ADVANCED WASTE TREATMENT COURSE OUTLINE · Larry Peterson 3 RESIDUAL SOLIDS MANAGEMENT ..... 153...
Transcript of ADVANCED WASTE TREATMENT COURSE OUTLINE · Larry Peterson 3 RESIDUAL SOLIDS MANAGEMENT ..... 153...
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ADVANCED WASTE TREATMENTCOURSE OUTLINE
Chapter Topic Page
1 ODOR CONTROL .................................................................................................................. 1Tom IkesakiRevised by Russ Armstrong
2 ACTIVATED SLUDGE (PURE OXYGEN PLANTS ANDOPERATIONAL CONTROL OPTIONS) ............................................................................... 41
Ross GudgelLarry Peterson
3 RESIDUAL SOLIDS MANAGEMENT ................................................................................... 153Liberato D. TortoriciBoris L. PastushenkoJames F. StahlSpecial sections by Richard Best and William Anderson
4 SOLIDS REMOVAL FROM SECONDARY EFFLUENTS...................................................... 325Paul AmodeoRoss GudgelJames L. JohnsonPaul J. KempRobert G. BlanckFrancis J. Brady
5 PHOSPHORUS REMOVAL..................................................................................................... 465John G. M. Gonzales
6 NITROGEN REMOVAL.......................................................................................................... 509John G. M. Gonzales
7 ENHANCED BIOLOGICAL (NUTRIENT) CONTROL ...................................................... 545John G. M. GonzalesRoss Gudgel
8 WASTEWATER RECLAMATION AND REUSE .................................................................... 573Daniel J. Hinrichs
9 INSTRUMENTATION ............................................................................................................ 615Leonard AinsworthRevised by William H. Hendrix
Appendix COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTED ANSWERS .................... 686
WASTE TREATMENT WORDS ............................................................................................. 703
SUBJECT INDEX..................................................................................................................... 755
Index 759
SUBJECT INDEX
A
Abbreviations, instrumentation, 625Abnormal operations
alum flocculation, phosphorus removal, 503biological phosphorus removal, 486gravity filters, 404lime precipitation, phosphorus removal, 494pressure filters, 422, 423upflow filters, 436, 437
Absorption, odors, 21Accuracy, instrumentation, 632Activated carbon, odors, 31–34Activated sludge, nitrogen removal, 518Activated sludge process
acclimation of microorganisms, 102aeration basin, 119–122Al West, 95ammonia treatment, 80, 138amoeboids, 93, 94, 95artichoke wastes, 126BOD, 101biological nitrification, 139brewery wastewaters, 115bulking, 71, 81, 82, 106, 115, 119, 174COD, 101characteristics, wastes, 100ciliates, 93, 94, 106clarification, 98, 107complete mix, 64, 71constant percentage RAS flow, 70constant RAS flow, 68control of WAS, 76conventional, 64, 68, 76, 78cryogenic air separation, 62, 63dairy wastes, 128–135denitrification, 143dissolved oxygen, 106, 119, 127, 128, 138, 139effects of industrial wastes, 98endogenous respiration, 87extended aeration, 68, 76, 78, 126, 136F/M, 76, 78, 113, 122, 127, 142filamentous organisms, 92, 106, 114, 119, 124, 125, 127, 174flagellates, 93, 94, 95flow, industrial wastes, 100, 102food processing wastes, 126Food/Microorganism, 76, 78, 112, 113, 122, 127, 142high rate, 76, 78
