International Journal of Fieldwork Studies, 2003, 1 (1) http://www.virtualmontana.org/ejournal

Environmental Impacts of Tourism in Kullu-Manali complex in North Western Himalaya, India.

Part 1: The Adverse Impacts

Jagdish C. Kuniyal, Arun P. Jain and Ardhendu S. Shannigrahi 1G.B. Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment and Development,

Himachal Unit, Mohal- Kullu: 175 126 (HP), India Jain and Shannigrahi were earlier associated with the Institute

Abstract The study aims to assess the environmental situation arising at two important locations in North Western Himalaya- Kullu and Manali due to increasing pressure of tourism. It takes up the problems of over construction of hotels, deforestation, air pollution, solid waste, water pollution and also suggests some mitigating measures to lessen the load of different forms of pollutions. Hotel construction registered its highest growth in this region (about 38%) during 80s due to terrorism in Jammu and Kashmir. One-quarter of the hoteliers and tourists consider deforestation as one of the topmost problems arising due to unregulated tourism. Air pollution studies over a four-year (1996-99) period shows that suspended particulate matter (SPM) has gone up to 112 g/m at Manali during summers. An in-depth study of the total waste generated shows that the proportion of decomposing waste (nearly 63% in Kullu and 72% in Manali) is higher than that of non-biodegradables. Indiscriminate throwing of municipal solid waste into rivers is common practice in these tourist spots, as a result river water is continuously being polluted. To mitigate all these problems, a complete ban on further construction of large hotels needs to be enforced along with regulation of tourists and strict enforcement of emission standards for vehicles. Segregation of wastes at its source and production of biocompost from the biodegradable waste could be an important way of dealing with the solid wastes. Keywords tourism, adverse impacts, over construction, deforestation, air pollution, solid wastes, water pollution, Himalaya Rsum Ltude a pour but destimer ltat de lenvironnement dans deux rgions du Nord Ouest de lInde: a Kulle et a Manali, rsultant de la pression croissante du tourisme. Elle considre les problmes causs par la construction trop intensive dhtels, la dforestation, la pollution atmosphrique, les dchets solides, la pollution de leau, et elle suggre galement quelques mesures qui peuvent diminuer la quantit de diffrentes formes de pollution. La construction

dhtels montr un niveau de croissance maximal (environ 38%) dans les annes 80, en raison du terrorisme dans le Jammu et le Kashmir (Cachemire). Un quart des hteliers et des touristes considrent que la dforestation est lun der problmes les plus importants, due un tourisme sans rglementation. Les tudes de la pollution de lair produit une priode de 4 ans (1996-99) montrent que la matire en particules suspendues (SPM) a atteint jusqu' 112 g/m3 Manali Durant lt. Une tude approfondie du total de dchets en dcomposition (prs de 63% Kullu et 72% Manali) est plus leve que celles des dchets non-biodegradable. Le dversement in discrimin des dchets solides municipaux dans les rivires est une pratique courante dans les lieux touristiques, le rsultat tant que leaux des rivires est sans cesse pollu. Pour limiter tous ces problmes, il faut mettre en place un interdit total de construction de grands htels ainsi que le contrle des touristes et des rgles strictes de limitation des gaz dchappement des vhicules. La sgrgation des dchets a leur origine et la production de bio compost partir des dchets biodgradables pourrait tre une faon importante de disposer des dchets solides. Mots clefs tourisme, effets nfastes, constructions excessive, dforestation, pollution atmosphrique, dchets solides, pollution de leau, Himalaya Rezumat Acest studiu are ca obiectiv evaluarea situatiei ecologice aparute in doua locuri importante din Nord Vestul Himalya Kullu si Manali ca urmare a presiunii crescande a turismului. Sunt prezentate problemele create odata cu construirea intensiva de hoteluri, defrisarea, poluarea aerului, reziduurile, poluarea apei si sunt sugerate cateva solutii in vederea diminuarii diferitelor forme de poluare. Constructia de hoteluri a atins apogeul din regiune (38%) in anii 80 ca urmare a terorismului din Jammu si Kashmir. Un sfert din personalul hotelier si turisti considera defrisarea ca fiind una dintre cele mai mari probleme aparute ca urmare a turismului nesupravegheat. Poluarea atosferica este studiata pe o perioada de 4 ani (1996 1999) si se arata ca particulele in suspensie creste la 112 g/m3 la Manali in timpul verii. Un studiu amanuntit al reziduurilor solide arata ca in general proportia de reziduuri biodegradabile (aproape 63% in Kullu si 72% in Manali) este mai mare decat cea a reziduurilor nebiodegradabile. Descarcarea reziduurilor solide municipale fara exceptie sunt deversate in rauri si constituie o practica obisnuita, avand ca rezultat poluarea continua a apelor acestora. Pentru solutionarea tuturor acestor probleme este necesara introducerea unei interdictii complete impotriva construirii mai multor hoteluri, reglementarea numarului de turisti si a standardelor autovehicolelor. Segregarea la sursa a reziduurilor si producerea de biocompost din reziduuri biodegradabile ar putea fi un mod important de a face fata problemei reziduurilor solide. Cuvinte cheie Turism, impacte adverse, supraconstruire, defrisare, poluare atmosferica, reziduuri solide, poluarea apei, Himalaya.

Introduction The environmental and geographic suitability of Himachal state for tourism has undoubtedly provided endless opportunities to the development of this sector in the region. But sustainable tourism primarily depends on a balance between the number of tourists and the available infrastructures otherwise negative impacts on our environment are bound to follow. People are the ultimate loser or gainer of any activity performed in any part of the earth. Therefore human beings must exercise some rationality while exploiting the resources of the planet. There is a need to create adequate infrastructure and awareness to overcome the different type of pollution problems and long term impacts that have to be borne by human beings both hosts and guests. The advent of tourism activity and its unregulated growth particularly in the present study area has resulted in a dramatic increase in the number of hotels, and unmindful of the number of tourists. There was an increased need for hotel accommodation during 1990s when the majority of the tourists from Jammu and Kashmir state turned towards Kullu-Manali. This inflow exerted such great pressure that over-construction of hotels took place in a big way. The surrounding forests were also exploited largely for timber but also for fuel. Along with continuing deforestation, air pollution has been observed. The forest cover has decreased but the number of tourist vehicles particularly during the peak summer season has increased. This resulted in high emissions of pollutants in the ambient air causing health risks to natives and tourists alike. Total SPM and other gases were the major forms of pollutants. The aesthetic beauty of the tourist spot diminished due to high solid waste generation compounded by inadequate infrastructure facilities to tackle it. Indiscriminate throwing of solid waste into river has caused water contamination. Continuous drying up of springs in the hill spots has also posed a serious threat to water supply of the region. As a result, tourists, hosts and many other living organisms in the region have begun to feel the impact of water crisis. Rivers being the major source of drinking water and the only option for future water this cannot be allowed to surpass the level of pollutions. Keeping in view these alarming problems, this study focuses on the following objectives:

