbackgrounds(Klauke,1989).
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Educatorsattitudes,behaviors,andexpectationsplayavitalroleinenhancingAfrican
Americanstudentseducationaldevelopment(Byrd&Chavous,2009).LeeandBurkam(2003)
conductedastudyof3,840studentsin190urbanandsurburbanhighschools.Theresearchers
foundthatrace/ethnicitywasassociatedwithdroppingoutofschool,withBlackstudentsmore
likelytodropout(22.6%)comparedtoHispanic(13.7%),andAsian(0.7%).Furthermore,
studentsstayinschoolwhensocialrelationswithteachersandadministratorsarepositive.
Sullivan(2002),inexaminingtheacademicachievementofAfricanAmericanhighschool
males,foundthatnurturing,intelligentteachers,strongadministrativeleadership,andstrong
bondsbetweenparents,school,andcommunityofferedthegreatestimpactontheacademic
attainmentforAfricanAmericanmales.
NoChildLeftBehindandAfricanAmericanAchievementinGeorgia
TheGeorgiaDepartmentofEducation(2009)isworkingtocomplywiththemandatesof
theNoChildLeftBehindActof2001(NoChildLeftBehindActof2001,2002)andacceptthe
challengeofimprovingtheeducationalenvironmentofitsstudents.Achievingacademic
excellenceandclosingtheachievementgapinGeorgiacontinuestobeamajorfocusfor
educationinthestate.Accordingtothe2008-2009AnnualYearlyProgress(AYP)report,
AfricanAmericanstudentsunderachievedontheGeorgiaHighSchoolGraduationTest
(GHSGT).Forexample,only64.4%ofAfrican-Americanstudentsmetorexceededthe
objectivesfortheEnhancedMathsectionoftheGHSGTcomparedto87.9%ofWhitestudents.
AYPresultsforthe2008-2009schoolyearindicatedthatAfrican-Americanstudentsperformed
betterontheEnhancedEnglishLanguageArtssectionoftheGHSGT,with88.2%ofAfrican-
Americanstudentsmeetingorexceedingminimumperformancerates;however,thisratewas
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stilllowerthanthepercentage(95.4%)ofWhitestudentsmeetingorexceedingobjectivesonthe
sametest(GeorgiaDepartmentofEducation,2010).
TheSchottFoundationforPublicEducation(2008)reportedthatinGeorgiaonly40%of
Blackmalesgraduatedwithpeersduringthe2005-2006schoolyear,fewerthanthenational
averageof47%for2005-2006.Duringschoolyear2009,theGeorgiahighschoolgraduation
rateforAfricanAmericanstudentswaslowerthanthatofWhitestudents.Thegraduationrate
forthisreportingperiodindicatedthat74.1%ofAfrican-Americanstudentsreceivedaregular
diploma,while82.7%ofWhitestudentsgraduatedwitharegulardiploma(GeorgiaDepartment
ofEducation,2010).
AlthoughmostAfricanAmericanstudentsunderstandtheimportanceofgraduatinghigh
school,manycontinuetoexperiencepoorschoolachievementandhighratesofdropout(Barton,
2003;Holzman,2006;Jordan&Cooper,2003).AreportfromtheGeorgiaDepartmentof
Education(2010)showedthatduring2007-2008,thenumberofAfricanAmericansretained
fromgradesKthrough12was33,723or51.3%.Additionally,areportfromtheGeorgia
DepartmentofEducation(2010)showedthepercentageofAfricanAmericansfromgrades9
through12whodroppedoutofschoolwashigherthanWhitepeers.During2006-2007school
year,therewasa.3%differenceinthedropoutratebetweenAfricanAmericanmalesandWhite
peersinGeorgia.AreportfromtheGeorgiaDepartmentofEducation(2010)showedthatby
2008-2009schoolyear,thisdifferencehadgrownto1.5%.ThedropoutrateofAfrican
AmericansinGeorgiaincreasedto4.7%,whilethedropoutrateforWhitesdroppedto3.2%.
Table1showsthedropoutratesandgraduationratesforAfricanAmericanstudentsfrom2006-
2007to2008-2009(GeorgiaDepartmentofEducation,2010).
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Table1
DropoutRates/GraduationRatesbyRace
2006-2007 2007-2008 2008-2009
Indicators Blacks Whites Blacks Whites Blacks Whites
DropoutRates
4.3%
4.0%
4.0%
3.4%
4.7%
3.2%
GraduationRates 65.5% 77.5% 69.2% 80.2% 74.1% 82.7%
DisconnectedAfricanAmericanMales
ThelowgraduationandhighdropoutratesofAfricanAmericanmalescanbeattributed
totheirearlyexperiences.Theybeginschoolwithnumerousliteracyexperiencesfromhomeand
church;however,bythetimetheyreachfourthgradetheyareamongthelowestachieversinthe
schoolsetting.IthasbeenrepeatedlydocumentedintheliteraturethatAfricanAmericanmale
studentsarefailingintheiracademicendeavorsandbecomingdisconnectedfrommainstream
society(Braunetal.,2006;Ferguson,2002;Johnson,Crosnoe,&Elder,2001;Stewart,2008).
EvidencesuggestedthatAfricanAmericanmalesaredisconnectedwithschoolasearlyas
kindergartenandcontinuetobedisconnectedastheyprogressthroughschool(Carter,2003).
ThelowacademicsuccessofAfricanAmericanstudents,especiallymales,hasbeenaconcernas
thenumberofminoritychildreninschoolhaveincreasedandtheiracademicperformancehas
decreased(Edwards&McMillon,2000).TheschoolisconsideredtheplaceAfricanAmerican
malesdeveloptheiridentity.Blackmalesdevelopanidentityofwhotheyare,whattheyareto
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do,andhowtheyareperceivedbyothers.Theseidentitiesareshapedbytheirexperienceswith
thechurch,family,community,media,andschool(Davis,2003).
PreviousliteraturereferredtotheexperiencesofAfricanAmericanmalestudentsasa
generationofdisconnectedyouthwho,withoutadequateeducation,aresusceptibleto
involvementinthecriminaljusticesystemanditspolicyofmassincarceration(Benjamin,2006).
AreportbytheUnitedStatesGovernmentAccountabilityOffice(2008)describeddisconnected
AfricanAmericanmalestudents:
Whilemostyouthssuccessfullytransitiontoadulthood,manyyouthsbecome
disconnectedfromschoolandwork,orsocialsupports,
andexperiencechallengesin
makingthistransition.Someoftheseyouthsaremorelikelythanotherstoremainlow-
income,tolosejobsduringeconomicdownturns,andtoengageincriminalactivities,
antisocialbehavior,andteenageparenting.(p.5)
SomeAfricanAmericanmalestudentsaremorelikelytobemembersofthis
disconnectedgroupthanothersbecauseofalackofacademicsuccess,whichdeniesAfrican
Americanmalestudentstheabilitytonavigateinaculturallybiasedenvironment(Cooper&
Jordan,2003;Jordan&Cooper,2003).Thisstudentpopulationoftenfailstoseetheconnection
betweenacademicsuccessandadultcareersuccessduetoimpoverishedenvironmentsand
surroundings(Boyd,2007;Irving&Hudley,2008;Jordan&Cooper,2002).Western,
Kleykamp,andRosenfeld(2006)foundthatpoorlyeducatedAfricanAmericanmenwere
becomingdisconnectedfrommainstreamsocietyduetodecliningjobopportunities,low
earnings,andhigherrisksofincarceration.Findingsfromthestudyshowedthatapproximately
16%ofmalesages20to39whowerehighschooldropoutswouldenterprisoneachyearby
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2001.Thesemalesareoftenlookeduponasmembersofaculturallydeprivedanddysfunctional
partofsociety(Somersetal.,2008;Westernetal.,2006).
Furthermore,theNationalCenterforEducationStatistics(2010)reportedthepercentage
ofAfricanAmericans(13%)whowerestatusdropoutswashigherthanthe8%forWhites.
Dropoutshavelowerearnings,contributelittletothetaxrevenuesoffederalandstate
governmentsandreceiveaflowofcashfromthegovernmentthatisgreaterthantheirlifetime
taxcontributions(Levernier,2003).AccordingtotheU.S.DepartmentofEducation(2000),
highschooldropoutsarelikelytobeunemployed,andwhentheyeventuallysecureajob,they
earnlessmoneythanahighschoolgraduate.AccordingtotheBureauofLaborStatistics,in
2008,medianweeklyfull-timeearningsforAfricanAmericanmenstoodat75%ofthemedian
earningsforWhitemen.Inaddition,AfricanAmericansclassifiedasout-of-schoolyouthshad
anunemploymentrateof23.7%inOctober2008,comparedwith12.4%fortheirWhitepeers
(U.S.BureauofLaborStatistics,2009a).Theconsequencesrelatedtoleavingschoolearly
tendedtobemoresevereamongstudentsofcolor,especiallyAfrican-AmericanandLatino
students(U.S.BureauofLaborStatistics,2009a).
Educators'perspectivesonacademicsuccessaredifferentfromstudents'understandingof
achievementandwhatisnecessaryfornavigatingsuccess(Wiggan,2007).Thisdifferenceoften
encouragesAfricanAmericanstudentstowalkawayfromtheireducation,theirhopes,andtheir
dreams.Manystudentsdonotperceivetheeducationalandsocialsystemsasplacestoadvance.
Othersdonotinquireaboutthechallengestoorsolutionsforpersonaldilemmas(Gamoran,
2001;Wiggan,2007).Subsequently,theyouthsbecomedisconnectedfromschoolandsociety.
SomeAfricanAmericanmalesgivetheimpressionthattheyhavelittleornointerestin
academicsuccessandprogressingtowardgraduatingfromschool.Someresearchersclassify
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AfricanAmericanstudentsashavingdisengagedfromtheeducationprocess(Ogbu,1991).
However,otherresearchershaveconcludedthatmostAfricanAmericanstudentsdohavehopes
anddreamsofhighachievementanddesiretodowellacademically(Conchas&Clark,2002;
Noguera,2001,2003).AfricanAmericanmalestudentsneedmentors,educators,and
administratorstoencourageandpromoteacademicprogressandsuccess(Freeman,1999;
Gordon,Iwamoto,Ward,Potts,&Boyd,2009).Therefore,ratherthanevaluatingtheeducational
system,researchsuggestedthatthefocusofschoolstaffmembersisoftenonthestudentand
howthestudentmustchangeinordertoalignwiththecultureoftheschoolinsteadoffinding
waysfortheschooltoadapttothecultureofthestudents(Carter,2003;Noguera,2003).
