Advanced Written English

7/24/2019 Advanced Written English

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ADVANCED

WRITTEN

ENGLISHRobin Macpherson

&WYDAWN ICTWO NAUKOWE PWN

WARSZAWA 2004

ADVANCED

WRITTEN

ENGLISH

Robin Macpherson

WyDAWNICTWO

NAUKOWE PWN

WARSZAWA

2004


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Gerunds......................................................................................... 64

M os t............................................................................................... 66

O f -.Many of..., Most of..., Some of...etc..................................... 67

Problems with Negative Sentences ............................................ 69

Relative Clauses and the Comma............................................... 73

There.............................................................................................. 77

What, Whichetc............................................................................ 83

tylistic De vices..................................................................................... 89

Cleft Sentences with the PronounI t........................................... 89

Emphatic Word Order: Fronting....... ......... ......... ........ ........ ..... 92

I: Hardly, Only, Rarely, Scarcely etc.................................. 92II: WithAs and Though...................................................... 95

Relative Clauses in Apposition.................................................. 98

larity and Syntax ............................................................................... 103

Abrupt Sentence Endings............................................................ 103

Coordination................................................................................. 106

I: Unjustified Change of Subject... ......... ........ ......... ........ .. 106

II: Concord and Gender Bias... ........ ........ ........ ........ ......... .. 108

III: Absence of Parallel Structure...... ......... ......... ........ ........ 112IV: Unjustified Change of Person........................................ 117

V: Dangling Participles..................................................... 118

Sp lic es ........................................................................................... 119

Unclear Antecedents I ................................................................. 121

Unclear Antecedents II - The PronounI t.................................. 123

Un-English Syntax....................................................................... 126

I: Verb and Ob ject ............................................................. 126

II: Main and Subordinate Clauses..... ........ ........ ......... ........ 127

III: Composite Attributive Expressions...... ......... ........ ....... 129

IV: Parallel Expressions....................................................... 132

V: Active vs. Passive........................................................... 134

Rhetorical Enhancers: Conjunctions and Discourse Markers ..... 136

Concession and Contrast............................................................. 136

Similarity and Contrast.......... ........ ........ ........ ......... ........ ........ ...... 141

Thereforeand Related Expressions............................................. 145

In My Opinion... ............................................. ......................... 148

Articles: A Few Tip s................................................. .......................... 152

Punctuation........................................................................................... 161

(The Comma seeRelative Clauses and the Comma.............. 73)

The Colon.................................................... ................................. 161

The Das h....................................................................................... 165

Inverted Commas......................................................................... 168

The Semicolon.............................................................................. 172

Key to the Ex erc ises............................................................................. 177

In dex ....................................................................................................... 203

Gerunds

64

M ost

66

Of

:

Many of...,

Most

of..., Some

of...

etc 67

Problems

with

Negative Sentences

69

Relative Clauses and

the

Comma

73

There

77

What,

Which etc

83

tylistic

Devices

89

Cleft Sentences

with

the

Pronoun

I t 89

Emphatic Word

Order:

ronting

92

I:

Hardly,Only,

Rarely,

Scarcely

etc . 92

II:

With

A s

and

Though 95

Relative

Clauses

in

Apposition

98

Iarity and

Syntax . 103

Abrupt Sentence

Endings

103

Coordination

106

I: Unjustified

Change of Subject

106

II:

Concord and

Gender

Bias

108

III:

Absence of Parallel Structure

112

IV:

Unjustified Change

of

Person

117

V:

Dangling

Participles

118

Splices

119

Unclear

Antecedents

I

121

Unclear

Antecedents

II

The Pronoun I t

123

Un-English

Syntax

126

I:

Verb

and

Object

126

II: Main

and

Subordinate

Clauses

127

III: Composite Attributive

Expressions

129

IV:

Parallel

Expressions

132

V: Active vs. Passive

134

thetorica]

Enhancers:

Conjunctions

and

Discourse Markers

36

Concession

and

Contrast

136

Similarity

and

Contrast

141

Therefore

and Related

Expressions

145

n

M y

Opinion...

.

148

Articles:

A

Few

Tips

152

Punctuation

161

(The

Comma

-

see

Relative

Clauses

and

the

Comma

73)

The

Colon

161

The

Dash

165

Inverted

Commas

168

The

Semicolon

172

Key

to

the

Exercises

.

.

177

Index

203


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>redicative

Vpredicative adjective is one that is placed after the verb to be, to look,

o seemetc., as in the following examples:

This road is dangerous.

You look tired.

If. attributive.

prepositional postmodifier

fhis is when a word or phrase is modified by a prepositional phrase that

:omes after it, e.g.:

the man on the moonthe house across the road

Here the prepositional phrases on the moon and across the wad modify

he man and the houserespectively. (Cf. also postmodifier and partici

pial postmodifier.)

proper adjectiv e

European andAmericanare examples of proper adjectives. A proper ad

jective is formed from a proper noun (e.g.Europe, America).

proper nou n

This is a type of noun that designates a particular person, place or thing, e.g.

Charles, Europe, Buckingham Palace.Typically it begins with a capital let

ter. (Cf. proper adjective.)

register

Register denotes a variety of language employed in a particular situation.

For example, in private a politician or chairman of the board might talk

about tackling specific problems, but in front of the television cameras he

will express the intention of addressing those problems. Addressingis ofa more formal or higher register than tackling.

sentence adverbial (cf. adverbial)

16

splice

By splice is meant an element in the middle of a sentence whose relation

ship whether to the preceding or subsequent part of the sentence is unintentionally obscure, as in the following example:

*Like Mother Teresa, devoting herself to the poo r and dving.

Lady Diana also made caring fo r them her principal work.

subordinate clause

Cf. also main clause and coordinate clause

transitive

This is a category of verb that is able to take a direct object, e.g. eat (a biscuit),give(a present), throw(a stone).

>redicative

V predicative adjective

is one that is

placed after

the verb to

be,

to

look,

o

seem

etc.,

as in

the

following

examples:

This

road is

dangerous.

You

look

tired.

If.

attributive.

prepositional

postmodifier

fhis

is

when

a

word

or

phrase is

modified

by a

prepositional

phrase

that

:omes

after

it,

e.g.:

the man

on

the moon

the house across

the

road

Here the

prepositional

phrases

on th e

moon

and

across th e wad

modify

he ma n

and th e house

respectively.

(

Cf .

also

postmodifier

and

partici

pial postmodifier.

proper

adjective

European and

American

are

examples of proper

adjectives.

A

proper

ad

jective

is formed from

a

proper

noun

(e.g.

Euwpe,

America).

proper

noun

This

is

a type

of

noun

that

designates

a particular

person, placeor thing, e.g.

Charles,

Euwpe,

Buckingham

Palace.Typically it begins

with a

capital

let

ter.

(Cf.

proper

adjective.

register

Register

denotes a

variety of language employed in

a

particular

situation.

For

example,

in

private

a politician

or

chairman of

the board might

talk

about

tackling specific

problems, but in front

of

the television

cameras

he

will

express

the intention

of

addressing those problems.

Addressing

is

of

a

more

formal

or

higher

register

than

tack l ing.

sentence

adverbial

cf .

adverbial

16

splice

By

splice

is

meant

an

element

in

the

middle

of a

sentence

whose

relation

ship

whether

to

the

preceding

or

subsequent

part

of

the

sentence

is

uninten

tionally

obscure,

as

in

the

following

example:

Like

Mother

Teresa,

devoting

herself

to

the

poor

and

dying.