industrial wastes, 97laboratory testing, 126, 138layout, 58, 61MCRT, 76, 79, 93, 113, 122, 126, 136, 142MLVSS, 76, 82maintenance, 64, 66, 144mean cell residence time, 76, 79, 93, 113, 122, 126, 136, 142methods of wasting, 75microorganisms, 80, 82, 92, 93, 94, 114microscopic examination, 92, 114modes, 64, 68monitoring, 97, 136neutralization, 101, 106, 109nitrification, 68, 80, 136, 139nutrients, 99, 101, 104, 105, 108, 114, 118, 127, 129observations, 98, 106, 138operation, activated sludge process, 68, 75operation, industrial wastes, 106, 119, 127, 130, 138operation, RAS and WAS, 68, 75operational strategy, industrial wastes, 98, 106, 115organic wastes, 99oxygen generation, 60, 144oxygen uptake rate (OUR), 84, 89–92PSA (Pressure Swing Adsorption), 60, 62periodic feeding for start-up, 113petroleum refinery wastes, 136pH, 101, 106, 126, 136, 138phenols, 138pilot plant, 126pin floc, 94, 95plan view, 58pressure swing adsorption (PSA), 60, 62pretreatment, 97, 100, 102, 103, 104, 116, 126protozoa, 92, 93, 114pulp and paper mill wastes, 107pure oxygen, 57recordkeeping, 107, 126respiration rate, 83–87restart, 105return activated sludge (RAS), 68, 107review of plans and specifications, 143rising sludge, 143rotifers, 92–94, 106SVI approach for RAS, 72safety, 64, 65, 112, 144screening, 102seed activated sludge, 105, 113separate sludge reaeration, 73
760 Advanced Treatment
Activated sludge process (continued)settleability approach for RAS, 70, 71, 72shock loadings, 136shutdown, 110silica gel trap, 63sludge age, 76, 122sludge blanket depth, 70Sphaerotilus natans, 124, 131start-up, 64, 105, 110, 113steady state, 75, 111step-feed, 64, 68, 113straggler floc, 93, 94sulfide shock load, 138surface aerators, 57, 61suspended solids, 101temperature effect, 80, 115, 122toxic wastes, 99, 101, 106troubleshooting, 71, 74, 76, 104, 112turbulent mixers, 60volatile solids inventory, 81WAS, 75, 107, 123waste activated sludge, 75, 107, 123
Adsorption, 31–34Advanced waste treatment effluent quality, 584Aerated lagoon, 132Aerobic condition, phosphorus removal, 476Aerobic digestion
air requirements, 211, 212, 215batch operation, 207bulking, 211continuous operation, 207description, 207digestion time, 207, 209, 212, 216dissolved oxygen, 207, 211, 215efficiency, 209, 213, 216factors affecting performance, 207filamentous organisms, 211, 215foam, 211, 213, 215guidelines, operation, 209hydraulic loading, 210inhibitory pollutants, 209laboratory analysis, 212loadings, 210, 216nitrification, 215observations, 214odors, 213operation, 212overflow, 207oxygen uptake, 211, 212, 215performance, 207, 210, 213pH, 212, 215sampling, 212sludge type, 207, 211, 214solids loading, 210temperature, 210, 211, 215time of digestion, 207, 209, 212, 215, 216toxicity, 216
troubleshooting, 214, 216underflow, 207variables, 207visual inspection, 214volatile solids loading, 207, 210, 213, 215, 216
Agglomeration, 342, 491Agronomic rates, 296Air binding, 405, 421Air cushion chamber, 647, 650Air pollution
cyclonic separator, 277impingement scrubber, 277scrubbers, 277Venturi scrubber, 277
Air supply systems, instrument, 667, 669Al West, 95Alarms
annunciator panel, 666gravity filters, 402incineration, multiple-hearth furnace, 284instrumentation, 666
Algae, 406Alkalies, 98Alkalinity and pH, biological nitrogen removal, 521, 558, 561,
562Alum, 220, 346, 365Alum flocculation, phosphorus removal
abnormal operation, 503loading guidelines, 504maintenance, 503operation, 503plans, 504process variations, 500–502review of plans and specifications, 504safety, 504specifications, 504
Aluminum sulfate, 346Ambient temperature, 35, 63Ammonia
odor generation, 9petroleum refinery wastes, 139stripping, 519, 535–539
Amoeboids, 93, 94, 95Anaerobic condition, phosphorus removal, 476Anaerobic digester, 206
Also see Chapter 6, INDUSTRIAL WASTE TREATMENT,Volume II
Anaerobic selector, 555Analog chlorine residual indicator, 662Analog input (AI) control, 647Analog, instrumentation, 633, 634Analog output (AO) control, 647Anhydrous, 347Annular space, 432Annunciator panel, alarms, 666Anoxic, 88, 476, 518Anoxic condition, phosphorus removal, 476
Index 761