Hence,theresponsibilityofeducatorsinschoolsystemsandpolicymakersinthe
businessandgovernmentsectorsshouldbetounderstandfactorsaffectingacademicsuccessfor
AfricanAmericanmaleadolescentsandtoreducetherateatwhichthispopulationoflearners
dropsoutofschool(Westernetal.,2006).Accordingtostatistics,AfricanAmericanmaleshave
loweducationalattainmentlevels,andaremorehighlyunemployedthanmalesofother
racial/ethnicgroups(U.S.BureauofLaborStatistics,2009a).
Lee(1991)revealedthatfrustration,underachievementorultimatefailuresoften
comprisethecontemporaryeducationalrealityforscoresofAfricanAmericanmaleyouths.
AfricanAmericanmalesfromearlychildhoodthroughhighschooltendtoexperiencesignificant
isolationinschoolsofAmerica.Theconsequencesofthisisolationaremajorlimitationson
socioeconomicmobility,ultimatelyleadingtohighratesofunemployment,crime,and
incarcerationformassivenumbersofyoungAfricanAmericanmen.Leesfindingssupported
thetheorythatthereisahighcorrelationbetweenAfricanAmericanmalesexperiencesat
schoolandtheireconomicconditionsduringadulthood.
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StatementofProblem
Completionofhighschoolhasadirecteffectonthedirectionastudentisabletotakein
societyafterleavingschool.Therefore,thechallengefortheeducationalsystemistodetermine
thebestwaytoimprovetheacademicsuccessofallstudents.Understandingandknowledge
concerningstudentachievementhavegrownconsiderablyovertheyearsandresearchand
theorieshavebeenpresentedonimprovingacademicachievement(Fleischman&Heppen,2009;
Haycock,2001;Heck,2000).
ImprovingacademicsuccessamongAfricanAmericanstudentsisaconcernonthe
national,state,andlocallevels.Itisvitalforeducatorsintheschoolsofthenationtoincrease
academicsuccessamongAfricanAmericanstudentsbecauseeducationnotonlyimpactsdropout
rates,whicheventuallyimpactstheeconomicsandwelfareofcommunities,butitincreaseslife
chancesforAfricanAmericanstudents.Policy,suchastheNCLBAct(NoChildLeftBehind
Actof2001,2002),requiresschooldistrictstoaddresslowacademicachievement;however,low
academicachievementcontinuestoexist.Oneofthesolutionstolowacademicsuccessis
informedleadershipforthe21stcentury.
FewstudieshavedocumentedAfricanAmericanmalestudentsperceptionoftheir
academicsuccess,eventhoughtheperceptionsofAfricanAmericanstudentsarecriticalin
helpingeducatorsfurtherunderstandwhyAfricanAmericanmalestudentscontinuetobe
underachieversinacademics.Schoolleadersmustbeawareofhowcultureandclimatein
schools,culturaldiversity,parentalinvolvement,poorcurriculum,roleofprincipal,students
relationshipwithteachers,andchangingdemographicsimpactthesuccessofAfricanAmerican
malestudents.Therefore,thepurposeofthisresearchistoexploreAfricanAmericanmale
students'perceptionsoffactorscontributingtotheiracademicsuccess.
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ResearchQuestions
Theoverarchingresearchquestionguidingthisstudywas:WhatfactorsdoAfrican
Americanmalestudentsperceiveascontributingtotheiracademicsuccess?
Thesub-questionsthatassistedintheresearchwere:
1. WhatdoesacademicsuccessmeantoAfricanAmericanmalestudents?
2. Whatrolesdopeers,parentsandeducatorsplayinAfricanAmericanmalestudents'
abilitytoachieveacademicsuccess?
3. WhatroledoesschoolenvironmentplayinAfricanAmericanmalestudents'abilityto
achieveacademicsuccess?
4. Whataresomechallengesandsolutionsforaccomplishingacademicsuccess?
SignificanceofStudy
TheprovisionoftheNCLBAct(NoChildLeftBehindActof2001,2002)mandatedthat
educatorsinschoolsimprovetheacademicperformanceoftheirstudents.Thelowperformance
ofAfricanAmericanmalestudentsisreasonforeducatorstobeconcernedwithseeking
instructionalmethodsandstrategiestoreachgroupsofstudentswhoareperformingbelow
average.Numerousstudieshaveaddressedlowacademicsuccess,butfewhavedocumented
AfricanAmericanmalestudents'perceptionsoffactorscontributingtotheirachievementor
underachievementinGeorgia.Thisstudyissignificanttotheeducationalprofessionbecauseit
addressesacademicsuccessthroughtheeyesofAfricanAmericanmalestudentsinhopeof
findinganswerstofactorscontributingtotheiracademicsuccessaswellaschallengestoand
possiblesolutionsforimprovingacademicsuccess.Findingsfromthisstudycouldprovide
educationaladministrators,includingbuildingprincipals,andsuperintendents,aswellas
administratorsinCollegesofEducation,leadershippreparationprogramstheopportunityto
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collaborateonhowtoworkwith,andbestsupporttheacademicdevelopmentofAfrican
Americanmalestudents.AfricanAmericanstudentscanaffecttheAfricanAmericancommunity
byobtainingaqualityeducationandcontributingtothecommunityinwhichtheylive.In
addition,findingsfromthisstudywillbegintoaddressanotedgapintheprofessionalliterature.
Thisresearchissignificanttotheresearcherbecause,asaneducator,theresearcherhas
observedlowacademicresultsandhighdropoutratesofAfricanAmericanmalestudents.This
researchprovidesanopportunitytogatherfirst-handknowledge,dataandunderstandingfrom
AfricanAmericanmalestudentsabouttheirperceptionsofacademicsuccess;eachofwhichwill
enabletheresearcher,personally,tobemoreeffectiveinthefuture.
Procedures
AqualitativeresearchdesignwasusedtogatherinformationfromAfricanAmerican
malehighschoolstudentparticipantsabouttheirperceptionsoffactorscontributingtotheir
academicsuccess.Inthisqualitativeresearch,semi-structuredinterviewsanddemographic
profileswereusedasdatacollectionmethods.Oneretiredelementaryteacherandoneretired
highschoollibrarianevaluatedinterviewquestions.Parentalconsentformsandminorassent
formswereobtainedpriortoconductinginterviews.Theresearcherperformedapilotstudyto
testtheresearchquestions.Theanalysisofthedataintheresearchstudyincludedtranscribing
theaudiotapedinterviewstofindcommonthemesandpatternsthroughoutalltheinterview
responses.
Limitation
SincethisresearchinvolvedaselectgroupofAfricanAmericanmalestudentsata
Georgiahighschool,nogeneralizationscanbemadetoallAfricanAmericanmalestudentsat
Georgiashighschools.
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Delimitation
TheresearcherhasdelimitedthedatacollectionprocesstointerviewingthreeAfrican
AmericanmalejuniorandthreeAfricanAmericanmaleseniorhighschoolstudentsinGeorgia
andincludeddatafromself-reporteddemographicprofilesheets.
DefinitionofTerms
Academicachievement.Academicachievementisdefinedasastudentsattainmentofa
certainlevelofcompetenceaftercompletingaparticularphaseofeducation,whetheritisa
classroomunitor12yearsofschooling(Pellegrino,Chudowsky,&Glaser,2001).
Academicsuccess.Academicsuccessisthemeasurementusedtoassociatepositive
outcomesassessedforstudents.Tobesuccessfulinacademicsmeanstotakechargeoflearning
byworkinghardatacademiccoursesinmiddleschoolandhighschoolwhilepreparingfor
highereducation(Rentner&Kober,2001).
AfricanAmerican.AfricanAmericanisusedtoidentifyAmericanstudentswhose
parentsareofAfricandescent.
Annualyearlyprogress(AYP).AYPisaseriesofperformancegoalssetbythestatefor
eachschooldistrictandschool,aswellasforthestateasawhole.AYPreferstotheminimum
levelsofimprovementsetbyeachstate,basedonstudentperformanceonstatestandardized
tests,thoseschooldistrictsandschoolsmustachievewithintimeframesspecifiedinlawinorder
tomeetthe100%proficiencygoal.
Disconnectedyouth.Disconnectedyouthrefertothosestudentswhodonotmakea
successfultransitionintoadulthoodbybecomingself-sufficientthrougheducationand
employment.
Dropout.Adropoutisastudentwholeftschoolbeforeearningahighschooldiploma.
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GeorgiaHighSchoolGraduationTest(GHSGT).TheGHSGTisanassessmentused
todetermineastudentseligibilityforgraduatingfromaGeorgiahighschool.
Graduationrate.Graduationrateisthepercentageofstudentswhoreceivedahigh
schooldiplomaaftercompletingGrade12.
Highachievingstudents.Highachievingstudentsarestudentswhomeetorexceedthe
requirementsforstudentperformanceandachievementbaseduponthestandardssetbythe
GeorgiaPerformanceStandardsCommission.
High-minorityschools.High-minorityschoolsareschoolsinwhich75%ormoreof
theirenrollmentsareminoritystudents(U.S.DepartmentofEducation,2000).
Highperformingschools.Highperformingschoolsareschoolswhosestudentsmeetor
exceedtherequirementsforstudentperformanceandachievementbaseduponthestandardsset
bytheGeorgiaPerformanceStandardsCommission.
Highpovertyschools.Highpovertyschoolsareschoolsinwhich75%ormoreof
studentsareeligibleforfreeorreduced-pricelunchprogram(U.S.DepartmentofEducation,
2000).
Lowachievingstudents.Lowachievingstudentsarestudentswhodonotmeetor
exceedtherequirementsforstudentperformanceandachievementbaseduponthestandardsset
bytheGeorgiaPerformanceStandardsCommission
Lowminorityschools.Lowminorityschoolsareschoolswithaminorityenrollmentof
lessthan10%(U.S.DepartmentofEducation,2000).
Lowperformingschools.Lowperformingschoolsareschoolsinwhichtheirstudentsdo
notmeettherequirementsforstudentperformanceandachievementbaseduponthestandardsset
bytheGeorgiaPerformanceStandardsCommission.