Lady

Diana

also

made

caring

for

them

her

principal

work.

subordinate

clause

Cf.

also

main clause

and

coordinate

clause

transitive

This

is

a

category

of

verb

that

is

ableto

take

a

directobject,

e.g.

eat

a

biscuit),

give

a

present),

throw

a

stone).


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Vocabulary

Lexical Choice Involving Parts of Speech

Nominalisations

English often displays a strong tendency to prefer verbal rather than nomi

nal constructions in order to express its meaning. This may be illustrated

by means of the following alternatives:

la. *We humans do not have any influence on our death. Those w ho wishto live a long time often die in their 30s, while those who do not care

about longevity tend to live to a ripe old age.lb. We humans do no t have any influence on how and when w e die....

Of the two formulationsour death(la) andhow and when we die(lb) only

the latter is in keeping with English idiom.

Let us now consider the following four sentences:

2a. All our efforts are aimed at the improvement of quality.2b. All our efforts are aimed at the improving of quality.2c. All our efforts are aimed at improving quality.

2d. All our efforts aim to improve quality.

In the first sentence improvement is a noun pure and simple, albeit one

that is derived etymologically from the verb improve. To many English

people the sentence would sound highly formal, even unnatural. In terms

of register it might be found in an annual report, or in a statement delivered

by a president or chairperson on a highly formal occasion.

19

Vocabulary

Lexical Choice

Involving

Parts

of Speech

Nominalisations

English

often

displays a

strong

tendency to

prefer

verbal

rather

than nomi

nal

constructions

in

order to express

its meaning.

This

may be

illustrated

by means

of the

following

alternatives:

la.

*We

humans do not have

any

influence on our death. Those who

wish

to live a

long

time often

die

in

their

30s, while

those

who do

not care

about

longevity tend

to live to

a

ripe old

age.

lb. We humans

do

not have any

influence

on how

and when we die....

Of

the two

formulations

our

death

la

and

how

and when

wedie

lb only

the

latter

is

in

keeping

with English idiom.

Let

us

now consider

the

following four sentences:

2a.

All

our efforts

are

aimed at the improvement of quality.

2b.

All

our efforts

are

aimed at

the

improving

of

quality.

2c.

All

our

efforts

are

aimed at

improving quality.

2d. All our

efforts aim to improve quality.

In

the

first

sentence

improvement

is a

noun

pure

and

simple,

albeit one

that is

derived etymologically from the verb

improve.

To

many

English

people the sentence would sound

highly

formal,

even unnatural. In terms

of

register

it

might be

found

in

an

annual

report,

or

in

a statement delivered

by

a

president or chairperson

on

a highly

formal

occasion.

19


11/103

The second sentence (2b) contains the gerund improvingpreceded by5 articletheand modified by the prepositionof.It is less formal than the

st sentence.

The third sentence (2c) again contains the gerund improving, which is

llowed by the direct object quality.It is even less formal than the second

ntence.

The fourth sentence (2d) uses a very different structure, namely the

finitive to improve,governed by the verbaim.Of all the sentences it is

e least formal of all.The four sentences represent a gradation: from the formal to the infor-

al, and from nominal to verbal structures. Sentence 2a represents a style

' writing that is frequently felt to be alien to English idiom.

uggested Exercises (1):

ewrite the sentences below using verbal structures to replace or modify

i e ita licised words. Avoid using gerunds wherever possible. Example:

a. The existence ofthis tendency is beyond all doubt.b. Itis beyond all doubt thatthis tendency exists.

1. An answerto this question is not simple.

2. Our foundation invites you topar tici pat ion in a correspondence course.

3. TV is not only an ideal source of information but the easiest way of manipu

lation as well.

4. It is enough to get on a bus to be a witness o fmany discussions about p olitics.

5. The purpose of the course is the preparation ofx he studentsfo r a cons cious and critical use ofthe language.

6 . The Royal Family was opposed to the Kin gs marriage toa divorcee.

7. Such a man is an unsuitable representative of acountry and its people.

8 . Another mistake often made by parents is lack o f trust inchildren.

9. The attaining o f Enlightenm ent is the wish o f every Buddhist.

0. A good teacher must be patient, as the necessity o f repeatingthe same

information several times over is quite commonin this job.

1. P oles may be criticsof priests and question some of the C hurchs teachings,

bu t they love the Pope .

2. Unfortunately some teenagers stop their development at the stage ofadoles

cence.

>0

13. For those people who do no t happen to be the lucky owners of acar, trains arethe easiest and quicke st means of travelling.

14. The improvement and more intensive utilisation o fthe railways would havethe effect of a significant decrease intraffic congestion.

15. The failure o fthe engineper sis ted ,and we thought we would be stuck there.

The importance of paraphrasing will be familiar to any experienced trans

lator. Let us look at the following sentence, which is an extreme but not

infrequent example o f translationese:3a. *The knowledge of the principles of correct usage

of a language is very important.

Characterised by three o/-phrases one after the other, the sentence is all too

typical of a text that has been translated into English mechanically and

without any attempt to make the end product truly readable. Of course

there are various ways in which the above sentence may be improved and,

by implication, the mistake which it exemplifies avoided. Here are just twopossibilities:

3b. In any language it is very important to knowthe principles that determine correctness o f usage.

3c. Knowing the principles determining correct usage is very important inany language.

Suggested Exercises (2):

Rewri te the fol low ing sentences using verbal structures to replace ormodify the italicised words:

1. One shortcoming of globalisation is the danger of domination ofsmallcountries by multinational concerns.

2. A teacher must be capable offa ir ju dg em en t o fstudents as individuals.

3. Such problems are a consequence of unawareness o fthe full significance of

the situation.

4. The factors determining life expectancy can easily be identified by means ofa comparison o fthe present century with fo rmer epochs.

5. The theme of this essay is the computers invasion o f every sphere of ourpri vat e doma in.

6 . With the decline of established values people seem to have lost the feeling ofthe necessity o f doinggood deeds.

21

The

second sentence

2b

contains the gerund improving

preceded

by

5

article

the and

modified by the

preposition of . It is

less formal than the

st

sentence.

The

third sentence

2c

again

contains the

gerund

improving, which

is

Uowed

by

the

direct

object quality.

It

is

even less formal than the second

ntence.

The fourth

sentence

2d

uses

a very

different structure, namely the

finitive

to

improve, governed

by the verb

aim.

Of

all

the

sentences

it

is

e

least formal

of

all.

The four sentences represent

a gradation:

from

the formal to

the infor-

al,

and from nominal

to

verbal structures.

Sentence 2a represents a

style

writing that

is

frequently

felt

to

be alien

to

English

idiom.

uggested Exercises

1 :

ewrite the sentences

below

using

verbal structures

to

replace

or modify

le

italicised

words. Avoid

using

gerunds wherever possible

.

Example:

a.

The existence

of

this

tendency is

beyond

all

doubt.

b. It

is beyond

all

doubt

that this

tendency

exists.

1. An answer

to this question is

not

simple.

2. Our foundation invites

you

to

participation

in

a

correspondence

course.

3. TV

is

not

only an

ideal

source of information but the

easiest way of

manipu

lation as well.

4.

It

is enough

to

get

on a bus

to

be

a witness

of many

discussions about

politics.

5.

The purpose

of

the

course is the

preparation

of the

students

for

a conscious

and critical use of the

language.

6.

The Royal Family was opposed to

the

Kings marriage

to

a divorcee.

7. Such

a

man

is

an unsuitable

representative

of

a country

and its

people.

8. Another

mistake

often

made

by parents is lack of

trust

in

children.

9.

The attaining

of

Enlightenment

is

the wish of every

Buddhist.

0.

A

good

teacher

must be patient,

as the necessity

of repeating

the

same

information several times

over is

quite

common in this job.