to assess major adverse impacts due to tourism (such as, over construction of hotels, deforestation, air pollution, solid waste, water pollution) in Kullu-Manali complex (KMC), and

to find some mitigating measures to lessen the load of different forms of pollution. The Study Area, Tourism Resources and Tourists The area under study comprises Kullu Municipal Council (M.Cl.) and Manali Naggar Panchayat (N.P.) in the Beas valley, and Manikaran in the Parbati valley. Whenever reference in the text is made to Kullu valley both the areas of, Beas valley as well as Parbati valley are included in it. The Kullu-Manali tourist region comprises the Beas basin in Kullu valley of Himachal Pradesh in the North Western Himalaya. The Beas valley begins from Larji (957 m in lower Beas basin) and stretches up to Rohtang crest (4038 m under upper Beas basin). Kullu and Manali are the major tourist spots in this valley. Kullu town (1219 m: sub-temperate climate), located between 3138' N latitude and 7760' E longitude has a geographical area of 7 km and a population of 18,306 in 2001 (Census of India, 2001). Manali tourist resort (2050 m:

temperate climate), located between 3224'30 N latitude and 7710'6" E longitude has a geographical area of about 3.5 km and a population of 6,265 in 2001 (Census of India, 2001). The Parbati valley is narrow and there are very few places with a width of more than 1 km. The valley stretches from Hathithan village (1000 m), near Bhuntar, in the south east direction to its highest point about 6260 m high, beyond the Pin Parbati Pass. Manikaran (1737 m), situated in a very narrow part of Parbati valley, is located between 3205' N latitude and 770 2' E longitude and is a small but significant religious place (Fig. 1). In 1991 a total of 3,483 persons lived in and around Manikaran revenue village (Census of India, 1991).

Figure. 1 Geographical location of study sites The tourism resources that the tourists see and visit in Kullu valley are mainly its unique, broad, beautiful landscape features, blooming orchards and ancient temples. In addition they come to the area to see the beautiful scenic valley and traditional townships. The important

tourist resources for Kullu, Manali and others are primarily a combination of both religious and scenic. Thats why this valley is known as `Valley of Gods. There are many temples and sites within 8 km of Kullu town. The Great Himalayan National Park, Khokhan, Kais, Sainj and Tirthan are wildlife sanctuaries in the region. Manali has more strategic location among all the major tourist spots of the Beas valley. Beautiful alpine pastures, snow capped mountain peaks, orchards and coniferous Deodar trees attract many nature lovers. Other tourist attractions include temples, hot water springs and baths and beautiful picnic spots of snow capped peaks with glaciers and moraines, broad valleys with blossoming orchards and meandering rivers. Mountaineering, adventure sports and winter snow sports are also undertaken in the area. These tourist spots occupy strategic positions in the geologically fragile and ecologically delicate region of the north western Himalaya where such studies as the present one have yet not been taken up. These areas should be the high priority areas from environmental conservation point of view of the Himalaya and similar mountain tourist spots of the world where tourism pressure exceeds the available infrastructure so as to establish a harmonious relationship between people and nature. Review of Literature The arrival of tourists in the Kullu valley is directly related to the facility of road transport. Pre-motor days were devoid of tourism in the valley. British travellers and their clan were served by begar (bonded labourers). Begar was supplied to the travellers at rates payable by the then written scale. For example, the rates around 1870 from Sultanpur to Raison (14 km) was four annas, and from Raison to Manali (26 km) it was six annas (Harcourt, 1871). The opening of the Mandi-Larji gorge in 1930 made the Kullu valley accessible to the outside world and this laid the foundation of tourism industry (Sharma, 1989). In 1964-65 the tourists coming into the valley were around 10,000 this rose to nearly 70,000 in the 80s (Singh, 1989). However, up to this period tourism was in juvenile stage of its growth and no adverse impacts arising out of accommodating these numbers in Kullu-Manali complex were noticeable. The interrelationships among host-tourist-nature at that time could be said to be holistic and ecofriendly. However, in the late 80s and 90s traffic of tourists rose exponentially. The tourists were as high as ~11 lakh (1 lakh=100 thousand) in Manali and ~3 lakh in Kullu (Anonymous, 1994a; Ram and Kuniyal, 1994). This rapid growth in the number of tourists was a golden period for hoteliers and travel agents but for environmentalists it was a nightmare. Construction of hotels was in full swing and environmentalists began to perceive the danger signs not only to environment but also to the tourist industry. Besides enhancing the scenic beauty, forests have a vital role in regulating temperature and rainfall, and minimising adverse impacts arising due to over interference on the part of human beings. Forests also determine economic activities, development and livelihood of the people. They control the climate and regulate the hydrological cycle, protect soil erosion and stabilise carbon, nitrogen and oxygen contents in the atmosphere. Initially, the valley was rich in forest cover, fauna and water resources (Singh, 1989). Forests were full of Deodar (Cedrus deodara), Tosh (Pinus webbiana), Rae (Abies smithiana), and Kail (Pinus wallichiana). These species were covering the high altitude areas of Rohtang Pass with dense coverage (Harcourt, 1871). Nowadays, this tree line is receding and exists only between Marhi-Kothi and Manali. Even in Marhi-Kothi, there were dense deodar trees during recent decades but now nothing