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25
Skillsneededforsuccess.Skillsneededforsuccessinclude:teamwork,problemsolving,
interpersonalskills,oralcommunication,listening,personalcareerdevelopment,creative
thinking,leadership,goalsetting/motivations,writing,organizationaleffectiveness,computation,
andreading(Ryan,1999).
Successfulstudent.Successfulstudentsarethosewhoexpecttosucceed,aregoal
oriented,intrinsicallymotivated,andareabletobalanceeffectivelythesocialandacademic
aspectsoftheschoolenvironment(Scheuermann,2000).
Teachercertification.Teachercertificationreferstotheissuanceofacertificateor
documenttoateacherverifyingthatspecificacademicorprofessionalstandardshavebeenmet.
Summary
ResearchershavedocumentedlowacademicperformanceofAfricanAmericanstudents
asacriticalissueinAmericaneducation.DatacollectedfromtheGeorgiareportcardduringthe
period2006-2009indicatedAfricanAmericanstudentscontinuedtohavelowerhighschool
graduationratesandhigherdropoutratesthantheirWhitepeers.Theconsequencesforlow
academicperformanceforAfricanAmericanmalesaredisconnectionfromschool,work,and
possibleinvolvementwiththecriminalarena.EducatorsshouldunderstandAfricanAmerican
malestudentsperceptionoffactorscontributingtotheiracademicsuccessasanefforttobegin
tounderstandhowschoolsystemscanintervenetoeffectivelyassistAfricanAmericanmale
studentswhoarestrugglingacademically.
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26
Chapter2
ReviewofLiterature
Thepurposeofthisstudyistocollect,analyze,andreportAfricanAmericanmale
studentsperceptionsoffactorsthatcontributetotheiracademicsuccess.Inthereviewof
literature,historicaleventsaffectingAfricanAmericaneducationintheSoutharefirstexamined.
Next,theimportanceofacademicsuccessforAfricanAmericanmalesandfactorscontributing
toAfricanAmericanmalesacademicsuccesswillbeexplored.Finally,theresearcherwill
investigatetheliteraturetodiscussdifferentialtreatmentofAfricanAmericanmales,African
Americanmalestudentsperceptionsaboutthequalityofinstructiontheyreceive,solutionsthey
believetobenecessaryforimprovingschoolsuccess,andprogramsthathaveaidedinthe
academicsuccessofAfricanAmericanmalestudents.
HistoricalPerspectiveofAfricanAmericanEducationintheSouth
Inthesouth,followingtheCivilWar,theeducationalplightforAfricanAmericanswas
oneoflongsufferingandagonyastheystruggledforfreedom,socialequality,andtherighttoan
equaleducation.Educationforslaveswasforbiddenbecauseoffearofslaveryuprisingsand
desertionsoffieldworkers.Between1800and1835,mostsouthernstatesmadeitillegaltoteach
AfricanAmericanslavechildrentoreadorwrite(Anderson,1988).Southernersrejected
universalschoolingforruralAfricanAmericansbecauseitmightraisetheaspirationsofAfrican
Americansandruinthemasplantationlaborers(Anderson,1988).Mostsouthernplantation
ownersstronglybelievedthatifAfricanAmericansbecameeducated,theinstitutionofslavery
wouldbecomenonexistent(Wright,1977).
TheAmericanCivilWar,asreportedbyRatteray(1992),resultedinover3million
enslavedAfricanAmericansgainingtheirindependence.Thiswasthebeginningofanewphase
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27
forthefreedpeople;however,theywere,forthemostpart,illiterateandwithoutthebasicskills
neededtosupportthemselves(pp.138-139).Thefreedpeoplesoughttoimprovetheirsocial
statusbydecidingfirstandforemostthattheirpeopleneededaneducation.ManyAfrican
Americanstookgreatinterestinlearningandsoughtwaystoeducatethemselves(Anderson,
1988;Patton,1980).
Blacksouthernersenteredemancipationwithanalternativeculture,ahistorythatthey
coulddrawupon,onethatcontainedenduringbeliefsinlearningandself-improvement.
Theyconvincedtheircompatriotsthataperceivedcommoninterestinliteracyand
schoolingdidnotdependforitsexistenceupondominate-classculture(Anderson,1988,
p.281).
Theex-slavestookimmediateinterestinexpressingtheirdesireforaneducation.The
dominantgroupwhooncelookeduponAfricanAmericansinanegativewaywasforcedto
recognizethedeepcommitmenttoeducationofAfricanAmericans(Anderson,1988).Inthe
realityoftheaftermathofslavery,manyAfricanAmericansgainedphysicalfreedombut
realizedthattheyhadnotgainedcivil,political,andeconomicfreedomtotrulybeconsidered
Americanhumanbeings.Havingtheirrightsdeniedallowedformentalbondage.African
AmericanswerecaughtinawebofvagrancylawstoholdBlacklabourtotheland,andan
apartheidpublicpolicytoassureWhitedominanceandapersistentshamingoftheunder-race
(Wyatt-Brown,2006,p.26).Robinson(2000)notedthissystematicdemoralizationofAfrican
Americans:
Nonationcanenslavearaceofpeopleforhundredsofyears,setthemfreebedraggled
andpenniless,pitthem,withoutassistanceinahostileenvironment,againstprivileged
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28
victimizers,andthenreasonableexpectthegapbetweentheheirsofthetwogroupsto
narrow.Lines,begunparallelandleftalone,cannevertouch.(p.74)
Kunjufu(1988)noted,Mentalslaveryismoresophisticated,becausewhenthechains
areremovedfromtheanklesandwristsandplacedaroundthemind,itbecomesmoredifficult
fortheoppressedtorecognizethesourceoftheirplight(p.12).ItisnocoincidencethatAfrican
Americansweremadetofeelinferiorinmentalabilityandeconomicdevelopmentlongafter
beingemancipated.Thefreedmenstatushadtheobligationandappearanceofcitizenshipbut
withouttheprivilegesofcitizenship.Theycouldnotvotenorserveonjuries,buttheywere
obligatedtopaytaxes(Bell,2004).
Fromaneconomicstandpoint,thefreedmenwererelegatedtodomesticwork,andto
maximizetheirvalue,performedeveryformoflabor,includingthatofskilledcraftsmen.
Prejudicewasstrong;freeAfricanAmericansnotonlywereexcludedfromjobsconsidered
appropriateforWhiteworkmen,butwereoftenthevictimsofinsultandphysicalattack.Bell
(2004)said,"Blacksweresegregatedintheworstareasofthetownswheretheylived,their
childrenwereoftenbarredfromthepublicschools,andoncertainoccasionstheywereeven
forbiddentoappearinpublicplaces(p.52).
AccordingtoWynes(1971),thesuperiorWhiteracebecauseofitsdeeprootsinlawand
government,hadtheresponsibilityofteachingandpreparingtheinferiorAfricanAmericans
withitshistoryoffourthousandyearsofbarbarism,thepreciousknowledgeofcitizenship(p.
104).Ontheotherhand,theAfricanAmericanracehadcorrespondingobligations:implicit
obedient,deference,loyalty,andhardwork(p.105).
ItwasbydesignthatfreedAfricanAmericanswereledtobelievethatsegregation
protectedthem,thatsegregationwasintheirbestinterestandbelieveditwastheircontractual
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29
obligationtoobeytherules.AfricanAmericanswereindoctrinatedtobelievethatgovernment
wasmeantfortheintelligent,educatedandthewealthyandthattheuneducated,laboringclass
wasbestatperformingmenialtasksandshouldbeexcludedfrompoliticalparticipationor
matterspertainingtohisownwelfare(Anderson,1988;Wynes,1971).Therefore,numerous
lawswerepassedtokeepthefreedmanasneartheconditionsofslaveryaspossibleforfearof
anuprisisng(Dabbs,1958).
Blackpeoplewerenotbroughttothiscountrytobegivenaneducation,citizenship,or
democracy.Theywerebroughttothiscountrytoserve,tolabor,andtoobeyWhen
servantsareeducatedatalltheyareeducatedtoserve,butnevertoshareinpower,thus
plantingtheseedsofourpresentdayeducationalcrisis.(Clarke,1973,p.17)
Dubois(1977)dispelledthedesignwhichhadbeenimposedontheNegroracewithout
permission.Duboisnoted,Theveryfeelingsofinferioritythatslaveryforceduponthem
fatheredanintensedesiretoriseoutoftheirconditionbymeansofeducation(p.638).Dubois
believedthatthisverytreatmentofthefreedNegroraceledthemtoestablishandsustaintheir
owninstitutionsforframingmoral,educationalandreligiousguidelinesforitspeople.Anderson
(1988)expressed,Blackeducationdevelopedwithinthiscontextofpoliticalandeconomic
oppression(p.2).GatesandOliver(1999)quotedW.E.B.Dubois'acknowledgmentthatthe
AmericanNegrohashadtolivealifeoftwo-ness,--anAmerican,aNegro;twosouls,two
thoughts,twounreconciledstrivings,twowarringidealsinonedarkbody,whosedogged
strengthalonekeepsitfrombeingtornasunder(p.11).
ThefreedAfricanAmericans,inordertoprotecttheiremancipation,sawtheneedto
developtheirownuniqueeducationalsysteminordertoadvancethemselvesandriseabove
oppression.ThisattitudegaverisetothebeginningsfortheearlyAfricanAmericanschools.The
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30
foundationforthefreedmenseducationalsystemwasaburningdesireandself-determinationto
createaplanforeducatingthemselvesandtheirchildren.Followingemancipation,the
freedmensschoolscameintoexistence(Anderson,1988;Ladson-Billings,2006).Theearly
AfricanAmericanschoolsinthesouthwereorganizedbyabolitionists,emancipationists,and
antislaveryministersandbusinessmen.Manyteachersfromthenorthcamesouthtoopen
schools,ofteninunusualcircumstances(Butchart,1975).Nodoubt,thismovementhelped
defineAmericasracerelationsandhelpeddefineAfricanAmericanspositioninwhatwas
knownastheNewSouth(Anderson,1988;Butchart,1975).