1. Poles

may

be

critics

of

priests and question some of the

Churchs teachings,

but

they

love the

Pope.

2.

Unfortunately

some

teenagers stop

their

development at

the

stage

of adoles

cence.

>0

13.

For

those

people

who

do

not

happen

to

be

the lucky

owners

of

a car,

trains

are

the

easiest

and

quickest

means

of

travelling.

14.

The

improvement

and

more

intensive

utilisation

of

the

railways

would

have

the

effect

of

a

significant

decrease

in

traffic

congestion.

15.

The

failure

of

the

engine

persisted,

and

we

thought

we

would

be

stuck

there.

The

importance

of

paraphrasing

will

be

familiar

to

any

experienced

trans

lator.

Let

us

look

at the

following

sentence,

which

is

an

extreme

but

not

infrequent

example

of

t anslationese:

3a .

*The

knowledge

of

the

principles

of

correct

usage

of

a

language

is very

important.

Characterised

by

three

o/-phrases

one

after

the

other,

the

sentence

is

all

too

typical

of

a

text

that

has

been

translated

into

English

mechanically

and

without

any

attempt

to

make

the

end

product

truly

readable.

Of

course

there

are

various ways

in

which

the

above

sentence

may

be

improved

and,

by

implication,

the

mistake

which

it

exemplifies

avoided.

Here

are just

two

possibilities:

3b.

In any

language

it is

very

important

to

know

the

principles

that

determine

correctness

of

usage.3c.

Knowing

the

principles

determining

correct

usage

is

very

important

in

any

language.

Suggested

Exercises

2 :

Rewrite

the

following

sentences

using

verbal

structures

to

replace

or

modify

the

italicised

words:

1.

One

shortcoming

of

globalisation

is

the

danger

of

domination

of

small

countries

by

multinational

concerns.

2.

A

teacher

must

be

capable

of fair

judgement

of

students

as

individuals.

3.

Such

problems

are a

consequence

of

unawareness

of

the

full

significance

of

the

situation.

4.

The

factors

determining

life

expectancy

can

easily

be

identified

by

means of

a

comparison

of

the

present

century

with

former

epochs.

5.

The

theme

of

this

essay

is

the

computers

invasion of

every

sphere

of

our

private

domain.

6.

With

the

decline

of

established

values

people

seem

to

have

lost

the

feeling

of

the

necessity

of

doing

good

deeds.

21


12/103

. The incredible sharpness of the senses o f catsm akes them react to paranor

mal phenomena.

. We run a serious risk of a loss ofour traditional, rather conservative values.

The new developments in archaeology resulted in the consideration o f thepossi bil ity o f coex iste nce o f groups o fpe op le as reflected through numerous

ancient cultures.

Yet notwithstanding all the above remarks, nominalisation remains an

mportant stylistic option for any serious writer of English. Let us compare

he following two alternative sentences:

4a. TV can lead to family life becoming impoverished.

4b. TV can lead to the impoverishment of family life.

5a. If there is an emergency , call 999.5b. In the event of an emergency call 999.

vVhich of the two we prefer will be largely determined by our sense of

egister, the second of each being more formal than the first. This diffe-

ence o f register is especially obvious in 5a-b: if, as is likely, the context is

m official notice in a telephone booth, then only 5b will be appropriate.

And if w e compare the following two sentences:

6a. Pharaoh was chastised because he refused to release the Israelites.6b. Pha raoh was chas tised for his refusal to re lease the Isra elites.

we see that the first sentence uses a verbal construction which is rather

simplistic and more appropriate for a childrens tale, while the latter might

3e considered typical of any adult context.

Adverbs vs. Verbs

In the previous section it was pointed out that English often displays a striking

tendency to favour verbal rather than nominal constructions in order to ex

press its meaning. The same predilection, albeit less marked, is also to be

found when there is a choice between a verbal construction and an adverbial

expression. This may be illustrated by means of the following alternatives:

22

la . Although the artists works apparentlyenter the surrealist

convention, they are closer to the poetry of childrens dreams.lb . Although the artists works appear toenter....

2a. This castle was supposedlybuilt by U lrich von Falkenbergaround 1440.

2b. This castle is supposed to have been built by....

In each of the above alternatives, the second ( lb , 2b) would be widely

considered to be more in keeping with English idiom.

It is especially at the beginning of the sentence that English often pre

fers a verbal construction where other languages might use an adverbial

expression. Compare the following alternatives:

3a. Possiblyhe will be there tomorrow, but it is far from certain.3b. It is poss ible thathe will be there tomorrow....

4a. Undoubtedly there have been huge changes in public awarenessof the environment.Ev ide ntlythe environment has becomea key concern.

4b. There can be no doubt thatthere have been huge changes in

pub lic awareness of the e nvironm ent. It is evide nt/ obvious thatthe environment has become a key concern.

5a. To begin with,the writer discusses new developments ine-commerce and the Internet, giving a detailed presentationof the current situation. Nex the examines how advances

in information technology will affect our lives.5b. The writer begins by discussing new developments...

He goe s onto examine....

In each of the above alternatives, the latter (3b, 4b, 5b) would be widely considered to be more typical o f English idiom.

Sometimes, however, a verbal construction and an adverbial express ionare equally possible. Compare the following:

6a. Each lesson was crammed with theory. As a result

students attended classes reluctantly.6b. ...As a re sult studen ts were reluctant toattend classes.

7a. The new proprietors have decided to specialise in conferencesand training courses. Obviouslythey have not forgotten

about individual clients, who will be as welcome as always.

7b. ..J t go es w itho ut sayi ng tha t they have not forgotten aboutindividual clients....

23

.

The incredible

sharpness

of

the

senses

of

cats

makes

them react

to

paranor

mal

phenomena.

We run

a

serious

risk

of

a

loss

of

our

traditional, rather conservative

values.

'.

The new

developments in

archaeology

resulted in

the

consideration

of

the

possibility

of coexistence

of groups

of

people

as reflected

through

numerous

ancient

cultures.

Ye t

notwithstanding

all

the

above

remarks,

nominalisation

remains an

mportant

stylistic

option

for

any

seriouswriter

of

English.

Let us

compare

he

following

two

alternative

sentences:

4a.

TV can

lead

to

family life

becoming

impoverished.

4b.

TV can

lead

to

the

impoverishment

of family

life.

5a. If

there

is an

emergency,

call

999.

5b.

In

the

event

of

an

emergency

call

999.

iVhich

of

the

two

we prefer

will

be largely

determined

by

our

sense

of

egister,

the second

of

each

being

more formal

than

the

first.

This

diffe-

ence

of

register

is

especially

obvious in

5a-b:

if,

as

is likely,

the

context

is

tn

official notice

in

a

telephone

booth,

then

only

5b

will

be

appropriate.

And

if

we

compare

the

following

two

sentences:

6a. Pharaoh

was

chastised

because he

refused

to

release

the

Israelites.

6b.

Pharaoh

wa s

chastised

for his

refusal

to release

the

Israelites.

iVe

see

that

the

first

sentence

uses

a verbal

construction

which

is rather

simplistic

and more

appropriate

for

a

childrens

tale,

while

the

latter

might

oe considered

typical of

any

adult

context.

Adverbs

vs.

Verbs

In

the previous

section

it

was

pointed

out that

English

often

displays

a

striking

tendency

to

favour

verbal

rather than

nominal

constructions

in

order to

ex

press

its

meaning. The

same

predilection,

albeit

less

marked, is also

to

be

found

when there

is a

choice

between

a

verbal

construction

and

an adverbial

expression.This

may be

illustrated

by

means

of

the

following alternatives:

22

la.

