Modern Colonialism: ‘The Jewel in the Crown’ and ‘The Dark Continent’ ( India, Africa in the 19th century)

Africa:  – larger than you think!

Basil Davidson“ The Bible and the Gun”

[Video: see “Add’l Rdgs’]

Africa: 19th C. Religion•“Mohammedans”:Muslims who followed the Islamic Faith. •“Heathens”:Animists who followedrange of polytheistic belief systems.By end of 19th

century, many had absorbed both Christian and Islamic beliefs into their own cultures.

Africa: MissionariesAttractions of Saving Civilizations for Christianity:Large populations of ‘Heathens’ main targets for European Christian Missionaries‐Missionary activity West, Southern Africa since 1500s‐1600s  

‐ Abolitionists (1700s): Africa‐centered Evangelism

‐ 1800s: goal of ending Slave Trade from Africa escalated missionary activity

Africa: MissionariesPost‐Abolition ‘Projects’ (West Africa):Sierra Leone: 

‐ newly liberated slaves to join communities of Christian farmers

Liberia: ‐ Capital: ‘Freetown’‐ Christian Missionary Society established Fourah Bay College in 1827

Africa: MissionariesFreed‐slaves ‘targeted’ for education

Creation of African  missionaries from:

‐ returning slaves (many ‘Christianized’ while in captivity)‐ newly educated freed slaves

[compare with Fredrick Douglas] Rev. Bishop Samuel Crowther,Southern Nigeria

Africa: Missionaries

What did Christianity Offer?Why Convert?

‐ access to literacy (education)

‐ access to protection/sanctuary (poor, women, marginalized, former slaves)

‐ access to freedom (mission stations gave sanctuary to fleeing slaves)

Africa: MissionariesOn the ground:missionaries drawn into local problems/politics

Vulnerable position: 

‐ friend of the new Christian?Or…

‐ agent of European power? 

Africa: MissionariesChristianity (Missionaries) also tied to Commerce (Merchants):

‐Missionaries/mission stations places of trade, market activity

‐Provided access to European commerce and commodities 

‐ also constituted  ‘social context’ in which commodities were to be used

Africa: Missionaries “The Imperial Project”: 

‐ in addition to commerce, Imperialism was about ‘civilization’ and European beliefs about race

‐ who was capable of being civilized?‐ answer determined by race!

‐ being ‘civilized’ associated with  being Christian (European)

Missionaries entered service of Imperial interests!

Africa: Imperial Project & Racism 

Fascination with ‘the other’:

‐ accelerated by Napoleon in Egypt 

(c.1800):   learning or looting?

‐ exoticism attractive:  general public, scientific community,  ‘world fairs’, 

museum exhibits,  art & culture of ‘orient’

‐ Africa, Ottomans, India, China: all ‘Oriental’

Plate from Francois le Vaillant’sVoyage de Francois le Vaillant dansl’interieur de l’Afrique, Paris 1798.

French satirical cartoon of the English obsession with the tour of the ‘Hottentot Venus’, a South African woman who was displayed in many cities in Europe from 1810 to 1815.

‘Scientific Racism’

Virey’s 1824 text on the natural history of humans

1864Vogt’s anatomy text

1868Nott and Gliddon’sscale of human evolution

Not‐So‐Scientific RacismIllustration: R. Shufeldt[an anthropologist’s 1915 tract, America’s Greatest Problem.]

The original caption read:“Negro Boy and Apes.On the left side of the figure there is a young Chimpanzee, and on theright a young Orang-utang. This is a wonderfully interesting comparison.”

Africa: Exploration, Enlightenment

The “Dark Continent” beckoned others:

- state-sponsored explorers: some had largely ‘scientific’ motives

- others more overtly political or commercial and (when necessary to accomplish these goals), even military in their aims…

Africa: ExplorationExploration from the Cape to the Nile http://www.sc.edu/library/spcoll/sccoll/africa/africa3.html

West Africa, the Niger, and the Quest for Timbuktu http://www.sc.edu/library/spcoll/sccoll/africa/africa4.html

Central and East Africa, and the Legacy of Exploration http://www.sc.edu/library/spcoll/sccoll/africa/africa5.html

Queen Victoria and Empire• http://www.pbs.org/empires/victoria/history/scramble.html

Dr. Livingstone. I presume?Stanley finds Livingstone, 1871

Africa: The White Man’s Burden

Take up the White Man's burden—Send forth the best ye breed–

Go, bind your sons to exile To serve your captives' need;

•To wait, in heavy harness, On fluttered folk and wild–

•Your new-caught sullen peoples, Half devil and half child.

•By Rudyard Kipling, McClure's Magazine 12 (Feb.1899).

Europe’s ‘Real Foot’ in Africa

From FootholdstoColonial Rule:

“THE SCRAMBLEFOR AFRICA

Basil Davidson:“This Magnificent African Cake”

[Video: See Add’l Rdgs.]