ImportanceofAcademicSuccessforAfricanAmericanMaleStudents
HistoryhasdocumentedthestruggleofAfricanAmericanmalesinthefightforaquality
educationaswellaseconomic,politicalandcivilequalityinAmerica.Theeducational
experiencesofAfricanAmericanmalesweredelayedbecauseAfricanAmericanmaleshada
distinctiveculturalbeginning,andtheirunequaleducationhascontinuedformanyyears
followingtheiremancipation.Althoughtheirearlypurposeforexistencewaslaborexploitation
andsubordinationtothedominantrace(Anderson,1988;Ladson-Billings,2000),educationhas
longbeenviewedasAfricanAmericanspassagetoenjoyingalltherightsoffreedomAmerica
hastooffer(Anderson,1988;Bell,2004;Ladson-Billings,2006).Therefore,academicsuccess
playsamajorroleinAfricanAmericanmalestudentseducationalgrowthandtheirgaining
passagetosocial,economic,andpoliticalfreedom.
Academicsuccessisthemeasurementusedtoassociatepositiveoutcomesassessedfor
students.Tobesuccessfulinacademicsmeanstotakechargeoflearningbyworkinghardat
academiccoursesinmiddleschoolandhighschoolwhilepreparingforhighereducation
(Rentner&Kober,2001).Statisticsshowthatadultswithadvancedlevelsofeducationaremore
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31
likelytobeemployedandtoearnhigherwages(NationalCenterforEducationStatistics,200l).
Workers18andoverwithabachelorsdegreeearnedanaverageof$51,206ayear,whilethose
withonlyahighschooldiplomaearned$27,915ayear(NationalCenterforEducationStatistics,
2007).Thelaborforceandunemploymentstatisticsarestrongindicatorsofthedifficulties
AfricanAmericanmalesencounterinthejobmarket.AccordingtotheU.S.BureauofLabor
Statistics(2010),firstquartermedianweeklyearningsduring2010forBlackmenstoodat73.1%
ofthemedianearningsforWhitemen.TheunemploymentrateforBlackmen20yearsandover
asofJune2010was17.1%.Westernetal.(2006)notedthattheconsequencesofeconomic
inequalityforBlackmenaremajorlimitationsonsocioeconomicmobility,ultimatelyleadingto
highratesofunemployment,crime,andincarcerationformassivenumbersofyoungAfrican
Americanmen.
Westernetal.(2006)stated,Labormarkettrendsmightinfluencethescaleof
imprisonmentintwomainways:Failingwagesandunemploymentcouldincreasecrimeatthe
bottomoftheeconomicladder,generatingmorearrests,convictionsandprisonadmissions(p.
2291).Wray(2001)foundthatapproximatelyone-fourthofallprimeageAfricanAmerican
maleswhohavenotgraduatedfromhighschoolwereincarceratedorunderthecontrolofthe
correctionsystem.Atmidyear,June30,2009,statisticsshowedthatanestimated841,000Black
malesundertheageof18wereincarceratedinstate,federalprisonorlocaljails.Forevery
100,000U.S.residents,Blackmaleswereincarceratedatarateof4,749inmates,6timeshigher
thanWhitenon-Hispanicmales(West,2010).
Inadditiontounemployment,wages,andincarceration,academicsuccessisimportant
fortheBlackmalestudentbecauseoftheadvancedtrainingneededtohandletechnological
occupationsofthe21stcenturyforincreasedeconomicproductivity(Gottlob,2009).
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32
Furthermore,thenumberofjobsrequiringproductiveworkerswithhigherlevelsofeducationis
expectedtogrowconsiderablyduringthe21stcentury(Fleetwood&Shelley,2000;Rentner&
Kober,200l;U.S.BureauofLaborStatistics,2009b).
AsnotedbyRyan(1999),Fortune500companiesrequireemployeeswhoaretosucceed
inthe21stcenturytohaveskillsotherthanreading,writing,andarithmetic.Thetop13skills
neededforsuccessinclude:teamwork,problemsolving,interpersonalskills,oral
communication,listening,personalcareerdevelopment,creativethinking,leadership,goal
setting/motivations,writing,organizationaleffectiveness,computation,andreading.Educators
conceptionsofthesuccessfulstudentseemedtoparallelthoseoftheFortune500companies.
Scheuermann(2000)maintainedthateducatorsbelievesuccessfulstudentsarethosewhoexpect
tosucceed,aregoaloriented,intrinsicallymotivatedandareabletobalanceeffectivelythesocial
andacademicaspectsoftheschoolenvironment.
TheeffectofthemultitudeofAfricanAmericanmalesleavingschooleachyearbefore
earningahighschooldiplomatranslatesintomillionsofindividualswhoareoutofschool
withouthighschoolcredentialsneededtobeproductiveinthelaborforceortofurthertheir
education.Wray(2001)stated,In1998,therewerejustover1.3millionprime-age,non-
institutionalized,Blackmaleswithoutahighschooldegree.Ofthese,justover600,000were
employed;almost200,000werecountedasunemployedandashockinghalfamillionwereout
ofthelaborforce(p.528).
Thelackofjobskillsputsdropoutsinapositionofbeingmorelikelytoengageinpetty
crimeandgangactivities(Freeland&Tucci,2003;Westernetal.,2006),thusbecoming
disconnectedfrommainstreamsociety.Lee(1991)revealedthatfrustration,underachievement
orultimatefailuresoftencomprisethecontemporaryeducationalrealityforscoresofAfrican
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33
Americanmaleyouths.Finally,theconsequencesrelatedtoleavingschoolearlytendtobemore
severeamongyoungmenthanwomenandgreateramongstudentsofcolor,especiallyAfrican
AmericanandLatinostudents(Rumberger,1983).
Haycock(2005)madethisobservation:Aftermorethantwodecadesofeffort,fartoo
manyyoungAmericansexitschoolwithouttheskillstheyneedtosecureafootholdinthe
knowledgeeconomy(p.258).Consistently,AfricanAmericanmaleshavelowereducational
attainmentlevels,aremorechronicallyunemployedandaremanytimesmorelikelytoendupin
jailorprisonthanmalesofotherracial/ethnicgroups(U.S.BureauofLaborStatistics,2009a;
Westernetal.,2006).AccordingtoKirkland(2006),thissubgroupencountersexceptional
barriersandgapsineducationalachievement.Therefore,AfricanAmericanmalesrequire
specificfocuswithintheeducationalarenainordertosucceedandimprovetheirlevelsof
academicdevelopment.TheNationalAllianceofBusiness,Inc.(1998)researchshowedthat
studentswhoareacademicallysuccessfularemorestableintheiremployment,lessdependenton
publicassistance,lesslikelytoengageincriminalactivity,moreactiveascitizensandcharitable
volunteersandaremorehealthy.
IthasbeendocumentedthattheeducationaloutlookforAfricanAmericanmaleshas
beensystemicallymoredevastatingthantheoutcomesforotherracialorethnicgroupsor
females;therefore,theworkofeducationinademocracyshouldbetoprovideopportunitiesfor
thispopulationofmalestoparticipatefullyinthepolitical,socialandeconomicidealsofsociety.
Theseidealscanneverberealizedfullyifsignificantportionsofsocietyareexcludedfromhigh-
qualityeducationandtheopportunitytofactorAfricanAmericanmalerolesintotheformulaof
successinsociety(Ladson-Billings,2000).ByresearchingandreportingonAfricanAmerican
malesperceptionsoffactorsassociatedwiththeiracademicsuccess,policymakersandeducators
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34
willbebetterequippedtodevelopandimplementsolutions.Therefore,itisbeneficialto
educatorstounderstandfactorsthatAfricanAmericanmalesperceivetocontributetotheir
academicperformanceandunderstandhowtosupporttheacademicdevelopmentofAfrican
Americanmales(Somersetal.,2008).ForAfricanAmericanmales,aqualityeducationisa
meansforupwardsocialandeconomicmobility(Anderson,1988;Fitzerald,2006;Howard,
2003;Jordan&Cooper,2003;Rowley,2000).
AfricanAmericanMaleStudentsPerceptionsaboutAcademicSuccess
AfricanAmericanmalesculturalidentityhasbeenshapedbystereotypesplacedonthem
downthroughhistory.SomestereotypesassociatedwithAfricanAmericanmalesinclude
incompetence,laziness,andaggression.AfricanAmericanmalesacademicperformanceisoften
affectedbecauseofthesestereotypes(Bell,2004;Bogle,1994;Cheng&Starks,2002;Irving&
Hudley,2008;Mincey,1994;NationalCenterforEducationStatistics,2009;Ogbu,2004;The
StaffoftheWashingtonPost,2007).TheliteraturegenerallyconcludesthatAfricanAmerican
malestudentseducationalaspirations,occupationalexpectations,culturalidentity,andattitudes
towardschoolarerelatedtoacademicachievement(Cheng&Starks,2002;Goldsmith,2004;
Irving&Hudley,2008;Smerdon,2002;Sullivan,Riccio,&Reynolds,2008).
Wright(2007)examinedtherelationshipbetweenracial-ethnicidentityandhigh
academicachievementoffiveyoungAfrican-Americanmeningrades11and12inanurban
pilothighschoolintheNortheast.Thestudyrevealedthateffectiveyouthdevelopmenthasa
positiveeffectonthewayadolescentsusestrategiesofassertivenesstoachieveschoolsuccess.
CulturalmistrustforAfricanAmericansrevolvesaroundtheirbeliefthatinstitutions,
includingpublicschools,cannotbetrustedtoprovideanadequateeducationwhentheschools
theyattendarepoorlymaintained,servicedbyill-preparedteachers,andunderfunded(Jordan&
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35
Cooper,2003).ThisbeliefleadsAfricanAmericanstoundervaluetheeducationalstructureand
lowertheirexpectationsforaqualityeducation.Ogbu(1991)notedthatsomeAfricanAmerican
malesdirecttheirfocusawayfromacademicsandtowardnonacademicendeavorssuchas
personaldressandgrooming,athleticsanddating,whichgivethemafeelingofsuccess.Astudy
conductedbyIrvingandHudley(2008)of115AfricanAmericanmalestudentsenrolledin
grades11and12inanurban,multiethnichighschoolinSouthernCaliforniameasuredcultural
mistrust,academicoutcomeexpectations,outcomevalues,culturalattitudesandethnicidentity
affirmation.Thefindingsrevealedthatasstudentsmistrustincreased,studentswerelesslikely
toanticipateachievingeducationaloutcomes.Therefore,theresearcherssuggestedthat
educationalinstitutionsshoulddesignprogramstohelpstudentswhohaveexperienced
discriminationanddifficultyineducationalinstitutions,provideadditionalresources,improve
teachertraining,anddirectcurriculumtotheneedsofthestudents.Thesestepscoulddevelop
positiveeducationalexperiencesinAfricanAmericanmalestudents.