remains except for a few dead tree stumps as these trees were cut indiscriminately for timber. Many efforts by the local forest department to revive these species in the region have so far failed. Similarly, in the Solang valley, the winter sports site, the villages were known for deodar trees, one was said to have the largest in India (Harcourt, 1871). The situation today is very different. The trees here are sparse due to high biotic pressures. Air pollution has also started to exceed permissible levels in many parts of globe particularly when tourist inflow is very high and other human activities increase. Air pollution in developed countries such as USA shows high pollution levels in some of its cities. Smog and ozone showed levels above a Federal threshold of 120 parts per billion (ppb) for an hour in New York for 14 days and Washington DC for 7 days in summer (Down to Earth or DTE, 1999a, p. 16). Malaysia, among the developing countries, kept its air quality level as an official secret due to the fear of losing tourists as the tourist numbers there had dropped in 1997 following the occurrence of smog that covered most of the country (DTE, 1999b, p. 18). According to the Nepal Environmental and Scientific Services, air pollution exceeded four times the acceptable standard (i.e., 170 g/m3) in Nepal at Kathmandu where it was 1,000-5,000 g/m3 in 24 hourly sampling in 1999 (DTE, 1999c, p. 16). Kathmandus air quality is comparable to Mexico City, which has been recognised as the worst in the world (DTE, 1999d, p. 19). As far as air quality in Indian cities is concerned, it has never been as bad as it is at the present. More and more people are dying due to the increasing pollutants in the air. It is estimated that nearly 52,000 people in 36 Indian cities died due to high levels of SPM in 1995, a rise of 28% from the earlier figure of 40,000 in 1991-92 (DTE, 1997, p. 30). The permissible levels of air quality are necessary with an adequate margin of safety, to protect the public health, vegetation and property. Based on National Ambient Air Quality Standard (NAAQS) set by Central Pollution and Control Board, New Delhi, the permissible limit to SPM on national level is 100 g/m for 24 hourly/8 hourly monitoring for sensitive areas like Kullu and Manali, 200 g/m for residential, rural and other areas and 500 g/m for industrial areas which should meet 98% of the time in a year (Central Pollution Control Board or CPCB, 1994). However, 2% of the time, it may exceed but not on two consecutive days. For gaseous pollutants sulphur dioxide (SO2) and oxides of nitrogen (NO2) permissible limit stands 30 g/m to each gas for sensitive areas, 80 g/m for residential, rural and other areas and 120 g/m for industrial areas in a year (CPCB, 1994). In 1997, Lucknow -the capital of Uttar Pradesh- recorded the maximum level of SPM at 2,339 g/m which was as high as 2,340 g/m recorded in Delhi in 1992. In Kanpur, SPM level on an average was 400 g/m with a maximum of 1,000 g/m. In the southern parts of the country such as Pondicherry, SPM and SO2 were about three times the permissible limits, while oxides of nitrogen were more than two times the permissible level (DTE, 1999e, p. 34-37). Air pollution has also started to exceed permissible levels particularly in summers when tourist inflow is very high. Some of the Himalayan towns, with high pressure of tourist activities, are not lagging behind the countrys metropolitan cities in terms of air pollution. They have either reached the threshold limits or have begun to cross it in towns such as Dehradun (323.0 g/m), Shimla (142.4), Guwahati (93.3) and Shillong (42.2) (DTE, 1997, p. 30). Recently in 1997, Dehradun showed annual average SPM level to be more than twice the permissible level (DTE, 1999e, p. 34-37). The ban on stone crushers by Jammu and

Kashmir government have ultimately shut down SPM producing stone-crushing units and saved the life of 3,000 residents. A study conducted by Jammu and Kashmir State Pollution Control Board in Athawajan area showed SPM to be 1,000 g/m as against 600 g/m set by the state regulatory bodies as the permissible level. In the adjacent residential area, the SPM is above 400 g/m twice the permissible level of the 200 g/m (DTE, 2000a, p. 14). Shimla- the queen of the hills- in Himachal Pradesh recorded the maximum SPM level of 952 g/m in 1992; this dropped to 217 g/m in 1997 by the strict enforcement of preventive measures and it is marginally higher than the safe limit of 200 g/m (DTE, 1999e, p. 41). So the hard fact is to that air pollution is disturbingly high even in certain parts of the Himalaya. Mountainous tourist spots with their snow-capped peaks appear very beautiful and grand from a distance. But when they are observed at close quarters, in the absence of inefficient mechanisms of collection, transportation and disposal of wastes, they have become the dumping grounds of garbage. For the simple reason that the waste generation is higher than the infrastructure available, with the managing authorities, to handle it. Per capita per day waste generation at global level shows wide variation from country to country. For Canada it was 2.7 kg, for Switzerland it is 2.6 kg, for USA 1.96, France 0.9-2.5 kg and in U.K. 0.9 kg (Ravindra and Tripathi, 1997; US Environmental Protection Agency or USEPA, 1998). Waste generation generally is proportional to the countrys living as well as economic standards. Nevertheless, role of tourists in generation of waste in tourist areas, particularly in developing countries, is quite high although similar studies are until today meagre. For instance, in 1990 visitors generated 29,000 tonnes of solid waste in Pattaya (Thailand) within a short season. The scenic Anhui Province of Mount Huangshan in China, a location that is visited by more than 10 000 visitors a day during peak periods, accumulates more than 10 000 tonnes of refuse and 3 000 tonnes of excrement; all of which is difficult to dispose in a short time (Genot, 1997). On average, per capita waste generation in India is 0.5 kg a day. Chennai, one of the metropolitan cities of India, with 0.675 kg of waste generated per capita per day was the highest for any city in India. Chennai is followed by Kanpur (0.640), Lucknow (0.623) and Surat (0.600; Anonymous, 1997a). Nagpur- also a metro- showed a generation of 0.273 kg/capita/day (Anonymous, 1997a). The waste generation in and around the Valley of Flowers, in Uttaranchal hill state was noted to be 0.253 kg/capita/day (Kuniyal et al., 1997; Kuniyal et al., 1998; Kuniyal and Jain, 1999; Kuniyal et al., 1999). In the Himalayan valleys the wastes are mostly dumped into the rivers for convenience. This pollutes drinking water and affects the health of hosts as well as guests. Water is life. But it is ironical that about 1.2 billion people in the world lack access to clean drinking water, 2.2 billion lack adequate sanitation and 4 billion do not have sewerage service (Abu-Zeid, 1998, p. 11). Without a supply of good quality water, tourists cannot fully enjoy the places that are scenically beautiful and attractive. Shiaris (1985) commented that no part of the globe is free from pollution. Nitrogen-polluted surface and groundwater have affected the north west, south and central parts of Europe. Around 60% of European countries are overexploiting groundwater. In USA, water extraction is expected to increase by 15% per annum (DTE, 2000b, p.23). We are able to use less than 0.08% of the total water volume on the planet (Serageldin, 1998, p.123), so it is precious indeed. Some 4-10 million deaths annually are attributed to water borne diseases (Abu-Zeid, 1998, p. 11; Cosgrove and Rijsberman, 1998, p. 116).