Anoxic selector, 562Arch, chemicals, 489Arc-mark trademark, 636Artichoke wastes, 126Ash, incinerator, 279, 300Aspirator, 182Attached growth reactors, nitrogen removal, 524–529Autogenous burn, 286Automatic control system, 635Automatic controllers, 666Automatic monitoring units, 97Automation systems, computer, 631Autotrophic, 477, 518
B
BBP (bloodborne pathogens) program, 645BOD (biochemical oxygen demand), industrial wastes, 101Backup controls, 631Backwashing
gravity filters, 393, 398–400, 403pressure filters, 419–421
Baffle, 172Bardenpho process, 556–559Basket centrifuge, 189, 190, 196, 198, 200, 201Battery-backed power supplies, 663Beds, sludge, 253, 256Bellows, pressure measurement, 647, 648Belt filter press
belt speed, 243, 244belt tension, 241belt type, blinding, 243, 244cake, 241, 244cleaning of belt, 243, 244, 245conditioning, 240, 241description, 240drawing, 242factors affecting performance, 241guidelines, operating, 241hydraulic loading, 243, 244operation, 243performance, 244plans and specifications, 304polymer dosage, 241, 244pressure, 241sludge type, 241, 244solids recovery, 244troubleshooting, 244variables, 243washing out, 243, 244
Bench-scale analysis, 143Benzene, 20Bernoulli Effect, 659Bioassay, 108Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), industrial wastes, 101Biological generation, odors, 9Biological nitrification, 139
Biological nitrogen removalalkalinity and pH, 521, 558, 561, 562process description, 520–535review of plans and specifications, 565, 570
Biological nutrient removal, 518–519Biological phosphorus removal
abnormal operation, 486definitions, 476efficiency, 488emergency operation, 486equipment, 483layouts, process, 478, 479loading guidelines, 485luxury uptake, 478–489maintenance, 487microbial population, 477microorganisms, 477monitoring, 485operation, 484–487plans, 488, 565, 569–570process efficiency, 488process layouts, 478, 479review of plans and specifications, 488, 565, 569–570safety, 483selectors, 477shutdown, 484, 486sludge disposal, 487solids management, 486specifications, 488, 565, 569–570start-up, 484strategy, operation, 487
Biological towers, odors, 17Biomass, 476Biosolids, 123, 124, 130, 289, 296, 297, 300Birds, solids management, 303Blanket depth, gravity thickeners, 174, 175, 176, 178, 180Blending tank, 582, 583Blind, filter media, 250, 251Blockout, 28Bloodborne pathogens (BBP) program, 645Boron, 608, 610Bound water, 174Bourdon tube, pressure measurement, 647, 648Breakpoint chlorination, 519, 540, 541Breakpoint chlorination, nitrogen removal, 139Brewery wastewater
activated sludge treatment, 115, 116ammonia addition, 119BOD, 115, 116bulking, 119characteristics of wastewater, 115chlorination, 119dechlorination, 119dissolved oxygen, 119equalization tank, 116F/M ratio, 122filamentous organisms, 119, 124
762 Advanced Treatment
Brewery wastewater (continued)flow diagram, 117, 120foam, 124grit channel, 116laboratory testing, 126layout, 116, 117MCRT, 122mixed liquor suspended solids (MLSS), 122nutrients, 118oil and grease, 118operation, 119operational strategy, 115pH, 116pretreatment, 116primary clarifier, 118recordkeeping, 126return activated sludge, 119, 122sludge age, 122sludge blanket, 122sludge wasting, 123sources of wastewater, 115Sphaerotilus natans, 124temperature, 122toxic substances, 123wasting sludge, 123
Bubbler tubes, level measurement, 648, 651, 652Buffer capacity, 521Bulking
activated sludge, 71, 82, 106, 115, 119, 174aerobic digesters, 211brewery wastes, 119, 124centrifuge thickeners, 189enhanced biological treatment, 554, 563filamentous growth, 106, 114, 115, 119, 124pulp and paper mill wastes, 114sludge, 405solids removal, 342
C
COD (chemical oxygen demand), industrial wastes, 101CPR (cardiopulmonary resuscitation), 645CPU (central processing unit), 672, 673Cadmium, 289, 296Calibration
equipment, 670measurement process, 633
Carbon disposal/regeneration, 34Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR), 645Case histories, wastewater reclamation, 583Categories, instrumentation, 662–676Cation exchange capacity, 610Caustic soda, 364Cavitation, 182Central processing unit (CPU), 672, 673Centrate, 189, 191, 201, 487, 496