AresearchstudycommissionedbytheAfrican-AmericanMaleInitiative,ataskforceof
theUniversitySystemofGeorgia(USG)BoardofRegents,conductedastatewidestudyto
exploreAfricanAmericanmalesattitudestowardcollegeandtheUSGinparticular.Theresults
revealedthatmanyoftheAfrican-Americanmalessurveyedinthestatewidestudyperceived
specificandsignificantbarrierstotheirachievingsuccess.Thesebarriersincludedconcerns
aboutthelackofacademicpreparation,poorgrades,lowScholasticAptitudeTest(SAT)scores,
lackofadequatehighschoolguidancefromschoolcounselors,teachers,high-schoolfacultyand
administration,peerpressure,andparentalandsocietalexpectations.Theparticipantsbelieved
thatWhitemalestudentswerebetterpreparedacademicallyforcollegethanAfricanAmerican
malestudents.ThemajorityoftheAfrican-Americanmalesinthisstudyblamedtheirhigh-
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36
schoolcounselors,teachers,high-schoolfaculty,andadministrationsforsteeringthemtoward
remedialorvocationalcoursesatgreaterratesthaneitherfemalesorWhitemales.Students
perceivedteachersdidnotcareandwerenotresponsivetotheneedsofAfricanAmericanmale
students(TheUniversitySystemofGeorgia,2002).
Culturalconsideration,socialfactors,cohesionbetweenteachersandstudents,andstrong
leadershipsareimportantconsiderationsforeducatorsofAfricanAmericanmalestudents.
AfricanAmericanstudentsmaintainthatencouragementfromschools,parents,andcommunity
canenabletheireducationalprogress.Therefore,challengingstudentsinschool,avoiding
negativeattitudes,increasingexpectationscouldleadtoimprovedsuccessamongAfrican
Americanmalestudents(Bailey&Paisley,2004;Goldsmith,2004;Jordan&Cooper,2002;
Tomlinson,Gould,Schroth,&Jarvis,2006;Trotter,1981).
FactorsContributingtoAfricanAmericanMalesAcademicSuccess
Researchstudieshavedocumentedevidencethatavarietyoffactorsinfluencethe
likelihoodthatAfricanAmericanmalescouldachieveinschool(Bailey&Paisley,2004;
Barnett,2004;Borman,Stringfield,&Rachuba,2000;Lewis,James,Hancock,&Hill-Jackson,
2008;Schwartz,2001;Stewart,2008).Teacherpreparedness,parentalinvolvement,teacher
expectations,student-teacherrelationship,schoolclimate,size,andschoolculturehavebeen
positivelylinkedtoacademicachievementamongAfricanAmericanmalestudents(Barnett,
2004;Fleischman&Heppen,2009;Wiggan,2007).Thissectionwillreviewfactorsthatimpact
educationaloutcomesforAfricanAmericanmalestudents.
TeacherCertificationinHighPoverty/High-MinoritySchools
Schoolsclassifiedashighpovertyhaveincreasedinthepastdecade.Morethanthree
quartersofstudentsareeligibleforfreeorreducedpricelunchesathighpovertyschools.
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37
Between1999-2000and2007-2009,thepercentofhighpovertyschoolsincreasedfrom12%to
17%.Thepovertyrateforchildrenincreasedfrom17%to18%(Audetal.,2010).Research
showedthatthemajorityofteachersteachinginpovertystrickenneighborhoodswereill-
preparedtoworkinurbanschools(Audetal.,2010;Writetal.,2004).Theseteacherswereoften
askedtoteachoutoftheirsubjectareaandsomehadnoprioreducationaltraining(Howard,
2003).Out-of-fieldteachersareteacherswholackexpertiseandcertificationinthesubjectthey
teach(NationalCenterforEducationStatistics,2003).
Inhigh-povertyandhigh-minoritypublichighschoolswheremorethan75%ofthe
studentsareeligibleforfree-reducedlunchesand75%ofstudentsenrolledareminoritystudents,
statisticsshowstudentsaremoreoftentaughtcoreclasses(English,science,andmathematics)
byout-of-fieldteachersthantheirpeerswhoareenrolledinlow-minorityandlow-povertypublic
school.Forexample,during1999-2000,13.7%ofhigh-povertystudentsweretaught
mathematicsbyteacherswithneithermajornorcertificationinfieldand15.2%ofstudentsin
high-minorityschoolsweretaughtmathematicsbyteacherswithneithermajornorcertification
infieldcomparedto6.6%low-povertystudentsand6.8%ofstudentsenrolledinlow-minority
schools(Writetal.,2004).Table2showspercentageofpublicschoolstudentstaughtbyout-of-
fieldteachersinmiddleandhighschoolsaccordingtoclasssubject(NationalCenterfor
EducationStatistics,2003).
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38
Table2
PercentofMiddleandHighSchoolStudentsTaughtbyOut-of-FieldTeachers,1999-2000
School
Math
English
Science
ForeignLanguage
SocialScience
PhysicalScience
ArtandMusic
PhysicalEducation
MiddleSchool
23%
19%
17%
19%
15%
42%
5%
3%
HighSchool
10%
7%
7%
15%
7%
18%
5%
5%
Nationally,childrenconsideredpovertystrickenandthoseofcolorarefarmorelikelyto
betaughtbyinexperienced,underprepared,andunqualifiedteachers(Barnett,2004;Haycock,
2001).Twenty-twopercentofteachersworkinginhigh-povertysecondaryschoolshadlessthan
threeyearsofteachingexperiencecomparedto15%ofteachersworkinginlow-poverty
secondaryschools(Aud,etal.,2010).
Evidencesuggestedthatminoritystudentsareassignedtotheleasteffectiveteachers,as
measuredbyteacherpreparationandexperience(Barton,2003).Inaddition,teachersaremore
pronetoturnoverinschoolsthatenrollpredominantlyAfricanAmericanstudents(Hanushek,
Kain,&Rivkin,2001;Scafidi,Sjoquist,&Stinebrickner,2007).
Individual-LevelCharacteristicsandAfricanAmericanMaleStudents'AcademicSuccess
Althoughthecertificationofteachersiscloselyrelatedtostudents'achievement,parental
involvement,caringandconcernedteachersalsoinfluencestudentoutcomes(Wiggan,2007).
Parentalinvolvementcouldbekeytotheacademicsuccessofstudents.Stewart(2008)stated,
Thefamilyisthebasicinstitutionthroughwhichchildrenlearnwhotheyare,wheretheyfitinto
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39
society,andwhatkindsoffuturestheyarelikelytoexperience(p.20).Parentalinvolvementin
achildseducationimpactsacademicachievementthroughhighergrades,highertestscores,
coursecreditsearned,attendance,schoolreadiness,andbehavior(Simon,2001).Studentswith
involvedparents,regardlessofbackground,aremorelikelytoearnhighergradesandtestscores,
takeadvancedcourses,bepromoted,havebetterattendancerates,bebetterbehaved,graduate
andgoontocollege(Brown&Fiester,2003).Parentalacademicinvolvementthatincludes
frequentschoolcontacts,highexpectationsforpostsecondaryeducation,firmandsupportive
parentingskillsleadstohigheducationaloutcomesfortheAfricanAmericanmalechild(Maton,
Hrabowski,&Greif,1998).
Inaddition,parents'collaboratingwithteacherswasrewardingandbeneficialforthe
academicoutcomeofthestudent(Wilson-Jones,2003).Sixface-to-faceinterviewswith16
AfricanAmericanmalesinGrades3-6inaruralschoolovera3-monthperiodrevealedpositive
results(Wilson-Jones,2003).ThepurposeofWilson-Jones'studywastoinvestigatefactorsthat
promotedandinhibitedacademicsuccessofelementaryAfricanAmericanmalestudents.
Interviewquestionscenteredonparentsinvolvementwithhomeworkandstudystrategies.
Wilson-Jonesreportedthatthemajorityofstudentsindicatedthathavinganadultshowinterest
intheirschoolwork,payingattentioninclass,andcompletingtheirhomeworkhelpedthemto
makebettergrades.Studentsfurtherindicatedthattheywereexcitedwhentheirteachersand
parentsworkedtogetherontheirbehalfforacademicsuccess.Thestudentswhoindicatedthat
theirparentsvisitedtheschoolregularlytocheckonthemorhavelunch,hadfewerbehavior
referrals,bettertestscores,andmadebettergradesintheirclassworkthanthosestudentswhose
parentsdidnotvisittheschool.Inaddition,Wilson-Jonesstudyrevealedthatforthosestudents
whohadnotrepeatedagrade,parentsweremoreactiveintheireducationthantheoneswhohad
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40
repeatedagrade.Herinvestigationprovidedevidenceoftheimportanceofparentalinvolvement
intheacademicachievementofelementaryAfricanAmericanmales.
SuccessfulAfricanAmericanmalesattributedtheirhighachievementtoself-discipline,
positiveschoolexperiences,motivation,excellentteachers,andsupportiveparents(Barnett,
2004;Trotter,1981;Williams,2002).Ahistoricalqualitativecasestudyofacademically
successfulAfricanAmericanmaleswhoweregraduatesofahighschoolinGary,Indianawas
conductedbySullivan(2002).ThefocusofSullivansresearchwastoexplorefactors
contributingtotheacademicsuccessofAfricanAmericanmalesgraduatingfromanurban
schoolhighschoolinGary,Indiana.Inaddition,Sullivansresearchsoughttodeterminefrom
AfricanAmericanadministrators,teachers,andtheschoolcommunitywhattheyfeltcontributed
tograduatesacademicsuccess.Inaddition,participantswereaskedtoprovideaclearer
understandingoftheimportantissuescriticaltoAfricanAmericanmalesacademicsuccess.