In tourist areas, neither tourists nor hosts can be happy and healthy unless clean and adequate and uncontaminated water is made available to them. Therefore, water quality may have the same value in attracting tourists as the scenic forests, good hotels, quality air and general cleanliness of the tourist spots. Eighty per cent of the countrys drinking water needs is met from ground water. In 1994, the CPCB, Delhi identified 22 places in 16 states of India as critical sites of ground water pollution (DTE, 1999f, p. 31). Studies in the states of Haryana, Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh showed the presence of traces of heavy metals like iron and zinc in all the samples, cadmium in five samples and lead in three samples. But all the samples had one striking similarity: the level of mercury was dangerously high (DTE, 1999f, p. 31). Depleting ground water sources have compelled the farmers, in 24 villages in the Vadodara and Bharuch districts of Gujarat, to use industrial effluents, that have heavy doses of not nutrients but heavy metals, for irrigation. It was estimated that not a single drop of the industrial effluent reached the Gulf of Cambay because it had been used by farmers to irrigate their land (DTE, 1999g, p. 14). About 12 villages around the Unnao district of Uttar Pradesh have been seriously affected by fluoride contamination in the water giving rise to bone deformities among villagers (DTE, 1999h, p. 19). The cases of fluorosis among the residents of Delhi are also increasing (DTE, 2000c, p. 12). In the Himalaya the main sources of drinking water are streams, springs and rivers. In the valleys, some areas also have hand pumps for drinking water. Amongst these sources, rivers and streams seem to be most affected by human interferences. As the springs are drying up, the pressure is high on the rivers that are difficult to harness due to its high economic costs and pollution. Research Methods Over construction In order to determine the rate of hotel construction in the valley a random sample of the hotels at Kullu and Manali in 1993-94 and in 2000-01 were surveyed. In Kullu-Manali town where the growth has been most dramatic, the survey was repeated in June-July 2000 to derive recent changes over the last decade. The information was obtained directly from hotel owners/contractors through interviews and questionnaires regarding expansion or new constructions of hotels. Primary information was tabulated on the basis of the year of construction and the acquired figures were arranged in such a way as to know a decennial change in hotel construction over the decades (before 1980, 1980-90 and above 1990 and onwards). Deforestation The direct impact of hotel construction on the surrounding forests for timber and fuel wood is high. Deforestation, due to tourism-related construction is a serious issue in the Himalaya. Interviews of 63 hoteliers and 163 tourists in Kullu and Manali were undertaken through questionnaires. These were conducted to assess their responses to the extent of forest degradation in the area; all emphasised the urgent need of afforestation. Primary data collection to assess the quantity of woods being used in the hotel industry from surrounding forest trees was conducted from 40 hotels at Kullu from 11th November to 11th December 2000, and from 84 hotels at Manali from 6th January 2000 to 15th July 2000 to assess loss of forest along with growth of tourism in the valley.

Air Quality Monitoring Analysis Air pollution is another negative impact of tourism activities. The rise in the number of vehicles, mismanaged traffic and deforestation has all contributed to the poor air quality in sensitive tourist areas such as Kullu-Manali. The ambient air quality of the region was monitored for four years (1996 to 1999). The spots chosen were all at a distance of between 5 and 10 km from the centres of the town. The prime pollutants, viz., SPM, SO2 and NO2 were monitored on fortnightly and/or monthly basis using Envirotech High Volume Sampler (model APM-415). For monitoring SPM the duration was 8 hours, and for SO2 and NO2 it was 4 hours. On the occasion of Dussehra festival, SPM was monitored for four days continuously from 23 to 26 October, 1999. This festival is celebrated every year in Kullu, and is the most important cultural event for the host communities from the point of view of tourism and commerce. Municipal Solid Wastes (MSW) Characterisation Solid waste management is another major problem in hill resorts. MSW here is a mixed waste coming from various sources, such as, hotels, business establishments, homes, offices and other institutional establishments. To know the extent of MSW problem, particularly due to tourism activities, the waste from point (collection points) and non-point (disposal sites) sources was segregated to determine its physical compositions and chemical properties. Collection points are the different designated places for the dustbins or the open dumping of waste within the 19 wards (12 in Kullu and 7 in Manali) of the Municipal Council or Naggar Panchayat. The disposal sites are the places where the local bodies (municipality and/or Naggar Panchayat) dump the total collected wastes gathered from different collection points in the towns. At present, these sites are Pirdi at Kullu and Rangari in Manali. Both the dumping sites, however, are located outside the limits of municipal towns. During 1996-1997, sixty-two samples of waste from Kullu and 115 from Manali were segregated manually to obtain its composition and the seasonal pattern of its generation (Table 1). 1 foot3 (1 foot =0.028 m or 1 m=35.315 foot) tin and/or wooden box was used to obtain each sample. The total waste collected for both of the locationsKullu and Manali were about 380 kg and 1,050 kg respectively (Table 2). Keeping the seasonal traffic of the tourists and corresponding enhancement or reduction in solid waste generation in view, the survey was conducted during the 3 main seasons. For Manali in 1996 the periods chosen were: 8-12 and 22-24 June to represent summer; 1-4 September for monsoon; and 9-11 and 19-20 December for winter. Similarly, the sampling dates for waste segregation at Kullu in 1997 were: 18-21 June, 17-19 September and 20-23 December. A secondary level sample with 200 to 300 gm of the segregated wastes was taken up to analyse the moisture content and chemical properties so as to study the possibilities of energy generation from wastes. Moisture content was obtained after drying the secondary samples continuously for 24 to 72 hours in an oven at 40 C till the weight becomes constant. The difference between initial fresh weight and final dried weight thus represented the moisture percentage. Moreover, the dried wastes were ground to particle size to dissolve it in solvents for testing chemical properties, mainly heat producing capacity (HPC), pH, NPK, carbon/nitrogen ratio, etc.