Centrifuge thickeners and dewateringAlso see Dewatering sludgeage of sludge, 189basket centrifuge, 189, 190, 196, 198, 200, 201bowl speed, 189, 194, 201bulking sludge, 189cake, 201centrate, 189, 191, 201centrifugal forces, 189, 196, 201depth of pool, 189, 195, 201detention time, 195dewatering, 251, 253differential scroll speed, 196, 252disc-nozzle centrifuge, 189, 193, 194, 196, 200, 201factors affecting performance, 189feed solids, 189, 196feed time, 195guidelines, operation, 194, 196, 253hydraulic loading, 194nozzle size, 189, 196number of nozzles, 189, 194, 196observations, 201operation, 196, 252, 253performance, 196, 253plans and specifications, 304polymers, 196, 197, 198, 199, 201, 253pool depth, 189, 195, 201rising sludge, 189scroll centrifuge, 189, 191, 192, 196, 199, 200, 201scroll speed, 195, 201, 252shutdown, 196solids loading, 194, 253solids recovery, 196, 198, 199, 201start-up, 196thickened sludge, 196, 201troubleshooting, 200, 201variables, 189vibrations, 200, 201, 202visual inspection, 201
Characteristics of industrial wastes, 100Chart recorders, 662, 664Chemical analyzer, 660Chemical conditioning of sludge
addition of chemicals, 227alum, 220automatic feeding systems, 228centrifuges, 196, 197, 198, 199, 201, 227chemical requirements, 220, 221, 227dissolved air flotation (DAF) thickeners, 188, 227dosages, chemicals, 221–225equipment, 226ferric chloride, 220, 222gravity thickening, 227jar tests, 221, 223lime, 222, 226mannich reaction polymer, 221
Index 763
Chemical conditioning of sludge (continued)mixing equipment, 226, 228plans and specifications, 304polymer dosage, 221, 223polymers, 220–227pressure filters, 227, 236, 239seasonal chemical requirements, 220solution preparation, 226troubleshooting, 228typical chemical requirements, 227vacuum filtration, 227, 245, 250, 251
Chemical feedfilters, 414rate, instrumentation, 659
Chemical mist, odors, 25, 26Chemical nitrogen removal, 519Chemical oxygen demand (COD), industrial wastes, 101Chemical solution preparation, 226Chemical stabilization of sludges
chlorine stabilization, 217, 218lime stabilization, 217operation, chlorine stabilization, 217, 218operation, lime stabilization, 217, 218pH, chlorination stabilization, 217pH, lime stabilization, 217slurry, lime, 217troubleshooting, lime stabilization, 217
Chemical treatmentagglomeration, 342alum, 346, 365aluminum sulfate, 346bulking, 342caustic soda, 364chemical feed, 361–376chemical mixing, 361chemical storage, 361chemicals, 346, 347clarifiers, 377, 379–386coagulation, 341, 377colloids, 344coprecipitation, 344day tank, 361, 362destabilization, 344, 345diaphragm pump, 368, 369equipment, 361–376feed equipment, 361–376ferric chloride, 347flocculation, 341, 377, 378gravimetric belt chemical feeder, 372iron salts, 344, 345, 347jar test, 350–359lime, 347, 363log, 374, 375, 376MSDS, 359maintenance, 386material safety, 347, 359, 389
Material Safety Data Sheet, 359metal salts, 344, 345, 347odors, 16operation, 374, 377, 386–388phosphate monitoring, 358polishing process, 342, 345polymer, 344, 345, 366polymer map, 348, 349polymeric flocculants, 347precipitates, 344pumps, chemical feed, 367, 368rotary feeder, 371safety, 347, 359, 389sedimentation, 377
Also see Chapter 5, OPERATION OF WASTEWATERTREATMENT PLANTS, Volume I
shutdown, 374solids contact clarifier, 381, 382start-up, 374, 386, 387troubleshooting, 389, 390tube settlers, 383, 384volumetric screw feeder, 369
Chemicalsfeed, 361–376mixing, 361settling, 346, 347storage, 361
Chloramines, 16Chlorination
breakpoint, 139brewery wastewater, 119odors, 16