Although

the artists

works

apparently

enter

the

surrealist

convention,

they

are

closer

to the

poetry of

childrens

dreams.

lb.

Although

the

artists

works

appear

to

enter....

2a.

This castle

was

supposedly

built

by

Ulrich

von

Falkenberg

around 1440.

2b.

This

castle

is

supposed

to have

been

built

by....

In each

of

the

above alternatives,

the

second

lb,

2b

would

be

widely

considered

to

be more

in

keeping

with

English

idiom.

It

is especially

at the beginning

of

the

sentence

that English

often

pre

fers

a

verbal

construction

where

other

languages

might

use an

adverbial

expression.

Compare

the

following

alternatives:

3a .

Possibly

he

will

be there

tomorrow,

bu t

i t is

far from

certain.

3b .

It

is

possible

that

he

will

be

there

tomorrow....

4a.

Undoubtedly

there

have

been huge

changes

in

public

awareness

of the

environment.

Evidently

the

environment

has

become

a

key

concern.

4b.

There

can

be no

doubt

that

there have

been

huge

changes

in

public

awareness

of

the

environment.

It

is

evident /

obvious

that

the

environment

has become

a key

concern.

5a.

To begin

with,

the

writer

discusses new

developments

in

e-commerce

and

the Internet,

giving

a

detailed

presentation

of the

current

situation. Next

he

examines

how

advances

in

information

technology

will

affect ou r

lives.

5b.

The writer

begins

by

discussing

new

developments...

He

goes

on

to

examine....

In

each

of

the

above

alternatives,

the

latter

3b,

4b,

5b

would be

widely

considered

to

be

more

typical

of English

idiom.

Sometimes,

however,

a

verbal

construction

and

an

adverbial

expression

are

equally

possible.

Compare

the

following:

6a.

Each

lesson

wa s

crammed

with

theory.

As a

result

students

attended

classes reluctantly.

6b.

...As a

result

students

were

reluctant to

attend

classes.

7a.

The

new

proprietors

have

decided

to

specialise

in

conferences

and

training

courses.

Obviously

they

have

not forgotten

about

individual clients,

who will be as

welcome

as

always.

7b.

..Jt goes

without

saying

that

they

have

not forgotten

about

individual

clients....

23


13/103


14/103

"he above sentences exemplify set phrases. Thus we say literary figure

>ut man of letters. By contrast figure of letters is not English, while

literary man is highly informal at best.The point can be further illustrated by means of the following altema-

ive sentences:

4a. Many Cubans dream of escaping communist reality.

4b. Many Cubans dream of escaping the reality of communism.

n the above alternatives there is no obvious difference of meaning: they

vould appear to reflect differing stylistic preferences and are equally

:orrect. The important thing to remember is that what in other languages

s expressed adjectivally may need to be rendered quite differently in

inglish.1

Suggested Exercise (4):

'n the fol low ing sentences choose the most appropriate alternative:

I. Such a child will never listen to any critical words / words of criticism.

>. That was the mom ent Eastern Europe embarked upon its democratic path /

path to dem ocra cy.

1 One aspect of the above phenomenon relates to the use of proper nouns and adjectives

(European versus of Europe etc), discussed above, p. 24f.

Frequent Problems with Specific Lexical Items

Belong

The verbto belong is frequently a cause of problems. It is used to express

membership o f a clearly defined family, class or community, as in the fo l

lowing examples:

Tigers belong to the cat family.

English belongs to the Germanic group of languages.

The composer belonged to a secret organisation.

Note how in each of these examples the subject (tigers, English, the com

poser)belongs to something that is grammatically singular ( the cat fam

ily, the Germanic group of languages, a secret organisation). The verbto

belong cannot be used as a synonym of to be one o f . Consider the fol

lowing alternatives:

i. *The Habsburgs belong to Europe s most ancient dynasties.ii. The Habsburgs are one of Europ es most ancient dynasties.

iii. The Habsburgs are among Europ es most ancient dynasties.iv. The Habsburgs rank (are to be ranked) among etc.

v. The Habsburgs are to he numbered (counted) among etc.

Sentence i is simply un-English.

Suggested Exerc ises (5):

Correct the following sentences, rephrasing them in any suitable manner:

1. Dunes belong to the characteristic features of the Baltic littoral.

2. These monuments belong to those most often visited by lovers of art.

3. Frankly, the Joneses do not belong to those people who have fastidious tastes.

4. According to the latest computer-based analyses theB M Jbelongs to the topthree most prestigious journals in the world.

5. Visiting the poor and chairing various charity organisations belonged to hermany duties.

27

heabove sentences

exemplify

set

phrases.

Thus

we

say

literary

figure

>u t

man

of

letters.

By

contrast

figure of

letters

is not

English,

while

literary man

is

highly

informal

at

best.

The

point

can

be

further

illustrated

by means

of the

following

altema-

ive sentences:

4a.

Many

Cubans

dream

of

escaping

communist

reality.

4b. Many

Cubans

dream

of

escaping

the reality

of communism.

n the

above alternatives

there

is no obvious

difference

of

meaning:

they

vould appear

to

reflect

differing

stylistic

preferences

and

are equally

:orrect.The

important

thing to

remember

is

that

what

in

other

languages

s

expressed

adjectivally

may

need to

be rendered

quite

differently

in

inglish.1

Suggested

Exercise

4 :

n

the following

sentences

choose

the most

appropriate

alternative:

I

.

Such

a child

will never listen

to

any

critical

words

/

words of

criticism.

>

That

wa s the moment

Eastern

Europe

embarked

upon

its democratic

path

/

path to democracy.

1

One aspect

of the

above

phenomenon

relates to

the

use

of proper

nouns

and adjectives

(European versus

of Europe

etc),

discussed

above, p.

24f.

26

Frequent

Problems with

Specific

Lexical

Items

Belong

The

verb to

belong is frequently

a cause

of problems.

It

is

used to express

membership

of

a

clearly

defined family,

class

or community,

as

in

the

fol

lowing

examples:

Tigers

belong

to

the

cat

family.

English

belongs to the

Germanic group

of

languages.

The

composer

belonged

to a secret

organisation.

Note

how

in

each of these

examples

the

subject

(

tigers

, English,

the

com

poser) belongs

to

something

that

is

grammatically

singular {the

cat

fam

ily,

the

Germanic

group

of

languages,

a

secret organisation).

The verb

to

belong

cannot be used as a

synonym

of to

be

one

of.

Consider

the

fol

lowing

alternatives:

i.

*The

Habsburgs

belong

to

Europes

most

ancient dynasties.

ii.

The

Habsburgs

are

on e of

Europes

most ancient

dynasties.

iii.

The

Habsburgs are

among

Europes

most

ancient

dynasties.

iv.

The

Habsburgs

rank

fare

to

be

ranked

among

etc.

v.

The

Habsburgs

are

to he

numbered

counted among

etc.

Sentence i

is

simply

un-English.

Suggested

Exercises

5 :

Correct the following

sentences, rephrasing them

in

any

suitable manner:

1. Dunes

belong

to the

characteristic

features

of

the Baltic

littoral.

2 . These

monuments belong to those most

often visited by lovers

of

art.

3.

Frankly,

the Joneses

do not belong to

those people

who

have fastidious

tastes.

4.

According to the

latest

computer-based

analyses

the

BMJ

belongs

to

the top

three

most prestigious

journals

in

the world.

5.

Visiting the

poor

and chairing

various charity

organisations

belonged

to

her

many

duties.

27


15/103


16/103


17/103


18/103


19/103


20/103

5. A n Englishman in Amsterdam will have little difficulty in communicating

with the local citizens.

7. These old tradition s strike us as being increasingly exotic, just as they do

western citizens.