Sources of MSW samples

Kullu Manali

Number of waste samples Summer

a Monsoon

b Winter

c Total Summer

d Monsoon

e Winter

f Total

Collection points 18 19 15 52 19 25 20 64 Disposal sites 2 4 4 10 35 6 10 51 Total samples analysed g

20 23 19 62 54 31 30 115

a 18-21 June 1997. e 1-4 September 1996. b 17-19 September 1997. f 9-11 December and 19-20 December 1996. c 20-23 December 1997. g One sample represents 1 foot wastes. d 8-12 June and 22-24 June 1996.

Table 1: Solid waste characterisation sampling details Wastes Kullu

(1997) Manali

(1996)

Summer Monsoon Winter Ave- rage

Summer Monsoon Winter Ave- rage

Sampled Wastes (kg)

124.6 155.3 100.5 380.4a 556.7 266.3 227.4 1050.4a

Bulk density /foot

6.2 6.8 5.3 6.1 10.3 8.6 7.6 9.1

a Data showing total sampled and segregated wastes rather than average.

Table 2: Bulk density measurement of solid wastes in Kullu-Manali complex Water Quality Analysis Some of the important water quality parameters, at primary level, were jointly determined with Toshniwal Process Instruments Private Limited (TPIPL)-Ajmer (Rajasthan state). Parameters such as dissolved oxygen (DO), and pH at existing water temperature for river Beas were measured at two sites in Bhuntar; one at the point where river Beas joins Parbati, second at a point where an effluent coming from mid-part of Bhuntar town mixes with river Beas. The equipments for measuring these parameters were OX1-191 and pH-323 respectively. After analysing these limited samples, data from similar studies by Himachal Pradesh Krishi Vishvavidyalaya, Regional Research Station, Bajaura-Kullu were taken into consideration. Results and Discussion The current form of tourism in the valley has overwhelming negative impacts when compared to positive ones (Table 3). The most visible forms of degradation due to tourism currently are: over constructions of hotels, which in combination with other interrelated impacts cause land degradation, deforestation, air pollution, solid waste problem and water pollution.

Forms of Activity Pressures

on Adverse impacts

Over construction

Land Increase in disasters (deforestation, floods, cloud bursts and landslides, etc.)

Increase in roads Fuelwood Timber extraction Forest fires

Forests Soil erosion, landslides, floods Air pollution and shrinkage in forests Air pollution and loss of forests cover Drying up of springs

Trekking, Hunting & poaching

Fauna Disturb wildlife habitat Reduction in wildlife

Increase in road traffic

Air Increase in air and/or noise pollution and respiratory problems begin

Waste dumping Sewage disposal

Water Water borne disease/ contamination of water sources, fading scenic beauty

Table 3: Adverse impacts on natural environment due to unplanned

tourism in the Himalaya (after Kuniyal et al., 1999) Over construction of Hotels and Land degradation Taking pre-1980 as a base year, hotel constructions in Kullu and Manali within a decade increased by 171.4% during 1990 at the rate of 17.1% per annum (Table 4). After 1990, the increase in construction slowed down to 38.1% in 1993-94 and 63.9% in 2000-2001. On average, it is now clear that the 1990s have experienced speedy and increased hotel construction in Kullu-Manali. One of the main reasons for this upshot in construction is thought to be the rise of militancy and insurgency in the neighbouring state of Jammu and Kashmir. Tourist activities started to dwindle there while in Kullu-Manali there was an increase because of diversion of domestic as well as foreign tourists from the disturbed state. This period of tourist growth proved economically beneficial but environmentally it has been disastrous for Kullu-Manali.

Year of construction

Kullu Nb =33

Manali n=38

Kullu- Manali n=71

% change

Kullu n=40

Manalin=84

Kullu- Manali n=124

% change

Number of establishments: 1993-94 Number of establishments: 2000-01 Pre 1980 6 2 8 - 4 9 13 - 1980-85 3 10 13 +62.5 3 13 16 +23.1 1985-90 6 15 21 +61.5 6 30 36 +125.0 1990 + 18 11 29 +38.1 27 32 59 +63.9

a Based on hoteliers interview regarding year of construction of their hotels. b Number of establishments.

Table 4: Changes in construction levela (% of the total number of hotels constructed

in a period of time), 1993-94 and 2000-01 (after Kuniyal et al., 1999)

Tourism growth has provided different types of job such as hotel employees, travel agents, tourist guides, transport operators and as mediators between guests and hosts in giving an idea of availability and suitability for accommodation and transport in a tourist spot where normally the tourists remain strangers. A tourist spot develops through the creation of infrastructure such as accommodation and roads. Local products become available due to the entrepreneurial activities of local people. These related activities provide a boost to the income of local communities and encourage further developments. Tourist growth continues in an unregulated and uncontrolled form. Developments and activities are continuously needed to meet the demands of the increasing number of tourists. Key sites such as the Rohtang Pass attract large number of visitors with respect to the recreational resource capacity and available road facilities there. The high seasonal inflow in surrounding picnic spots of the major tourist towns like Manali ultimately gives impetus to more hotel construction leading to adverse over-construction, deforestation for hotel timbers, furniture, fuel and other uses. The unregulated inflow of tourists brings a higher number of vehicles, it creates traffic congestion that causes ambient air pollution by way of high vehicular emissions up to the sub-alpine or alpine picnic tops. The study showed that of 750 vehicles per day on Rohtang top ply in summer, over 87% belonged to tourists. Thus, as a combined effect of biomass burning in winter in the hotels as well as villages and the high number of plying vehicles in summer, ambient air pollution in the form of SPM increases sometimes more than its permissible level for these sensitive areas. Another environmental issue that arises is the management of solid waste. For example, the daily visitors at Rohtang Pass generate 1,335 kg per day solid waste. This results in an accumulation of 122 tonnes in the three months from April to June. The waste disposal problem is greatest in the outskirts of major tourist spots, where there are no formal disposal schemes or financial support to manage the waste. Deforestation Of the total land cover in Himachal state, 59% of the area is devoted to forest. 10% of this has a crown density >40% and 3% has crown density