Africa: establishing  footholdsPortuguese : from 16th century

‐ wanted to tie Africa into ‘Seaborne Empire’of the East ‐‐ Indian Ocean, India, Indonesia

‐ Encountered Muslims in East Africa: engaged in military battles to win ‘footholds’on Indian Ocean coast

‐ success limited: major settlement Mozambique 

By 19th century  ‘settlers’ fully Africanized

Pre‐cursors to ConquestBritish, French, Dutch : from 16th‐17th centuries

‐ followed trading footsteps; interest in ‘Christian conversion’ 18th‐19th centuries

‐ all in West Africa from 16th c: British, French predominant by 17th century

‐ Dutch active Cape of Good Hope from mid‐17th century: established Capetown to service ships engaged in Indian Ocean, South East Asia trade

Africa: establishing  footholds

British, French in North Africa: challenged weak Ottoman Empire

‐ Napoleon in Egypt (1798): led to French support Mohamed Ali Pasha, modernization   in19th century 

‐ 1857 joint‐capital venture in with British to construct Suez Canal

Africa: establishing  footholds 

‐French in Algiers (1830): colony ‘coastal’ but saw it as gateway to Sahara and bridge to West Africa ‐ provoked extended Islamic ‘jihad’ Abd al‐Kadir

[see Text ‘Introduction’ to CH. 20]

‐by 1870s, attracted large number French settlers: ‘here to stay’ in African Mediterranean overseas province

Africa: establishing footholdsEnd Napoleonic wars (Europe, 1805): Britain ‘won’Dutch territory South Africa 

– established colony: British law ended slavery 

‐original ‘Dutch’ settlers: Africanized, intermarried

‐ joined by French, German refugees fleeing European religious persecution

Africa: establishing footholdsSouth Africa (cont.):

– complex society developed:  own language ‘Afrikaans’; own culture ‘Afrikaner’

‐ Outsiders referred to both as ‘Boer’

‐conflict, clashes with British (especially over slavery): Boers moved to interior and north

Africa: establishing  footholdsBritish missionaries, merchants followed into region: 1867 diamonds discovered, 1886 gold

‐both attracted British, German commercial interest

‐both needed more labour than available locally: drew on poor Europeans, Africans from neighbouring regions

‐both needed capital investment to develop

BUT:  both lay in Boer‐controlled territories

South Africa and Rhodes

Cecil Rhodes:‐ fortune in Diamonds, established monopoly De Beers Co.

‐invested in goldmines but could not monopolize because of Boer control

‐drew Britain and Commonwealth into ‘Boer War’ 1898‐1902

‘The Scramble for Africa’Growth of European Industrial Economies: 

‐ intense European competition for BOTH resources, markets

Africa viewed as: Resource Rich [e.g. South/Southern Africa]Labour Rich [former slaves, ‘underemployed’peasants]Consumer Rich [above workers make salaries]

The ‘Scramble’:

New Player in Game:‐ newly Unified Germany under Bismarkwanted  ‘Place in the Sun’: Africa chosen region [also moving into Ottoman Empire, Levant]

‐claimed coastal footholds: South West Africa, Togo (West Africa), Cameroons (Central), East Africa (competing with British)

Africa: establishing  footholdsBerlin Conference 1884‐85: established ‘rules of the game’

‐ to “claim Africa”: must expand from ‘foothold’ on the ground 

Special attention given to:‐river basins (e.g. Niger, Nile, Congo, Zambesi) ‐ explored by various European powers

‐ gave definition to whole colonial regions

The ‘Scramble’:1880 Berlin Conference:  to resolve emerging competition

The ‘Scramble’:

Agreements based on existing ‘claims’:

‐settlements of any kind: coastal, commercial, ‘permanent’

‐treaties established by 19th century explorers (like Stanley, Livingstone)

Decision accelerated competition between Europeans/Europeans, Europeans/Ottomans and especially Africans and Europeans

‘The Scramble for Africa’For Example: West Africa‐ trading companies like Royal Niger Company acted as Government agents signing agreements for ‘exclusive trading rights’ with local rulers

Royal Niger Co.Headquarters(SouthernNigeria)

‘The Scramble for Africa’Where local chiefs, African merchants did not co‐operate: turned to military force

‐ gunboats deployed in Niger Delta (Nigeria), Zanzibar (Island, East Africa)

‐ ground troops used elsewhere (e.g. against Asante in West African Gold Coast, against Matabele in Southern Africa) 

‐ importance European military technology should not be exaggerated but . . .

‘The Scramble for Africa’

“Whatever happens – we have got

The Maxim Gun – and they have not!”

•[Hillaire Belloc, British Writer & Poet, 1898]

‘The Scramble for Africa’

American invention (1885):‐used by British 1889 Southern Africa

‐ 1893‐4 Matabeleland: four Maxim guns defeated 5000 African warriors

‘The Scramble for Africa’For Example: North Africa

‐1881: France declared Tunisia protectorate[see below ‘Fashoda’]

‐1882: British drawn into Egypt to put down Islamic revolt against government‐ established full ‘Protectorate’ over region 

Both Direct and Successful Challenges to Ottomans

‘The Scramble for Africa’•

Tunisia and Egypt: 

‐ saw commercial, political alliances with French, British as way to achieve independence from Ottoman control(and perceived Sultan’s exploitation: taxes, conscription etc.)

Tewfik Pasha, Khedive of Egypt 1879-92. British supported him in struggle with army for control of Egypt; helped strengthen British influence in, ultimately control of the region.

‘The Scramble for Africa’Fashoda:

‐France sought to block British claims to Sudan, Upper Nile: sent military expedition

‐ Armies met, War Threatened: French backed down at ‘Fashoda’:  concerned about vulnerability in  Europe vis‐à‐vis Germany, needed to retain British alliance

‐ ‘traded off’ for rights in Morocco: British dominant power in East Africa, challenged only by Germany

‘The Scramble for Africa’Fashoda

S U D A N

‘The Scramble for Africa’

“Fashoda”: Egypt, Sudan, East Africa 1898

From Scramble … to Conquest

Boer