8 . Politicians should be role models for ordinary citizens.

9. Many o f the citizens of Rome live elsewhere during the summer months.

0. Hundreds of years ago the Latin language was widely known and spoken

among educated citizenso f our country.

Selected Structural Peculiarities

Apposit ions (I)

An apposition (literally placing at) occurs, for example, in the following sentence:

Maijorie, my ne phews wife, runs a boutique.

The noun phrase my nephews wife is in apposition to Marjorie. In

other words, an apposition is when a descriptive word or phrase is connected to the word or phrase that it describes without the use of conjunc

tions or prepositions. Appositions do, unfortunately, tend to be a thorn in

the flesh for many non-native writers of English, since meaning, punctua

tion, and the use of the article all come into play. Let us consider the following sentence:

la . When the cup final was held between two arch-rivals.Celtic and Rangers, many people expected trouble.

In sentence la the phrase Celtic and Rangers is obviously in apposition

to the phrasetwo arch-rivals.The sentences structure could be made much clearer by inserting the wordnamely.

When the c up final was held between two arch-rivals,

namely Celtic and Rangers, m any people expected trouble.

The follow ing ( lb ) is an alternative formulation:

lb. When the cup final was held betw een the two arch-rivalsCeltic and Rangers, many people expected trouble.

39

5. An

Englishman

in

Amsterdam

will have

little

difficulty

in

communicating

with

the

local

citizens.

7.

These

old

traditions

strike

us as

being

increasingly

exotic,

just

as

they

do

western

citizens.

8.

Politicians

should

be

role

models

for

ordinary

citizens.

9.

Many

of

the

citizens

of Rome

live

elsewhere

during the

summer

months.

0.

Hundreds

of

years

ago

the

Latin

language

wa s

widely known

and

spoken

among

educated

citizens

of

our

country.

Selected

Structural

Peculiarities

Appositions

(I)

An

apposition

(literally

placing at

occurs,

for

example,

in

the

following

sentence:

Maijorie,

my

nephews

wife,

runs

a

boutique.

The

noun phrase

my nephews

wife

is in

apposition

to

Marjorie.

In

other words, an apposition is when

a

descriptive word

or

phrase is

con

nected

to the

word or

phrase

that

it

describes

without the

use

of conjunc

tions or

prepositions.

Appositions do,

unfortunately,

tend

to

be

a

thorn

in

the

flesh for

many

non-native

writers of

English,

since

meaning,

punctua

tion,

and

the

use of the

article

all come

into

play. Let us

consider the

fol

lowing

sentence:

la. When

the cup

final

was held

between two

arch-rivals.

Celtic

and

Rangers,

many

people

expected

trouble.

In sentence

la

the phrase

Celtic

and

Rangers

is

obviously in

apposition

to

the

phrase

two

arch-rivals.

The

sentencesstructure

could be

mademuch

clearer

by

inserting

the

word

namely.

When

the

cup final

was

held

between two

arch-rivals,

namely

Celtic

and Rangers,

many

people

expected

trouble.

The

following lb

is

an

alternative

formulation:

lb.

When

the

cup

final

wa s

held

between

the

two

arch-rivals

Celtic

and

Rangers,

many

people

expected

trouble.

39


21/103


22/103


Rew rite the fo llo wi ng sentences in their optimalform, making all necessary

changes (punctuation, word order, articles etc):

1. Our company owns a/the Dutch publishing house Polkadot.

2. Benjamin D israeli a/the British PM played a crucial role in the crisis.

3. The book describes the relationship between Humbert Humber a/the writer

and a precocious teenager.

4. Mikhail Gorbatchev a/the Soviet politician also describes these events.

5. From m y window I have a spectacular view of an/the extinct volcano

Shavnabada, which forms part of the central mountain range.

6 . The above journals are complemented by a/the monthly bulletin Forthcoming

Publications.

7. Vikin g comes from an/the old Nordic word vikingrmeaning pirate.

8 . The Peasa nts Revolt was led by a/the man of humble origins Wat Tyler.

9. Using e-mail I can communicate with Richard, my Australian friend, within

a few seconds.

10. A poll conducted byNe wswe ekan/the American m agazine also gave the

same results.

11. Juvenal a/the R oman poet once said that the supreme good is a healthy

mind in a healthy body.

12. Taking a/the double nam e John Paul II, he soon established a reputation for

himself as a defender of freedom, offering great moral support for a/the trade

union Solidarity.

13. Not only does the President face a charge of sexual harassment by Paula

Jones a/the former Arkansas State employee, but he has also had an

extramarital affair with Monica Lewinsky a/the 21-year-old White House

intern.

14. A/The name Iron Curtain was given to the Elbe frontier.

15. Orphee, conceived and directed by Jean Cocteau a/the great Frenchpla yw right, is a case in po int.

16. Today dem onstrations will be taking place across Serbia in the framework of

Alliance for Change a/the mass movement.

17. Spiritual regeneration is a recurrent theme in nineteenth-century literature.Thus the protagonist (Raskolnikov) of a/the novel by Dostoyevsky Crime

and Punishmentundergoes something of a spiritual rebirth.

18. I would like to quote the words of a song by Iron Maiden, a/the British

heavy-metal band.

42

19. The Pope John Paul II has tried to continue the work of John XXIII a/the

great reformer and an/the enlightened conservative Paul VI.

Appos it ions (II):

Appositions vs. Preposi tional Structu res

A special type of de facto apposition is used for towns, cities, districts,

landmarks, islands etc. It is typically expressed by the pattern the ...of .

Compare the following alternatives:

a. The Cotswolds area has many picturesque towns. One charming spa,

Cheltenham, is especially worth visiting.b. ...The charming spa of Cheltenham is especially worth visiting.

Both a and b have the same meaning. In the first alternative, Cheltenham

is technically in apposition to One charming spa.The second alternative

is especially typical of English idiom, conforming to a well-established

pattern that is found with various categories of proper nouns:

I. Towns and Villages:

1. The city of Rome is situated on the Tiber.

2. The town of Monmouth is the gateway to Wales.

3. The village of Tintagel is associated with King Arthur.

4. Today the Pope is visiting the Baltic port of Szczecin.

All the above sentences contain nominal phrases characterised by the pat

ternthe...of...In each instance two nouns are linked byofto form a whole:

thus in 1 the phrase the city would be incomplete without of Rome

(the sentence refers to all of Rome, not just to one part);1 similarly in

4 the Baltic port and Szczecin are identical the phrase does not imply

any distinction between, say, a port of Szczecin and the rest of that city.

1 Phrases like the city o f Romeare not to be confused with the phrase the City of Lon

don, which means one particular part of London - the ancient heart of the city where the

Bank of England, the Tower, and St Pauls Cathedral are to be found.

43

Suggested

Exercises

12 :

Rewrite the

following

sentences

in

their

optimal

form,

making all

necessary

changes

(punctuation,

word

order, articles

etc):

1

.

Our company

owns

a/the

Dutch

publishing

house

Polkadot.

2.

Benjamin

Disraeli

a/the

British

PM played

a crucial role in

the

crisis.

3.

The book

describes

the relationship

between

Humbert Humber

a/the

writer

and a precocious

teenager.

4.

Mikhail Gorbatchev

a/the

Soviet

politician

also

describes

these

events.

5.

From my

window

I have

a

spectacular

view of

an/the

extinct volcano

Shavnabada, which forms

part

of

the

central

mountain

range.

6.

The

above

journals

are

complemented by

a/the

monthly bulletin

Forthcoming

Publications.

7. Viking

comes

from

an/the

old Nordic word vikingr

meaning

pirate.

8.