Forms of degradation Kullu (a)

Manali (b)

Mean values (a & b)

Hoteliers

n=29 Tourists

n=55 Hoteliers

n=128 Tourists n=108

Hoteliers n=157

Tourists n=163

Deforestation 30.8 25.5 30.0 21.3 30.4 23.4 Flood/landslide 33.3 32.7 19.2 32.4 26.3 32.6 Garbage 42.9 18.2 22.4 24.1 32.7 21.2 Water pollution 30.0 10.9 11.3 3.7 20.7 7.3 Over-construction 28.6 7.3 52.3 11.1 40.5 9.2 Sewerage problem 18.2 1.8 30.4 14.8 24.3 8.3 a Results are on first ranking basis.

Table 5: Environmental degradations due to tourism (% of the total interviewees) as perceived by the hoteliers and tourists in 1997-98 in Kullu-Manali complex a

According to existing laws in Himachal, every household is entitled to standing trees for the purpose of timber at nominal rates under timber distribution (TD) rights. TD holders have to pay less than the market rate of the same wood. Under these TD rights, as they are called, right holders get a deodar tree for rupees (Rs) 1 to 7 only (currently about Rs 48=1 $US), the market rate of which today is somewhere between Rs 60,000 to Rs 195,000 (or $US 1,250 to 4,063 at current price). The massive difference in the price of timber is largely responsible for its diversion for the purpose of hotel construction and resulting deforestation. According to the data collected, 543 m of wood was used during construction of 40 hotels at Kullu and 3,855 m woods in 84 hotels at Manali, an average of 13.6 m hotel-1 at Kullu and 45.9 m hotel-1 at Manali. Of the total wood used by volume in hotel industry, the larger and higher categories of hotels use more wood and cause relatively higher pressure on the available forest resources. The perception study of contractors or hotel builders showed that Deodar trees are the most commonly used timber (64.3% and 87.6% at Kullu and Manali respectively). Therefore, it can be concluded that Deodar is a highly threatened species. Such practices indicate an alarming signal to conserve these highly important tree species aesthetically helpful in attracting tourists and ecologically conserving surrounding environment. Air Pollution Air pollution in both of the tourist spots seems to be increasing. SPM in the peak summer season was beyond permissible level (100 g/m) in Kullu-Manali. SPM data for four years ranged from 101.9 g/m in 1997 to 118.8 g/m in 1999 at Mohal and from 101.3 g/m in 1996 to 142.6 g/m in 1998 at Manali. SPM values for summer season between 1996 to 1999 have shown increase at both of the monitoring stations with the year 1999 at Manali being an exception when this value was measured at 89.6 g/m. The highest ever values for this period was measured at Mohal in May 1998 when it was 171.8 g/m. The values at Manali were as low as 114.4 g/m in June 1997 and as high as 150.1 g/m in May 1998 (Anonymous, 1996; Anonymous, 1997b; Table 6).

Seasons Mohal (Kullu) Manali 1996 1997 1998 1999 Mean 1996 1997 1998 1999 Mean Summer a 73.8 101.9 108.7 118.8 100.8 101.3 114.4 142.6 89.6 112.0 Monsoon b 48.5 79.3 66.1 104.5 74.6 52.5 67.4 91.1 57.7 67.2 Winter c 79.8 65.6 105.6 103.9 88.7 75.0 104.7 124.6 50.4 88.7

a March to June. b July to October. c November to February.

Table 6: SPM (g/m) in ambient air in Kullu and Manali spots (Anonymous, 1996; Anonymous, 1998; Kuniyal et al., 1999; Momin et al., 2000)

The most striking values of SPM were derived during the Dussehra festival that is celebrated every year in Dhalpur ground, Kullu. The average SPM figure for four days was found to be 358.6 g/m and ranged from 262.8 g/m (23 October 1999) to 411.2 g/m (26 October 1999) during four sampling days. In this festival that continues for seven days, around 200,000 pilgrims, villagers and tourists participate. The dust is the major source of SPM during this festival as the festival ground is almost bare. It is quite clear that SPM mean values cross the permissible level at both the spots; as the number of tourists increase, the SPM values also increase proportionally. The level of air pollution in the winter season is also quite high. This is mainly due to burning of fossil fuel, in large quantities, by native inhabitants and sometimes by hoteliers during electricity failure in winter. Monsoon season has the lowest SPM values due to washout effects of rains and very few numbers of tourists during this period. Trace gas concentrations, such as SO2 and NO2 during 1996-97 were between 12-29 g/m and 16-28 g/m at Mohal (Kullu), and 12-40 g/m and 12-34 g/m at Manali respectively. SO2 and NO2 concentrations were in excess under specified 24-hour standard duration for sensitive areas (15-30 g/m) during summer season in Manali. As far as ammonia (NH3) concentration is concerned, it was between 7-10 g/m at Mohal and 24 g/m at Manali. During 1997-98, trace gas concentrations of SO2 and NO2 was within detection limits. SO2 was 6 to 9 g/m at Mohal and 6 to 7 g/m at Manali. NO2 was measured between 3 to 15 g/m at Mohal and 4 to 14 g/m at Manali. June and October were the important months when tourists and Dussehra enthusiasts visited Kullu-Manali complex in large numbers causing atmospheric pollution from their vehicles. Municipal Solid Wastes (MSW) The main sources of solid waste are hotels, residential colonies, hospitals and other business and office establishments. The total waste generated from all these sources during the peak tourist season was estimated around 56 tonnes and 30 tonnes/day at Kullu and Manali respectively. Of the total waste generation, hotels were responsible for 12 tonnes and ~20 tonnes of waste at Kullu and Manali respectively. Residential colonies contribute ~44 tonnes at Kullu and 8 tonnes at Manali. Hospital waste is below 0.11 tonnes for both the locations, it is unfortunately also treated as a MSW and dumped at the bank of river Beas mixed with other MSW. At Kullu, more solid waste is generated throughout the year as the local population is much higher than that of Manali. The authorities managing solid wastes (Municipality and Naggar Panchayat) are capable of lifting about 20% of the wastes at Kullu and 27% at Manali, mainly from those collection points that have good link roads. Waste collection points in areas devoid of any access to trucks and tractors remain uncleared. Municipal authorities sometimes dispose of collected