SignificantfindingsfromSullivans(2002)studyrevealedthatAfricanAmericanmales
weresuccessfulbecauseoftheirindividualresponsibilityandsupportivecommitmentof
influentialpersonsathomeandschool.Participantsstatedthatsupportivepeersandrolemodels
inthecommunitysuchasdoctors,lawyers,engineers,professors,andteachersmadethe
differenceintheiracademicsuccess.Manyparticipantsfeltthatwithsomanyrolemodels,they
wereabletoenvisionthemselvesasAfricanAmericanprofessionals.Inaddition,participantsfelt
theirteachersexpectedthemtoproduceaboveaveragework,nurturedthem,wereconcernedand
inspiredthemtodotheirbest.Oneparticipantexpressedthemostsignificantcontributiontohis
successwasacombinationbetweenstrongadministratorsandverystrongandcommitted
teachers(p.107).Studentsperceivedthattheschoolclimateisaninterconnectedenvironment
withstudent-teacherrelationshipsandteacherexpectationsasimportantfactorscontributingto
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successfulacademicoutcomes.Thesearestrongindicatorsthatschoolinitiativesshould
incorporateindividual-levelandschoolstructuralfactorstoimproveacademicsuccessamong
Blackmalestudents.
SchoolStructuralCharacteristicsandAfricanAmericanMaleStudentsAcademicSuccess
Researchsuggestedthatschool-levelconceptsofschoolclimate,size,schoolpoverty,
schoollocation,schoolsocialproblems,aswellas,schoolcohesionandafeelingofbelongingas
feltbystudentsandteachersalikemaycontributetosuccessfulstudentoutcomes(Goldsmith,
2004;Johnsonetal.,2001).AmongthegoalsspecifiedintheNCLBactforschoolswasthegoal
toincreasethehighschoolgraduationrateto90%bytheyear2000.Unfortunately,after2000,
educatorsinschoolsarecontinuingtoseekwaystomeetthisgoalandtoaddresstheacademic
performanceofstudents.Onesuchinterventionissmallerlearningcommunities.Smaller
learningcommunities(SLCs)areschoolsredesignedinitiativeswiththeintentofcreating
smallertheme-basedunitsoforganization,includingschoolswithinschools,academieswithin
buildings.Thesecommunitiesincludestructuressuchasfreshmanacademiesorganizedaround
careerinterestsorotherthemes.Agroupofcore-subjectteachersteachessmallgroupsof
students,keepingstudentsandteacherstogetherthroughoutthestudenthighschoolexperience.
Thiseffortisdesignedtoaddressorremedythelowgraduationandhighdropoutrates.Schools
creatingsmallerlearningcommunitieshelpstudentscreateasenseofconnectnesstofacultyand
school,senseofidentity,improveself-esteem,aswellasimproveacademicsuccess.
JordanandCooper(2002)notedthatschoolreforminitiativessuchassmallerlearning
communitiesandclasssizereductionarestructuralreformsaimedatchangingthesocialandor
physicalorganizationoftheschool.Studieshaveshownthatsmallerlearningcommunities
(SLC)mightprovidepersonallearningenvironmentsthatprovideasenseofbelongingfor
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students,increaseschoolsafety,andfostergreaterstudentengagementinlearning(Cotton,2001;
Fleischman&Heppen,2009;Janusik&Wolvin,2007;Metzger,2006;Shearetal.,2008;
Tasker,2007).Whenschoolsarerestructuredintoself-contained,smalllearningcommunities,it
becomeseasierforteachersandadministratorstofacilitateaschoolclimatethatleadstoacloser
connectionwithstudentsandawarmandcaringenvironmentforstudents(Cotton,2001;
Sergiovanni,1995).
Theadministrator,faculty,andstaffataSouthCarolinaHighSchoolsoughttoaddress
theproblemsofbeinglabeledafailingschoolbyNCLBcriteriaandAYPstandardsbyutilizing
asmalllearningcommunity,theFreshmanAcademyProgram.TheinterventionofaFreshman
AcademyProgramin2007separatedfreshmenstudentsfromupper-classmenincoreclasses.
TheschoolsAcademyProgramofferedaFreshmanFocusClasstobuildpeer-relationshipskills
whileteachingstudentsbasiclife-survivingskillssuchasbalancingacheckbook.Theschoolhad
thelowesttestscoresinthecounty,laggingbehindthecountysratebyalmost12percentage
pointsanda58.5%graduationrateduring2007-2008schoolyear(Sellers,2009;SouthCarolina
DepartmentofEducation,2009).TheAfricanAmericanstudentpopulationamountedto48%
with51%oftheschoolpopulationbeingeligibleforfree/reducedlunches(SouthCarolina
DepartmentofEducation,2009).
TheFreshmanAcademyProgramwasledbytheJuniorReserveOfficerTrainingCorps
(JROTC)instructors.AccordingtotheLeadTeacherintheschool,theJROTCprogramwas
well-attendedbystudents,makingitthemostpopularextracurricularactivityintheschool.The
JROTCinstructorsbuiltteamcooperationandstudentswerewillingtogobeyondwhatwas
requiredofthem(Sellers,2009).Afterthefirstyear,administratorsreportedtremendoussuccess.
TheschoolsurpasseddistrictaveragesonitsMAP(MeasuresofAcademicProgress)scoresin
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math,reading,andlanguageArtsonninth-gradebenchmarktests.Thedistrictaveragescoresfor
spring2009wereMath-231.7,Reading-218.1andLanguageArts219.0.TheHighSchoolscores
forthesameperiodwereMath-233.6,Reading-222.2;andLanguageArts-222.9.Inaddition,out
ofafreshmanclassof101students,onlythreewereretained.Duringthe2009-2010schoolyear,
thegraduationrateforAfricanAmericanstudentswas63.3%(SouthCarolinaDepartmentof
Education,2010).TheLeadTeachermadethefollowingobservationinreferencetotheschools
immediatesuccesswiththeFreshmanAcademyProgram:Whenyouareabletomotivatethose
students,itdrivesyoucrazyanditbreedscompetitivenessamongthestudents.Theysupport
eachother,anditsnotsuchanindividualgoalanymore(Sellers,2009,p.8A).Theschool
recognizedthatsimplyidentifyingtheachievementproblemswouldnotaloneimproveacademic
success;instead,schoolsmustbeawareofalternativelearningmethodsandschoolpoliciesthat
haveapositiveeffectonhowAfricanAmericanyouthslearn.
Schoolclimateisanareaeducatorsmightconcentrateonforimplementingstrategiesto
helpstudentachievement.Schoolclimateconsistsoftheattitudes,beliefs,valuesthatunderlie
studentsacademicsuccess.Schoolclimatehelpstoshapethecommunicationbetweenand
amongstudents,teachers,administrators,parents,andthecommunity.Thecontinuedpromotion
oftheexpectationthatdiversegroupsofstudentscanbesuccessfulandthemaintenanceofa
schoolclimateconducivetoacademicproductivityareimportantinitiativestowardimproving
studentachievement.
AccordingtoSchwartz(2001),therecognitionofthemanyuniquecultureswithina
schoolandincorporatingthecharacteristicsoftheseculturesintothelearningenvironment
contributepositivelytothesuccessofstudentsaswellasdeveloptheskillsforstudentsofthese
culturestobesocialsuccessesinadulthood.Asafe,orderlyandhealthyschoolclimatealso
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promotesmutualrespectbetweenstudents,teachersandadministratorsandemphasizesawell-
publicized,fair,anduniformcodeofconduct
Sergiovanni(1995)introducedtheexpressionschoolasacommunitytosuggestthat
schoolsbethoughtofasagroupofindividualswhoarebondedtogetherbyacommonwillanda
setofsharedideasandvalues.Sergiovanniproposedaclimatewhereeveryoneknowseach
other.Hisideawastohaveschoolswherestudentsandteacherscanconnecttotheschooland
feelresponsibleforthemselvesandothers.Schoolsmustbecomecaringandlearning
communities.Itisimportanttoimpressacaringattitudeuponstudentsearlybeforetheybecome
unreachable.HoyandMiskel(2005)notedthegeneralschoolclimatenotonlyimpactsstudents,
butteachersandadministrators.Stewart(2008)analyzeddatacollectedfrom1,238African
Americanstudentsfoundwithin546highschools.Forty-eightpercentofthesamplewasmale.
Datafromschoolofficials(administratorsandteachers)andstudentsprovidedinformationabout
schoolsocialproblemsandschoolcohesion.Theresultsindicatedthatschoolclimateis
extremelyimportanttostudentacademicsuccess.AfricanAmericanstudentswhoattendschools
thataresupportiveandcaringhavesignificantlyhigherachievement,asperceivedbytheir
teachers,andschooladministrators.Furthermore,thestudyconcludedthatpovertyinschool,
socialproblems,aswellaslocationandsizeofschooldonothaveasignificantbearingon
achievement.Theschoolscharacteristicsthatcorrelatedwithhigherlevelsofachievement,as
reportedbytheresearcher,werecooperationamongteachersandadministrators,supportfor
students,andclearexpectationsaboutthemissionoftheschool.Goddard,Sweetland,andHoy
(2000)conductedastudywithapopulationof60%AfricanAmericanstudentsandconcluded
thatpoorandminoritystudentsaremorelikelytoexcelwhenthereisaschoolclimatepromoting
academicexcellence.
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AstudyconductedbyToldson(2008)included5,779school-agedAfricanAmerican
maleswhocompletedtheHealthBehaviorinSchool-ageChildren,NationalCrimeVictimization
Survey,SchoolCrimeSupplement,NationalSurveyofAmerica'sFamiliesandNationalSurvey
onDrugUseandHealth.Thepurposeofthisstudywastoanalyzeacademicsuccessindicators
fromdataobtainedfromsurveystodeterminefactorsthatmayimproveeducationaloutcomesfor
AfricanAmericanmales.Findingsclearlyrevealedthathigh-achievingAfricanAmericanmales
performbestwhentheyhaveapositiveperceptionofschool,haveafriendlyrelationshipwith
theirteachers,andwhentheyperceivetheschoolenvironmentassafe.
DifferentialTreatmentofAfricanAmericanStudents
DifferentialtreatmentandinstructioninschoolcanimpacttheAfricanAmerican
student'sperceptionsofschoolaswellashisorherexpectationsfromsociety(Haycock,2001;
Wiggan,2007).IthasbeendocumentedthatAfricanAmericanstudentsarelaggingbehind
peersinacademicachievement(Barnett,2004;Ferguson,2002).Similarly,theissueof
differentialtreatmentofAfricanAmericanstudentsbyschoolsandteachersseemsparticularly
importantassuchpracticemighthinderAfricanAmericanstudentsfromgainingaccessto
academicsuccess(Skiba,Michael,Nardo,&Peterson,2002).