Chlorine stabilization of sludges, 217Chromate, odors, 17Ciliates, 93, 94, 106Circular-chart recorders, 663, 665Clarification, 98, 107Clarifiers, chemical treatment, 377, 379–386Classes of irrigation waters, 607, 608Cleaning procedures, membranes, 455Clinkering, 286Closed-loop control system, 635, 636Coagulation, 220, 341, 377, 432Collection systems, 97, 108Colloids, 344, 483Color, true, 357Combustion, odors, 20Comminutors, 98Complaints, odors, 14–15Completely mixed system, activated sludge, 64, 71Composite sample, 386Composting
anaerobic conditions, 262–266balling, 262–266blending, 260, 264–266bulking material, 260
764 Advanced Treatment
Composting (continued)climatic conditions, 265description, 260dimensions of stacks, 260, 263factors affecting performance, 262frequency of turning stacks, 264mechanical, 260moisture content, 260, 262–266odors, 260, 266operation, 265performance, 262, 265polymers, 262pug mill, 260reduced volume sludge, 260sludge type, 262, 265static pile, 260, 261temperature, 260, 266time for composting, 262, 265troubleshooting, 265, 266turning stacks, 262, 264variables, 262windrow, 260, 263
Computer automation systems, 631Computer control system, 663, 672, 673, 674Concentration factor, sludge, 178, 187Concentration polarization, 451Concentrators, gravity, sludge, 172Conditioning of sludges
chemical conditioning, 188, 220–228Also see Chemical conditioning of sludge
coagulation, 220elutriation, 220, 234flocculation, 220purpose, 220thermal conditioning, 228–231wet oxidation, 231–233
Configurationsfilters, 394, 395membranes, 444
Confined space entry permit, 644Confined spaces
safety hazards, instrumentation, 641–645safety precautions, 440upflow filters, 437
Coning, 118, 178Constant percentage RAS flow, 70Constant RAS flow, 68Contact stabilization, activated sludge, 64, 68, 71, 98, 99Control loop, 631, 633, 636Control methods, activated sludge, 68, 76Control room, 674, 675Control systems, 631–646, 672, 673, 674
Also see InstrumentationControllers
automatic, 666modulating, 667pump, instrumentation, 667, 668
Controls, backup, 631Conventional activated sludge, 64, 68, 72, 76, 78Cooling towers, 104Coprecipitation, 344Corrosion
industrial wastes, 98pipes, 608wastewater, 97, 98
Crop production, 601Cyanide, 98Cyclone separator, 277
D
DAFSee Dissolved air flotation (DAF) thickeners
DCS (Distributed Control System), 672DLD (dedicated land disposal), sludge, 289, 294, 297, 299Dairy wastes
activated sludge, 134aerated lagoon, 132characteristics, 128equalization, 129filamentous bacteria, 131, 133flow equalization, 129, 131hydraulic loads, 129lagoon, aerated, 132nutrient deficiencies, 129organic loads, 128pH, 129pretreatment, 130–133sources, 128spills, 132toxins, 130, 132treatment, 133waste reduction, 136
Dalton, 442Dangerous air contamination, 641Day tank, 415, 416Day tank, chemicals, 361, 362Decant, 412Decant tank, filters, 421Dechlorination, 119Dedicated land disposal (DLD), sludge, 289, 294, 297, 299Deficiency, oxygen, 645Delamination, 456Denitrification, nitrogen removal, 143, 174, 518, 530–536Density, sludge, 167Derivative, controller adjustment, 636Desiccant, 677Destabilization, chemical, 344, 345Detention time
aerobic digester, 207, 209, 212, 215centrifuge, 195gravity sludge thickening, 175thermal conditioning, 229wet oxidation, 232
Index 765
Dewatering sludgebelt filter press, 240–245centrifuge, 251, 253plate and frame filter press, 236–241pressure filtration, 236–245purpose, 236sand drying beds, 253–255summary, 259surfaced sludge drying beds, 256–259vacuum filtration, 245–252
Diaphragm, pressure measurement, 647, 648, 649Diaphragm pump, 368, 369Differential pressure, flow sensing, 653, 654, 657, 658, 659Digestion
aerobic, 207anaerobic, 206
Digital, instrumentation, 633, 634Digital readouts, 662Direct hydrostatic pressure, level measurement, 648Direct reuse of effluent