The

Peasants Revolt was led by

a/the

ma n

of humble

origins

Wat Tyler.

9.

Using

e-mail I

can

communicate

with

Richard,

my Australian

friend,

within

a few

seconds.

10.

A

poll

conducted

by Newsweek

an/the

American magazine

also

gave

the

same results.

11

.

Juvenal

a/the

Roman poet

once

said that

the supreme

good is

a

healthy

mind in a healthy body.

12.

Taking

a/the

double

name John

Paul II,

he

soon established

a

reputation

for

himself as a defender

of

freedom,

offering great

moral

support

for

a/the

trade

union

Solidarity.

13.

Not only does the President

face

a charge

of

sexual harassment

by

Paula

Jones

a/the

former Arkansas

State

employee,

but

he has also had

an

extramarital affair

with

Monica

Lewinsky

a/the

21

-year-old

White

House

intern

.

14.

A/The

name

Iron Curtain

was given

to

the

Elbe

frontier.

15.

Orphee, conceived

and directed

by Jean Cocteau

a/the

great

French

playwright, is

a

case in

point.

16.

Today

demonstrations will

be

taking

place

across

Serbia

in the

framework

of

Alliance for

Change

a/the

mass

movement.

17.

Spiritual regeneration

is

a recurrent theme in

nineteenth-century literature.

Thus

the

protagonist

(Raskolnikov)

of

a/the

novel

by

Dostoyevsky Crime

and Punishment

undergoes

something of

a

spiritual rebirth.

18. I would like

to

quote

the

words

of

a song

by

Iron Maiden,

a/the

British

heavy-metal

band.

42

19. The

Pope John

Paul II

has

tried

to continue

the

work of

John

XXIII

a/the

great

reformer

and

an/the

enlightened

conservative

Paul VI.

Appositions II :

Appositions vs.

Prepositional

Structures

A

special

type

of

de facto

apposition

is

used

for

towns,

cities,

districts,

landmarks,

islands etc. It is typically

expressed

by

the

pattern

the...of.

Compare the following alternatives:

a.

The

Cotswolds

area

has many

picturesque

towns.

One

charming

spa,

Cheltenham,

is especially worth

visiting.

b.

...The

charming

spa of

Cheltenham is

especially

worth

visiting.

Both a

and b

have

the same

meaning. In

the f irst

alternative,

Cheltenham

is

technically

in

apposition

to

One

charming

spa. The second alternative

is especially

typical

of

English

idiom,

conforming

to

a

well-established

pattern

that is

found with

various

categories

of

proper

nouns:

I.

Towns and

Villages:

1.

The

city

of

Rome

is

situated

on the

Tiber.

2.

The

town

of

Monmouth

is

the

gateway to

Wales.

3.

The

village

of

Tintagel

is associated

with

King

Arthur.

4.

Today

the Pope is visiting

the Baltic

port

of

Szczecin.

Al l the above sentences contain

nominal

phrases characterised

by

the

pat

tern

the...of... In each instance

two nouns

are linked

by

of

to

form a

whole:

thus in

1

the

phrase

th e

city

would

be

incomplete

without

of

Rome

the

sentence refers to

all

of

Rome, not

just

to one

part);1

similarly in

4

th e

Baltic

port and

Szczecin

are

identical

the

phrase

does

not

imply

any

distinction

between,

say,

a

port

of Szczecin and

the rest

of

that city.

1

Phrases like the

city

of

Rome are

not

to be

confused with

the

phrase

the City of

Lon

don,

which

means one particular part of London

the ancient

heart of

the

city

where

the

Bank

of

England,

the

Tower, and

St Pauls

Cathedral are to be

found.

43


23/103

t i s imposs ib le to leave the ofo u t a n d t o w r i t e **the city Rome, **the

own Monmouth etc.Let us look at the following alternatives:

a. The next conference will take place in Aberdeen, Scotland.

b. The n ext conf erence w ill take pla ce in the Scot tish city of A berdeen.

The difference between a and b is one of register: a is typical of the lan

guage of offic ial circulars and application forms, whileb is typical o f jour-

lalism and more general contexts.Sentence b implies that Aberdeen is not a capital city. WereEdi nb ur gh

o be substituted forAb er de en ,a different construction would be necessary :

c. The next conference will take place in the Scottish capital Edinburgh.d. The next conference will take place in Scotlands capital Edinburgh.1

n other words, the Scottish capital o f Edinburgh is impossible.This

iistinction, exemplified by sentences b -d , is generally applicable to the

;ities and capitals of other countries.

II. a. Counties, Kingdoms, Duchies:

1. The County of Gwent was formed from several smaller counties.2

2. The kingdom o f Wessex was the focus of resistance to the Vikings.3. Long ago the Duchy of Burgundy was very powerful.

tn 1 the C o u n t y o f G w e n t forms a whole: the county would be incom-

Dlete without of Gwent; the same goes for the k ingdom o f Wessex and

' he Duchy o f Burgundyetc.

b. Provinces and Federal States:

Here usage tends to vary from case to case:

1. The American state of Texas is especially prosperous.

(not: **The American state Texas)

2a. The province of Kosovo has a Moslem majority.(not: **the province Kosovo)

Also: 2b. Elections have been held in Yugos lavias troubled Kosovo province.

1 Note how commas have been left out between capital andEdinburgh. (Many native

writers of En glish would consider them clumsy and unnatural.)

2 But:Marlborough County, Orange County - American usage.

44

Confer also the following sentence:

3. The conferen ce will take place Under the patronage

of the Tourist Board of the Province of Pomerania.(not: **the Pomeranian Province)

III. Landmarks, Monuments etc.:

Here again it is a question of established usage:

1. The Dungeness headland can be seen for miles.(not: **The headland D ungeness....)

2. The Gower peninsula lies SW of Swansea.

3. The Dartmoor National Park continues to attract many tourists.

Islands:

Here usage is divided:

The island o f Iona; the island of Elba etc.

The Isle of Lewis, the Isle o f Wight, the Isle of Man etc.but: Bardsey Island, Long Island, Lundy Island.

Roads:

Again usage tends to vary from case to case:

1. London is connected to Birmingham by the Ml motorway.(preferable to:the motorway M l)

2. The Berlin-Hanover autobahn is one of the busiest in Europe.(preferable to:The autobahn Berlin-Hanover)

3. He was the designer and constructor of the Callao-La Oroyarailway line.

(not: **the railway line Callao-La Oroya)

Contrast:

The city is served by the international highways E75 and E71.

Hotels:

In BritainHo telgenerally comes at the end of the name:

The Savoy Hotel is in London .1

1 Hotel Savoy sounds Continental.

t

is

impossible

to

leave

the

of

out

and to write ** the

city

Rome,

* * t he

ow n

Monmouth

etc.

Let us look

at

the

following

alternatives:

a.

The next conference

will

take

place in

Aberdeen,

Scotland.

b.

The

next conference

will take

place

in

the Scottish city

of

Aberdeen.

The

difference between

a and

b

is one of register: a is typical

of the

lan

guage

of

official circulars

and

application

forms,

while

b

is

typical

of

jour-

tal ism and more

general

contexts.

Sentence

b

implies

that

Aberdeen

is

not

a capital

city. Were

Edinburgh

o

be

substituted

for

Aberdeen,

a different

construction

would

be necessary

:

c.

The next

conference

will

take

place in the Scottish

capital

Edinburgh.

d.

The

next

conference

will

take

place

in

Scotlands

capital

Edinburgh.1

n

other

words,

the

Scottish

capital of

Edinburgh

is

impossible.

This

listinction,

exemplified

by

sentences

b-d,

is generally applicable

to

the

;ities

and capitals

of

other

countries.