wastes by land filling after digging large pits. But these practices are not sustainable because there is scarcity of suitable land spaces in such hilly terrain. Therefore, dumping of wastes in the rivers is the most common way of disposing MSW. The main constituent of solid wastes is the readily biodegradable waste (RBW) that comprises mainly rotten vegetables, fruits, waste foods, leaves and organic matters. Seasonal segregation from point sources (municipal collection points) on average depicted RBW to be ~44% for Kullu and ~59% for Manali towns (Table 7). On the other hand, the share of RBW from non-point sources (disposal sites) was about 48% at Kullu and 51% at Manali. The next category of waste was biodegradable waste (BW), this consisted mainly of paper, rag/cloth, wood, hay and straw and coconut peels. The average value of BW for three seasons was 18.5%. However, these values remained 16.0% for Manali. For non-point sources BW at Kullu was 16.3% and at Manali it was 18.5%. Waste categories

Kullu (1997)

Manali (1996)

Summer Monsoon Winter Ave- rage

Summer Monsoon Winter Ave- rage

RBW 44.7 47.0 42.1 45.0 54.5 59.9 48.8 54.6 BW 19.4 15.5 18.8 17.7 16.3 19.5 16.9 17.3 NBW 35.9 37.5 39.1 37.4 29.1 20.7 34.3 28.1 Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

Table 7: Average MSW characterisation results (%) from point and non-point sources

The recyclable but non-decomposing waste category is classified as non-biodegradable waste (NBW). The NBW group consisted primarily of plastic, glasses and metal. NBW from point sources in all three seasons at Kullu and Manali was around 37% and 26% respectively. Similarly from non-point sources, NBW at Kullu was found to be the lowest, 23% during summer and the highest 44% in winter. Reasonably similar pattern was also observed at Manali showing the low share during summer and monsoon (30% and 24% respectively) and high share (~36%) during winter. The share remained low in summer because some Rag pickers and Kabariwalas (or recycling party) lifted the discarded recyclable waste from NBW. Climate being very cold during winters most of the Rag pickers migrate to the plains. Therefore, the NBW such as plastic, glass, metal, rubber/leather were high during winters. Water Pollution A survey of water in 1994 at the selected site of river Beas showed dissolved oxygen (DO) as 12.0 milligram per litre (mgl-1) and pH-8.3 at 11.4C temperature. Another study in 1999 showed DO varying from 7.2 to 9.5 mgl-1 whereas it was reported to be 12.8 mgl-1 in 1984 (Sehgal, 1984; Chauhan, 2000; Table 8). At another site, near where a sewage effluent outlet from Bhuntar (8 km from Kullu) enters the river, DO was only 3.5 mgl-1 and pH 6.6 with water temperature at 18C. This considerable decrease in DO signals the deteriorating water conditions in river Beas. Chemical oxygen demand (COD) also has higher values (2.2 to 18.0 mgl-1) it further indicates that river water is getting more and more polluted.

Other physiochemical parameters of the river Beas were surveyed from Manali to Aut, representing the whole of Kullu valley. The water temperature ranged from 3.5 to 18.5 C compared to an air temperature of 4 to 26 C. The pH was high in winters compared to rainy seasons. Conductivity showed an increase from Manali (2050 m) downstream to Aut (910 m). Large waste inflows into this river from low-lying parts of the town from the waste dumping could be attributed to more conductivity during September. A chloride content of between 18 mgl-1 to 28 mgl-1 is considered to be an integral part of eutrophication (Rao, 1971; Zafar, 1966). Between 1966 to 1999 the chloride concentrations in the river water has increased alarmingly from 4.0-7.1 mgl-1 (Sehgal, 1984) to 15-32.2 mgl-1 (Chauhan, 2000). This increase in chloride concentrations in river water is a serious threat to fish culture in the Kullu valley. Sulphate was noted between 3.0 to 60.0 mgl-1. Nitrite and nitrate were earlier reported only in traces but recent study showed concentrations from 0.001 to 0.32 mgl-1; this can be ascribed to excessive use of chemical fertilisers by orchardists and farmers.

Parameters Winter a n=5

Summer b n=5

Monsoon c n=5

Physical parameters Air temperature ( C) 4.0-14.0 12.0-26.0 14.0-25.0

Water temperature ( C) 3.5-13.0 6.5-17.8 7.0-18.0 pH 7.5-8.6 7.4-8.2 7.3-8.0

Chemical Parameters Conductivity (mohms) 22.0-190.0 23.0-200.0 25.0-215.0

Chloride (mg l-1) 19.2-32.2 18.4-32.6 15.0-29.0 Dissolved oxygen (mg l-1) 7.6-9.5 7.2-9.0 7.0-8.4 Chemical oxygen (mg l-1) 2.2-9.4 5.0-18.0 4.0-17.3

Sulphate (mg l-1) 3.0-40.5 5.0-48.3 6.0-60.5 Nitrite cum Nitrates (mg l-1) 0.001-0.24 0.001-0.29 0.001-0.32

Total dissolved solids (mg l-1) 20.0-140.0 25.0-150.0 45.0-250.0 Total suspended solids (mg l-1) 17.0-70.0 20.0-80.0 35.0-135.0

a January 1999. b February 1999. c March 1999.

Table 8. Water quality status in River Beas from Manali to Aut in Kullu valley (after Chauhan, 2000)

As water is a primary need of humankind, a serious decline in water quality and quantity as demonstrated by the results of these surveys indicate that a critical environmental health risk has begun to emerge in these mountain regions. In the absence of any treatment system, sewerage discharge from these and other similar areas ultimately flows to heavily populated areas. Untreated raw sewage, and septic tanks, wherever they exist, contaminates river water. Current conditions have mounted the incidence of water borne diseases including cholera, dysentery, hepatitis, etc. Therefore the two most important concerns in the Himalaya that require immediate attention are: drinkable water is found in limited quantities from the prevalent sources such as springs,

lakes, hand pumps, streams or rivers is becoming scarce as the traditional sources of water are drying up continuously.

whatever water is available is polluted by the prevalent practices of garbage dumping and direct effluents discharge into rivers.