Wiggan(2007)stated"Itisevidentthatallstudentsdonotreceivethesametreatment
withregardtotheireducation,buttheyareallexpected,nevertheless,toproducesimilar
outcomes"(p.322).TomaximizetheacademicgrowthofAfricanAmericanstudents,including
thosefromlow-income,culturallydiversebackgrounds,differentiationmustaddressstudents
learningstyles,interests,andreadinessforlearning.Administratorsmustidentifytheacademic
needsofAfricanAmericanstudentsandensurethattheseneedsaremetbyencouragingteachers
tomasteranduseappropriateinstructionaltaskstoaccomplishtheacademicobjectives
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(Ferguson,2002).Schoolleaderswillfailintheirresponsibilityandstudentswillcontinuetobe
athighriskoffailureunlesseducatorsinschoolsanddecisionmakersrealizetheymustenhance
thedevelopmentoftheacademicpotentialofAfricanAmericanstudents(Bormanetal.,2000).
Theresponsibilityofbuildingprincipalsistofocusattentiononthesuccessofallstudents.
Researchersindicatedthatschoolleadershipandeffectiveadministrationplaya
significantroleintheeffectiveoperationofsuccessfulschools(Dimmitt,2003;Fleischman&
Heppen,2009;Grove,2004;Jordan&Cooper,2003;Toldson,2008;Tomlinsonetal.,2006).
Highexpectationsofstudentsandteachers,higher-qualityprincipalleadership,frequent
monitoringofstudentprogress,andpositivestudentandfacultyattitudesleadtohigherthan
expectedstudentachievementgains(Heck,2000).Muchoftheresearchonattainingacademic
successhighlightstheimportanceofstrongprincipalleadership,acaringandsupportiveschool
staff,andaschoolcultureofhighexpectations.Inaddition,valuesandrespectaswellasthe
cultureandlearningstyleoftheAfricanAmericanstudentwerehighlightedasnecessarymeans
ofmakingpossibleahighrateofacademicsuccessforAfricanAmericanstudents(Maryland
StateDepartmentofEducation,2006;Ragland,Clubine,Constable,&Smith,2002;Wilson-
Jones&Caston,2004).
However,educatorsinschoolsoftenperpetuatethedifficultchallengesAfricanAmerican
studentsfaceintheireducationaldevelopment.In2007,thenationalpercentageofpublicschool
studentsingrades6through12whohadbeensuspended,expelled,orrepeatedagradewas
higherforAfricanAmericanmalesthanforWhitemales.AfricanAmericanmalestudentswere
suspendedatarateof43%whileonly16%ofWhitepeersweresuspended.Equallyasalarming,
13%ofAfricanAmericanstudentshadbeenexpelledfromschoolwhileonly1%ofWhitepeers
wereexpelled.Inaddition,thepercentageofAfricanAmericanmalestudentsrepeatingagrade
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morethandoubledthatofWhitestudents.Almost21%ofAfricanAmericanstudentsversus9%
ofWhitestudentsrepeatedagrade(NationalCenterforEducationStatistics,2010).
Inaddition,thedistrictswithpredominatelyAfricanAmericanstudentstendedtooperate
raciallysegregatedschools,achievedpoorlyontheNationalAssessmentofEducationProgress,
andahighernumberofAfricanAmericanmalesweresuspendedandexpelled.MoreBlackthan
Whiteboysareassignedtospecialeducationprogramsandpreventedfromreceivingahigh
schooldiplomawiththeirpeers.Blackchildrenarelabeledmentallyretardednearly300%
morethanWhitechildrenandonly8.4%ofBlackmalesareidentifiedandenrolledingiftedand
talentedclasses(Holzman,2006).
AreportpublishedbytheNationalCenterforEducationStatistics(2007)provideddata
showingthedisparityinachievementlevelsbyracialsubgroups.Thisdataissignificantbecause
althoughAfricanAmericansrepresentedonly17%ofthetotalschoolpopulation,theyaccounted
for32%ofthesuspensionsand30%oftheexpulsionsinU.S.Schools(Skibaetal.,2002).In
addition,thepercentageofAfricanAmericanmalestudentsrepeatingagrademorethandoubled
thatofWhitestudents.Almost23%ofAfricanAmericanmalesversus10.0%ofWhitemale
studentsrepeatedagrade.Ina2005report,theU.S.DepartmentofEducationreportedthe
percentageofAfricanAmericans(11.6%)whowerestatusdropoutswerehigherthanthe7.2%
ofWhites(NationalCenterforEducationStatistics,2007).
Expulsionsandsuspensionsmeanabsenteeismfromthelearningprocess.Absenteeism
hasanegativeimpactonacademicsuccessandgraduationrates.Thus,thesepracticesaidin
AfricanAmericanmalesacademicfailure.Therefore,payingcloserattentiontoAfrican
Americanstudentsbeingsuspendedorexpelled,repeatinggrades,anddroppingoutofschool
beforegraduationandtherelationshipofthesefactorstopooracademicperformanceshouldbea
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majorgoalofAmericasandGeorgiaspubliceducators(NationalCenterforEducation
Statistics,2007).
Skibaetal.(2002)revieweddisciplinaryrecordsof11,001studentsin19urban
Midwesternmiddleschoolsforthe1994-1995schoolyear.Ofthenumberofstudentsinthe
study,56%wereBlackand42%wereWhite,andmalesaccountedfor51.8%ofthestudentsin
thestudy.Datashowedthat65.3%ofstudentswerefromlowsocioeconomiclevelfamilies
basedontheireligibilityforreducedcostlunch.
FindingsfromtheSkibaetal.(2002)studyshowedthatBlackstudentsandmaleswere
overrepresentedinallthreemeasuresofschooldisciplineconsequences(referrals,suspensions,
andexpulsions).Inthecaseofofficereferrals,therankorderwasBlackmale,Whitemale,Black
femalefollowedbyWhitefemale.InthecaseofBlackmales,thereasonforofficereferrals
cateredtothesubjectivejudgmentofthereferringagent,suchasloitering,excessivenoise,or
threat;whereas,thereasonsgivenforWhitestudentsreferralstotheofficeconsistedofsmoking
andvandalism,whichindicatedanobjectiveviewbythereferringagent.
Inaddition,resultsfromtheSkibaetal.(2002)studyshowedthatthesocioeconomic
indicatorappearedtobesomewhatlessimportantthangenderorracialdisparity.Theresearchers
concludedthattherewasindeedarobustpatternofBlackstudentsbeingdisproportionaely
disciplinedbasedonahigherrateofofficereferrals.Blackstudentsperceivedthisracial
disparityindisciplineasacausetohavethemremovedfromtheclassroom.Forexample,they
identifiedalackofinterestonthepartoftheteachers,differencesincommunicationstyle,and
lackofrespectfromteachersasunderlyingcausesofreferrals.Inaddition,Blackstudents
contendedthatapurposefulplanexistedtopushthemtothepointofbeingdisrespectuland
hostile,thereby,leadingtoofficereferrals.Researcherssuggestthatschoolleadershipdevelop
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49
alternativemethodstosuspensionsandexpulsionsfordealingwithdisruptivebehaviorandto
helpeducatorslearnhowtofocusonpositiveclassroommanagementtechniquestoimprove
academicperformanceofstudents(AdvancementProject/CivilRightsProject,2000;Morgan,
1991).
ProgramsDesignedtoHelpAfricanAmericanMalesAchieveAcademicSuccess
Principalsandcommunityleadershaveacknowledgedtheproblemoflowacademic
performanceamongAfricanAmericanstudents.Oneofthechallengesfacingadministratorsis
howtoensureaqualityeducationandassureequitabledistributionofeducationresourcestoall
students.Therefore,variouslearningstrategiesandinterventionprogramsthatmightpotentially
equipminoritystudents,especiallyAfricanAmericanmales,withtheneededskillstobe
successfulinschoolandsocietyhavebeenexplored.
Successfulprogramsaddressingtheneedsofyouthswhilepreparingthemtobe
successfuladultsinsocietyareconnectedwiththeschoolandthecommunity.Rolemodelsand
mentorsnotonlyhaveapositiveeffectonstudentsgrades,butpositivelyaffectbehavior,
attendanceandself-esteem(Campbell-Whatley&Algozzine,1997;Wyatt,2009).Thepotential
toputmoreBlackmalesintheclassroom,improvetheAfricanAmericancommunity,and
advancethenationasawholeexistsinaProgramintheSouthCarolinaeducationalsystem.The
CallMeMister(MenInstructingStudentsTowardEffectiveRoleModels)Programwas
designedtohelpAfricanAmericanmalesbecomechangeagents,developprideanddignity,and
simultaneouslycreatesuccessfulandeffectiveeducationalexperiences.TheCallMeMister
Programfocusesprimarilyonstudentsinlowergrades.ThegoalistotrainAfricanAmerican
mentobecomeschoolteachersandrolemodels.ThemissionoftheMisterprogramisto
improveachievementamongAfricanAmericanstudentsbyutilizingtheleadershipabilityof
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AfricanAmericanmaleteachers.InconjunctionwithhistoricallyBlackBenedictCollege,
Clafin,MorrisCollege,andSouthCarolinaStateUniversity,theProgramhadabout150Black
malesinteachertrainingprogramsand20teachersonthejobin2007.TheseBlackmale
teachersservedasrolemodelsandmaleinfluencesintheclassroom.Itisbelievedthatthis
Programovertimewillimpactacademicperformance,expeciallyinBlackmales.TheMister
ProgramissupportedfinanciallybythefederalgovernementandorganizationssuchasBavarian
MotorWorks(BMW),MichelinandtheCharlesStewartMottFoundation(Holsendolph,2007;
Richard,2005;Smiles,2002).
StudieshavefoundthatAfricanAmericanmalesacademicsuccess,tosomedegree,
dependsonthedevelopmentofsame-racepeerrelationshipsandsame-racesupportoncampus.