II.

a. Counties,

Kingdoms, Duchies:

1.

The

County

of

Gwent

was

formed from

several

smaller

counties.2

2. The kingdom

of

Wessex was the focus

of

resistance to the

Vikings.

3.

Long

ago

the

Duchy

of Burgundy

was

very

powerful.

In

1

the

County

of Gwent

forms

a

whole: the

county would

be

incom-

alete

without of

Gwent;

the same

goes for th e

k ingdom of Wessex

and

fh e

Duchy

of Burgundy etc.

b. Provinces

an d

Federal

States:

Here

usage

tends

to vary from

case to

case:

1.

The American

state

of

Texas

is

especially

prosperous.

(not:

**The

American state

Texas)

2a.

The

province

of

Kosovo

has

a Moslem

majority.

(not:**the

province

Kosovo)

Also:

2b.

Elections

have

been

held

in

Yugoslavias troubled

Kosovo province.

1

Note

how commas

have been left

out between

capital

and Edinburgh. Many

native

writers

of

English

would

consider

them

clumsy and

unnatural.

2

But: Marlborough

County,

Orange

County

-

American

usage.

44

Confer

also

the

following

sentence:

3.

The

conference

will

take

place

Under

the

patronage

of the

Tourist

o rd

of

the

Province

of

Pomerania.

(not:

**the

Pomeranian

Province)

III.

Landmarks,

Monuments

etc.:

Here

again

it

is a

question

of

established

usage:

1.

The Dungeness

headland

can

be

seen

for

miles.

(not:

**The headland

Dungeness....)

2.

The

Gower peninsula

lies SW

of

Swansea.

3.

The Dartmoor

National

Park

continues

to

attract many

tourists.

I slands:

Here

usage

is

divided:

The

island

of

Iona;

the

island

of

Elba etc.

The

Isle of

Lewis,

theIsle of

Wight,

the Isle

of

Man

etc.

but:

Bardsey Island,

Long Island,

Lundy

Island.

Roads:

Again usage

tends

to

vary

from

case

to

case:

1.

London

is

connected

to

Birmingham

by

theMl

motorway.

(preferable

to:

the

motorwayMl

2.

The

Berlin-Hanover

autobahn is one of

the

busiest in

Europe.

(preferable

to:

The

autobahn

Berlin-Hanover)

3.

He was

the

designer

and

constructor

of

the

Callao-La Oroya

railway

line.

(not:

**the railway line

Callao-La Oroya)

Contrast:

The

city

is

served

by the

international

highways

E75

and

E71.

Hotels:

In

Britain Hotel

generally comes

at

the

end

of the

name:

The

Savoy

Hotel is

in

London.1

1

Hotel

Savoy

sounds

Continental.

45


24/103


25/103

Type I:

la . I did not invite Mr Fortune because he is a bank manager.

(I invited him because I genuinely like him.)

In this first type the speaker denies an imputed motive for his action, while

giving what he claims to be the real reason. In such cases it is often possi

ble to rewrite the sentence as follows (although the word order would then

be unusual):

lb . I invited Mr Fortune not because he is a bank manager....

In other words, the &ecawse-clause is dependent uponnot, instead of upon

the previous clause.

Type II:

2. A: Why didnt you invite Mr Fortune?B: I didnt invite him because he was going away for the weekend.

This second type ofbecause-clause explains the whole preceding clause,

and is not really dependent upon any one word. Here is another way of

writing the sentence:

The reason I didnt invite him was that he was going away for the weekend.

In sentences la-b Mr Fortune was invited, while in 2 he was not.

Now let us look at the following example:

3a. *Some children are, of course, especially difficult. The teachershould not be strict w ith such pupils because their personalities

are slow to mature.

Any experienced teacher of English would immediately recognise such

writing, for the simple reason that the second sentence is ambiguous. Is the

sentence an example of type I or type II?

Let us interpret the sentence in question as being type I:3b. ...The teacher should not be strict with such pupils iust because

their personalities are slow to mature.... (i.e. the teacher should

be strict with them for some o the r reas on.)

Note how the insertion ofju st makes the meaning of the sentence much

clearer.

48

If, however, the sentence is type II, then its clarity would be much en

hanced by changingbecause intosince:

3c. ...The teacher should not be strict with such pupils,

since their personalities are slow to mature ....1

Another option is a reformulation which dispenses with the because-clause and turns it into an independent sentence:

3d. ...The teach er should not be strict with such pupils.

After all, their personalities are slow to mature....

This, however, does not exhaust the possible options for cases of type

II. Let us look at a modification of an earlier example:

4. A: Why didnt you invite Mr Fortune?

B: I didnt invite him for the simple reason that he wasgoing away for the weekend.

In fact, the phrasefo r the s imple reason thatand its more formal variant

the reason being that are useful especially in such contexts, where it isnecessary to avoid ambiguity.

In sentences o f type II one other useful construction is also possible insome cases. Compare the following alternatives:

5a. *The EU does not promote conformity because it appreciatesthe unique features of each nation.

5b. The EU does not promote conformity, appreciating as it doesthe unique features of each nation.

Unlike 5a, sentence 5b is unambiguous; in addition it is much more in

keeping with English idiom and more elegant than 5a.

Additional Note:

A typical source of the infelicity or ambiguity described above is when

both thebecause-clause and the preceding clause are negative. Compare

the following alternatives:

6a. *People do not socialise any more because they do not have the time.6b. People do not socialise any m ore for the s imple reaso n th at

they do not have the time.

1 Note also the addition of a comma.

49

Type

I:

la.

I

didnot

invite

Mr

Fortune

because

he

is

a

bank

manager.

I

invited

him

because

I

genuinely like

him.

In

this first

type

the

speaker

denies

an

imputed

motive for

his

action,while

giving

what

he

claims

to

be

the

real

reason.

In such cases

it

is often possi

ble

to

rewrite

the

sentence

as

follows

(although the

word order

would then

be

unusual):

lb.

I

invited

Mr Fortune

not

because

he

is

a

bank

manager....

In

other

words, the

ecawse-clause

is

dependent

upon

not, instead

of upon

the

previous

clause.

Type

II:

2.

A:

hy

didnt you

invite Mr

Fortune?

B:

I

didnt

invite

him

because

he was

going

away

for

the

weekend.

This second

type

of

because-c

lause

explains

the whole

preceding

clause,

and

is not

really

dependent

upon

any

one

word.

Here

is

another

way of

writing the

sentence:

The

reason

I

didnt

invite him was

that he

was

going

away for the

weekend.

In

sentences

la-b

Mr

Fortune

was

invited, while

in

2 he

was not.

Now

let us look

at

the

following

example:

3a.

*Some

children

are, of

course,

especially

difficult.

The teacher

should

not

be strict

with

such

pupils

because

their

personalities

are

slow to

mature.

Any

experienced

teacher

of

English would

immediately recognise

such

writing,

for

the

simple

reason

that

the

second sentence

is

ambiguous.

Is the

sentence

an

example

of type

I

or

type

II?

Let us interpret

the sentence

in

question as

being type

I:

3b.

...The

teacher

should

not

be

strict

with

such pupils

just

because

their

personalities

are

slow

to

mature....

i.e.

the

teacher

should

be

strict

with

them

for

some

other

reason.

Note

how

the

insertion

of

just

makes

the

meaning of the

sentence

much

clearer.

48

If,

however,

the sentence

is

type II,

then

its clarity

would be

much

en

hanced

by

changing because

into

since:

3c.

...The

teacher

should

not

be strict

with such

pupils,

since

their

personalities

are

slow to

mature....1

Another

option is

a

reformulation

which dispenses

with

the

because-

clause

and

turns

it

into an

independent

sentence:

3d.