Mitigating Measures The relationship between the inflow of tourists and hotel construction during five years (1993-94 to 1997-98) is quite paradoxical. For all types of accommodation there has been about a 13% decline in average occupancy, but the construction of hotels has more than doubled (~28%). Only regulated tourism and a complete ban on multi-storied hotel structures can establish and maintain a balance between the available hotel accommodation and overall inflow of tourists. The number of tourists that are allowed to enter a particular spot during a particular time should be determined keeping in mind available accommodation and civil infrastructure. The smaller the size of accommodation structure, the more likely it is that environmental constituents will be conserved. Ecofriendly constructions and regulated tourist traffic could ultimately minimise deforestation. An ecofriendly tourist spot might have a green-belt cover of two-third of its total geographical area. Degraded slopes, prone to landslides could be brought under schemes for the plantation of shrubs, plants being used both as measure of conservation and as additional attraction for tourists. CPCB (1994) suggest that regular/continuous monitoring and further investigation should be instigated where air pollution limits are exceeded on two consecutive occasions. There is considerable scope for enforcing, improving and replacing of existing laws pertaining to motor vehicles to curb air pollution. For example, all old buses could be converted to compressed natural gas (CNG). Cars and taxis could be converted to clean fuel. All vehicles irrespective to their size and capacity ought to be required to meet emission standards. The standards, fixed by the Supreme Court of India for the National Capital Region since 30 June 2001, should be extended to the whole nation and especially to fragile locations. The use of improved quality petrol with 0.05% sulphur, 1% benzene could be considered with a provision for the reduction of tax on the import of battery driven microbuses. In the hills, air pollution is compounded by poor road conditions whereby dust gets added to the vehicular emissions. So an emphasis on metalled roads along with better traffic management would be a suitable approach to adopt. Waste Management is a critical aspect of tourism management studies in mountain environments. Unless suitable technologies and management strategies for solid waste collection, transportation and disposal are evolved, the scenic and pristine beauty of tourist places in the hills will continue to degrade. There is no single solid waste management solution for all three broad categories of waste, so a separate solid waste management option suited to each category of waste needs to be adopted. The study of segregated waste and its compositions strongly suggest that the waste can be tackled through biocomposting (readily biodegradable and biodegradable waste) and reuse and recycling (non-biodegradable waste) measures. The readily biodegradable and biodegradable waste that form a lions share (62.7% at Kullu and 71.9% at Manali) of the waste compared to non-biodegradable, have adequate potential for biocomposting. For non-biodegradable waste reuse and recycling are the only options. Many items that have the potential for reuse are simply waste due to negligence of visitors. Non-biodegradables that remain unattended are the worst enemies of nature yet these could be recycled providing economic benefits. With the active participation and co-operation of hoteliers, tourists, non-governmental organisations, municipalities, research institutions and local government the problem of solid wastes from the region could be

eliminated through the practice of biocomposting, reuse, and recycling (Kuniyal et al., 1995; Kuniyal et al., 1997; Kuniyal and Jain, 1999; Kuniyal, 2002). Water quality problems are closely connected to waste disposal. At present, much water pollution is mainly due to the direct and indiscriminate throwing of waste into the rivers and draining of town effluents, pesticides and insecticide residues into the rivers during rains. The practice of dumping municipal wastes directly into rivers needs to be controlled. Some essential preventive measures at hotel level also need to be followed. The direct discharge of effluents into rivers ought to be banned and violation, if any, should be penalised by regulatory bodies such as Himachal Pradesh State Pollution Control Board. Besides, Department of Tourism, Government of India, should formulate strict environmental protection norms to be followed by hoteliers in all the highly sensitive areas. Existing norms for environmental conservation and legislation governing all forms of development need to be clearly stated and strictly enforced. Most of this is considered by the general public not to be specifically targeted, meant and followed when considering the tourist and hotel industry. Yet the National Action Plan for Tourism of May 1992, clearly mentions preserving national heritage and environment (EQUATIONS, 2003, p. 4). But success of legislation will only be effective if the local communities and external associations implement them in a participatory manner. Conclusion The Himalaya is a highly eco-sensitive location and environmental factors have to be taken into special account to avoid doing permanent or long-lasting damage to the very elements that bring tourists to the region. Capacity building in this regard has much to do with developing tourism viably at different organisational levels. A wide array of actions such as organisational reforms, institutional strengthening and networking among these is essential. Imparting training and education, from the worker at the bottom level to the managers at the top of different organisations, can be a major progressive step in increasing capacity building of tourism sector. Trained and educated manpower is a valuable tool for utilising the research finding and designing programmes in accordance with the ground realities so that all the types of environmental problems discussed could be resolved satisfactorily. Tourism then would become sustainable but also ecologically viable, economically beneficial, socially acceptable and aesthetically appealing. Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to the Director, G.B. Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment and Development (GBPIHED), Kosi-Katarmal, Almora (Uttaranchal) for providing necessary facilities in completing this work. Thanks are also due to Dr. P.P. Kaistha, Government P.G. College, Kullu (H.P.) for going through the manuscript willingly and making relevant suggestions for the cause of sustainable tourism and betterment of the host communities. The authors are heartily thankful and grateful to the Editor of the Journal as well as anonymous reviewers for their invaluable comments and suggestions to improve the quality of the article further.

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Jagdish C. Kuniyal, Arun P. Jain and Ardhendu AbstractFigure. 1 Geographical location of study sitesOver constructionDeforestationAir Quality Monitoring AnalysisMunicipal Solid Wastes (MSW) Characterisation

Sources of MSW samplesTable 1: Solid waste characterisation sampling details

WastesTable 2: Bulk density measurement of solid wastes in Kullu-Manali complexOver construction of Hotels and Land degradation

Table 4: Changes in construction levela (% of the total number of hotels constructedDeforestation

Seasons

WastecategoriesWater Pollution

Physical parametersChemical Parameters

Table 8. Water quality status in River Beas from Manali to