ThesestudiesshowedthatnotonlydoespeerconnectionplayanimportantroleinAfrican
Americanmalescollegiatesuccess,butitalsoenhancesthequalityofcollegeexperience
(Harper,2006;McClure,2006).Warde(2008)conductedastudyof11AfricanAmericanmale
graduatestudentsenrolledinhighereducationinNewYorkCity.Thefocusofthestudywasto
determinefactorsthatcontributedtoAfricanAmericanmalessuccessfullycompletinga
baccalaureatedegree.Findingsrevealedthatpeermentorshipplayedanimportantroleinthe
successfulcompletionofAfricanAmericanmalesreceivingtheirbaccalaureatedegrees.
Wyatt(2009)reportedthattheBrotherhoodmalementoringprogramgoalistoimprove
thegraduationrateofAfricanAmericanmaleswithinChicagoPublicSchools.Theprogramis
guidedbyamembershipof105men,incorporatingtheAmericanSchoolCounselorAssociation
standards,empowermenttheory,andthesevenprinciplesofKwanzaaNguzoSaba.These
principlesincorporateunity,self-determination,collectivework,responsibility,coopertive
economics,purpose,creativity,andfaithastaughtthroughweeklystudentengagement.Weekly
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51
topicsaredevelopedbasedonissuesaffectingadolescentAfricanAmericanmaledevelopment.
Over90%ofmalesparticipatingintheprogramwereofAfricanAmericanrace.
Afterthe30weekProgram,datawerecollectedfromGradePointAverages(GPA)anda
questionnairecompletedby36membersandprogramalumnitocollectperceptiondataaboutthe
impactoftheprogram.ResultsshowedtheBrotherhoodmembers'gradepointaverages(GPA)
was60%higherin2006and48%higherin2007thanothernon-Brotherhoodmales.Datafrom
thequestionairessuggestedaneedtoprovidecontinuousacademic,personal/social,andcareer
developmentsupporttomalesthroughtheuseofmentoringgroups(Wyatt,2009).
Areviewoftheliteraturesuggestedthatculturalidentity,socioeconomicdisadvantages,
andoppressionhaveaneffectonthedevelopmentofyoungAfricanAmericanmales.In
addition,twoprimarycriteriaareindicatedasbeingsignificantforthesocializationofAfrican
AmericanmeninAmerica:educationandjobskills(Wyatt,2009).Thejobofthehighschool
principal,counselorsandstaffmembersisverydifficult.However,astudyconductedbyGrove
(2004)concludedthatadministratorsdoinfluencestudentoutcomesthroughthefacilitatingof
goalsettingandcommunicationofthosegoalsastheyrelatetostatestandards.Theneedfor
qualityschoolleadershipremainstobeanimportantfactorintheeducationofallstudents.
Educationalopportunitiesshapethelivesofstudentsforemployment,andgeneralwell-
being,whilelackofeducationalopportunitiescontributestoschoolfailure,dropoutandpoverty.
Theoretically,schoolsaredesignedtoprovideeducationalopportunitiesandpreparestudentsfor
lifeafterschool.AccordingtoSizer(1999)thereisnophaseofschoolingofhigherprofilethan
thecurriculum.Curriculumdevelopment,instructionalstrategiesdesign,learningactivities,and
theassessmentsystemmustbealignedwithintendedlearningoutcomes.Theresponsibilityof
thebuildingprincipalistofocusattentionontheachievementofallstudents.Principalsareina
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uniquepositionasschoolleaderstoimplementcurriculumstrategiesthatwillempowerAfrican
Americansmalesandallstudentstodeveloppositiveattitudes,behaviorsandvaluesnecessary
foreducationalaccomplishments.
SolutionsBelievedtobeNecessaryforAcademicSuccess
Baseduponthedatapresentedinthereviewedliterature,aconclusionisthatAfrican
Americanstudentseducationalaspirations,occupationalexpectations,culturalidentity,and
attitudestowardschoolarerelatedtostudentsachievement(Cheng&Starks,2002;Goldsmith,
2004;Irving&Hudley,2008;Smerdon,2002;Sullivanetal.,2008).Researchfindings
suggestedthatAfricanAmericanstudentsmaintainedthatschools,parents,communityandthe
schoolenvironmentplayanimportantroleintheireducationaldevelopment.
FerrerandGarlington(2007)conductedastudyfortheMountainViewCountySchool
District.Forty-twoAfricanAmericanstudentsenrolledinhonors,advanced,oradvanced
placement(AP)courseswereselectedfromtwocommunityhighschoolsforthisstudy.The
purposeofthisstudywastofindoutfromAfricanAmericanhighschoolstudentsthereasonsfor
theirlackofacademicachievementontheFloridaComprehensiveAssessmentTest(FCAT).
TheAfricanAmericanparticipantsperceivedthattheywerehatedandnobodycaredabouttheir
educationalsuccess,includingpeoplefromthehome,school,andcommunity.AfricanAmerican
studentsperceivedthattheywereviewedonlyasbeingsuccessfulinsports.Studentsfeltthat
parentswouldsupportasportingeventoftheschoolbeforesupportinganacademicevent.
AfricanAmericanstudentssawtheschoolasrewarding,celebrating,andrecognizingsport
participationandnotrecognizingeffortsinschoolachievement.Inaddition,AfricanAmerican
studentsperceivedthattheywereill-preparedtopasstheFCATtest,andthatbybeing
academicallysuccessful,peerswouldclassifythemasnerdsmakingthemanoutcastfromthe
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normalschoolpopulation.Participantsinthisstudymadenumeroussuggestionstoaidin
improvingtheirschoolpeformance.Studentsbelievedthattheschoolshouldfocusmoreon
motivatingthemtoachieveacademically,thatteachersshouldbehighlyqualified,caringand
willingtomakeadifferenceintheirlives.Furthermore,participantsbelievedthattheschool
shouldbeaplacewherestudentswouldwanttogotolearn.Theschoolfacilityshouldbeclean,
attractive,andsafeforlearning.Studentsalsobelievedthateducatorsinschoolsshouldpromote
mentoringprograms,sponsoreducationalfieldtrips,presentmotivationalspeakers,publicize
studentachievementstothecommunity,offermorerewards,anduselesspunishment.Students
alsobelievedthatthereshouldbestrongcollaborationbetweenschool,community,andparents.
Basden(2006)studiedtheimpactofsocializationuponAfricanAmericanhighschool
males'academicachievement.Home,schoolingpractices,peerinfluence,self-esteem,
contemporarymusic,socioeconomicstatusandrolemodelswereconsideredasinfluenceswithin
theschoolenvironment.Thestudyconsistedof42AfricanAmericanmaleparticipants:21high
achieverswith3.00GPAorhigherand21lowachieverswith2.00GPAorlower.Participants
wereinterviewedandgivena51-itemsurveythatincludedaLikertscale.Highachieving
studentsshowedgreatergainduetospendingmoretimeinthelibrarywithparents.African
Americanstudentsfelttheirgradeswerereflectiveoftheirattitudesandbehaviorandwereless
reflectiveofhownicetheirteacherswere.StudentswerecomfortablebeingAfricanAmericans,
listenedtohip/hopmusic,andhadfewpeopleintheirhousehold.Thesesocializationskillswere
thoughttobeimportantinfluencesinleadingtoacademicsuccessinAfricanAmericans.
AfricanAmericans,especiallymales,academicperformanceisoftenaffectedbecauseof
stereotypes(Bell,2004;Bogle,1994;Cheng&Starks,2002;Irving&Hudley,2008;Mincey,
1994;NationalCenterforEducationStatistics,2009;Ogbu,2004;TheStaffoftheWashington
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Post,2007).Wright's(2007)studyexaminedtherelationshipbetweenracial-ethnicidentityand
highacademicachievementoffiveyoungAfrican-Americanmeningrades11and12inan
urbanpilothighschoolintheNortheast.Thestudyrevealedthatpositiveyouthdevelopment,
identitytheory,socio-culturaltheoryhaveapositiveeffectonthewayadolescentsinterviewed
usedstrategiesofassertivenesstoachieveschoolsuccess.
Summary
EducationaltrendsforAfricanAmericanmalesarelinkeddirectlytoearlystrugglesof
AfricanAmericans.AfricanAmericanshavesuffereddisproportionatelythroughtheyearsin
theirquestforanequaleducation.ManyAfricanAmericansweredeniedtherighttolearnhow
toreadandwriteandoftenhadtoeducatethemselves.Thestruggleforeducationaladvancement
continues.AfricanAmericansareexposedtoinadequatelearningenvironment,poorschool
structure,anddifferentialtreatment.
ItisimportantforAfricanAmericanmalestudentstobeequippedwithanadequate
educationsotheywillbeabletocontributetothesocial,economic,andpoliticaldevelopmentof
society.Inaddition,itisimportantthateducatorsequipthemselveswithknowledgeconcerning
culturaldifferencesamongstudents,perceptionsAfricanAmericanmaleshaveaboutschools
thathindertheirachievement,andprogramsthatbestserveAfricanAmericanmalestudents.
Schoolleadersareincreasinglymoreaccountablefortheachievementofstudents,sothereisa
needtoconductthisstudyusingthetargetpopulationtoenhanceeducatorsandpolicymakers
awarenessoftheeducationalneedsofAfricanAmericanmalestudents.
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CHAPTER3
Methodology
ThepurposeofthisresearchwastoexploreAfricanAmericanmalestudents'perceptions
offactorscontributingtotheiracademicsuccess.Thischapterincludesadescriptionofthe
researchdesign,participants,instrumentation,pilotstudy,anddatacollectionandanalysis.The
studyaddressedthefollowingresearchquestion:
OverarchingQuestion:WhatdoAfricanAmericanmalestudentsperceiveasfactors
contributingtotheiracademicsuccess?Additionalsupportingquestionsthatguidedtheresearch
were:
1. WhatdoesacademicsuccessmeantoAfricanAmericanmalestudents?
2. Whatrolesdopeers,parentsandeducatorsplayinAfricanAmericanmalestudents'
abilitytoachieveacademicsuccess?
3. WhatroledoesschoolenvironmentplayinAfricanAmericanmalestudents'abilityto
achieveacademicsuccess?
4. Whataresomechallengesandsolutionsforaccomplishingacademicsuccess?
ResearchDesign
Inconductingthisstudy,aqualitativeresearchmethodwasusedtogatherdata
concerningAfricanAmericanmalestudentsperceptionsoffactorscon