...The

teacher

should

not be

strict with

such

pupils.

After

all,

their

personalities

are

slow

to

mature....

This,

however,

does

not

exhaust

the possible

options

for

cases

of

type

II. Let

us look

at

a

modification of

an

earlier

example:

4.

A:

hydidnt you

invite

Mr

Fortune?

B:

I

didnt

invite

him

for

the

simple

reason

that

he was

going

away for the

weekend.

In

fact,

the phrase for

the simple

reason

that and

its more

formal

variant

the

reason being

that are

useful

especially

in such contexts,

where

it is

necessary

to

avoid ambiguity.

In

sentences of

type

II

one

other

useful

construction

is

also

possible in

some

cases.

Compare

the

following

alternatives:

5a.

*The EU

does not

promote

conformity

because

it

appreciates

the

unique features

of

each

nation.

5b.

Th e

EU

does

not promote

conformity,

appreciating

as it does

the

unique features of

each

nation.

Unlike 5a,

sentence

5b is unambiguous;

in addition it

is

much

more in

keeping

with

English idiom

and

more elegant

than

5a.

Additional

Note:

A

typical

source of

the

infelicity

or

ambiguity

described

above is

when

both the

because-

clause and

the

preceding

clause

are negative.

Compare

the

following

alternatives:

6a.

*People

do not

socialise

any

more because

they

do

not have

the t ime.

6b. People

do

not

socialise

any

more

for

the

simple

reason

that

they

do

not

have the time.

Note

also the

addition of

a

comma.

49


26/103

7a. *We city-dwellers cannot take a breath of fresh airbeca use there is no f resh air in the citie s.

7b. We city-dwellers cannot take a breath o f fresh air

simply because there is no fresh air in the cities.7c. We city-dwellers cannot take a breath of fresh air,

for there is no fresh air in the cities.

Sentence 6b is preferable to 6a, while 7b-c are preferable to 7a.1


Find a better alternative to because in the following sentences:

1. Dolphins do not have a langua ge in the real sense of the word, becausea language is more than just a collection of sounds.

2. The media do not create culture as such, because their only goal is to make

maximum profits.

3. Films are easier to watch than books to read. They do not require our imagination because everything is show n us.

4. In the twenty-first century there is no place for schools that teach only

academic knowledge, because it is not enough. Schools must have other

objectives as well.

Being and Having

When they are present participles, the words being and having nearly

always express a causal relationship. Look at the following sentences:

la. Being old and tired, Arthur decided it was time to resign.

2a. Having these unique advantages, Oxford and Cam bridge will surely

appeal to many tourists.In sentence la Be inghas the meaning of Since he was, Seeing that he

was, As he was etc, while in 2aHav inghas the meaning Since they

have, Seeing that they have, As they have etc.

1 If sentences 7b-c were spoken, heavy stress would be placed on the word is.

50

The point at issue becomes clearer if one compares the following sen

tences:

3a. *Cumbria, being a region of mountains and lakes, lies south of Carlisle.3b. Cumbria, which is a region of mountains and lakes, lies south of Carlisle.3c. Cumbria, a region of mountains and lakes, lies south of Carlisle.

4a. *Shivering and having a temperature I went to the party.4b. Although I was shivering and had a temperature, I went to the party.

The participles beingand havingshould express a causal relationship, yet

it is obvious that this is the case neither in 3a (being')nor in 4a (having)',it is not possible to rewrite the sentences so:

*Cumbria, since it is a region of m ountains and lakes, lies south of Carlisle.

Seeing that I was shivering and had a temperature, I w ent to the party.

Thus, only 3b-c and 4b render the presumed meaning. By contrast, 3a and

4a, are not even English.

The same pattern emerges if we compare the following alternatives, o f

which only options 5b-d are correct:

5a. *School is a formative time for most of us. Being at school,

we meet m any interesting people.5b. ... While being at school we meet m any interesting people.5c. ...While at school we meet many interesting people.

5d. ...While we are at school we meet many interesting people.

In other words the being of 5a needs to be converted into clauses with

while(5b-d).

And finally compare the following alternatives, of which only option

6b is correct:

6a. *At Ascot you will see men having lots o f money accompanied

by b eaut iful and glam orou s e scort s.6b. At Ascot you will see men with lots of money accompanied

by beau tifu l and g lamorous escor ts.

Thus havinghas been replaced by the preposition with.


Rep lace the particip les being and having in the fol low ing sentences , rear

ranging them where necessary:

51

7a.

*We city-dwellers

cannot take a breath of

fresh

air

because

there

is

nofresh air in

the

cities.

7b.

We city-dwellers

cannot take a

breath

of

fresh

air

simply

because there is no fresh

air in

the

cities.

7c. We

city-dwellers

cannot

take a

breath

of

fresh

air,

for there

is no

fresh

air in

the

cities.

Sentence 6b is

preferable to

6a,

while 7b-c are preferable

to 7a.1

Suggested Exerc ises

14 :

Find

a

better alternative

to

because

in th e

fo l lowing

sentences:

1.

Dolphins do

not

have

a

language

in the real

sense of the

word,

because

a

language is more

than

just

a collection of

sounds.

2.

The media do not

create culture

as

such,

because

their only

goal is

to make

maximum

profits.

3.

Films

are

easier

to watch than books

to

read.

They do

not

require

our

imagina

tion because everything is shown us.

4.

In

the twenty-first

century

there is no

place

for

schools that

teach only

academic knowledge,

because

it is not

enough. Schools must have

other

objectives as well.

Being

and Having

When they

are

present

participles, t he words being and having nearly

always

express a causal relationship. Look

at

the

following sentences:

la.

Being

old and

tired,

Arthur

decided

it

was time to resign.

2a.

Having

these unique advantages,

Oxford

and

Cambridge

will

surely

appeal

to

many

tourists.

In

sentence la Being

has

the

meaning of Since

he

was

See ng

that he

was

Ashe

was

etc, while

in 2a Having

has the

meaning

Since

they

have

See ng

that

they

have

Asthey

have

etc.

1

If

sentences

7b-c

were

spoken,

heavy

stress would be

placed

on the word

i s.

50

The

point at

issue becomes clearer

if

one compares the

following

sen

tences:

3a. *Cumbria,

being

a

region

of mountains

and

lakes,

lies south

of

Carlisle.

3b.

Cumbria, which

is

a

region

of

mountains

and

lakes,

lies south of

Carlisle.

3c.

Cumbria,

a

region

of

mountains

and

lakes,

lies south

of Carlisle.

4a.

*Shivering and having a

temperature

I

went to

the party.

4b. Although I

wa s

shivering and had

a

temperature,

I

went

to

the party.

The

participles

being and

having

should express a causal

relationship, yet

it

is

obvious

that

this

is

the

case

neither

in

3a {being)

nor

in

4a

having

;

it is not possible to

rewrite the

sentences so:

*Cumbria,

since

it

is a region

of

mountains

and lakes,

lies south

of Carlisle.

Seeing

that I

was

shivering and

had a temperature,

I

went

to the party.

Thus, only

3b-c

and

4b

render the

presumed meaning.

By contrast,

3a

and

4a,

are

not even

English.

The

same

pattern

emerges if

we compare

the following

alternatives,

of

which

only

options

5b-d

are

correct:

5a .

*School is

a

formative

time for most of us.

Being

at

school,

we meet many interesting people.

5b. ...While

being

at school

we

meet

many interesting people.

5c. ...While at

school

we

meet

many interesting

people.

5d. ..

.While

we are

at

school

we meet

many interesting people.

In other

words the

being

of

5a

needs to

be converted

into

clauses

with

while 5

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