advanced waste treatment effluent quality, 584blending tank, 582, 583case histories, 583direct reuse, 581drinking water reuse, 584emergency operating procedures, 592equipment requirements, 582groundwater, 582limitations, 582maintenance, 595monitoring, 594nuclear generating station, 587operation, 591, 601operational strategy, 591plans and specifications, 595review of plans and specifications, 595safety, 594shutdown, 591South Lake Tahoe, California, 584start-up, 591steel mill, 589treatment levels for reuse, 581, 582troubleshooting, 592, 593uses, 581water quality criteria, 582
Disc-nozzle centrifuge, 189, 193, 194, 196, 200, 201Discrete control, 647Discrete I/O (input/output), 647Displacers, level measurement, 648Disposal, activated carbon, 34Disposal of sludges
agricultural reclamation, 288, 296–299dedicated land disposal (DLD), 289, 294, 297, 299lagoons, 299, 300land disposal, 289monitoring, 287, 288, 301–303need, 167, 287on-site dedicated land disposal, 294
regulations, 301–303sanitary landfill, 289, 294utilization, 290
Dissolved air flotation (DAF) thickenersage of sludge, 184air to solids (A/S) ratio, 184, 185, 188biological flotation, 182biological sludges, 184blanket thickness, 186, 188chemical conditioning, 188, 227concentration factor, 187dispersed air flotation, 182efficiency, 188effluent, 188factors affecting performance, 182, 187float characteristics, 188guidelines, operation, 184, 187hydraulic loading, 184, 188observations, 188operating guidelines, 184, 187operation, 184, 187performance, 182, 187plans and specifications, 304pressure flotation, 182primary sludge thickening, 184recycle rate, 185rising sludge, 184shutdown, 186sludge blanket, 185, 186, 188solids loading, 184, 188solids recovery, 187start-up, 186thickened sludge characteristics, 186, 188troubleshooting, 188vacuum flotation, 182variables, 182, 184visual inspection, 188withdrawal of sludge, 184
Distributed Control System (DCS), 672Drain, backwash, 400Drain tile systems, 611Drainage wells, 611Drying beds, sludge, 253–259Duckweed, Lemna System, 541Duplex motor control panel, 637
E
Eductor, 218, 227Effective range, instrumentation, 633Efficiency, 169, 188, 202Effluent rate-control valve, 400Electrical
energy consumption, 674hazards, 636probes, level measurement, 648, 650symbols, 625–628
Electrolyte, 21, 347
766 Advanced Treatment
Electrolytic chemical scrubber, odors, 21–24Elements, primary, 662Elutriation, sludge
definition, 220, 234guidelines, operation, 235operation, 235process description, 234
Emergency operationbiological phosphorus removal, 486direct reuse, 592land disposal, 608lime precipitation, phosphorus removal, 494
Emergency response procedures, 674Emergency storage tanks, 104, 108, 592Endogenous respiration, 87, 208, 475Energy consumption, electrical, 674Enhanced biological treatment
alkalinity and pH, 521, 558, 561, 562Bardenpho process, 556–559bulking, 554, 563description of process, 553multiple processing objectives, 553, 554nitrogen and phosphorus removal, 556optimizing process, 560priorities, 553process control, 555review of plans and specifications, 565–570SVI control, 563, 564, 565, 570sequencing batch reactor (SBR), 560sludge bulking, 554, 563
Enrichment, oxygen, 645Entrain, 566Entry permit, confined space, 644Equalization, flow
dairy wastes, 129, 131industrial wastewater, 102, 104, 116
Equipmentbiological phosphorus removal, 483calibration, 670chemical treatment, 361–376lime precipitation, phosphorus removal, 491test, 670
Evapotranspiration, 596Explosive gas mixtures, 645Extended aeration, activated sludge, 68, 76, 78, 126, 136
F
F/M (Food/Microorganisms), 76, 78, 113, 122, 127, 137, 142FOG (fats, oils, and grease), 134Facultative sludge lagoons, 287, 299, 302Fail-safe design, 636Falls, hazards, 646Fats, oils, and grease (FOG), 134Feed equipment, chemical, 361–376Feedback, controller, 633, 636Ferric chloride, 220, 222, 347
Filamentous dairy wastes, 131, 133Filamentous organisms, 92, 106, 114, 119, 124, 125, 127, 174,
211, 215, 553, 563Filter aid, 405Filter feed pumps, 414Filter, gravity
abnormal operation, 404alarms, 402backwashing, 393, 398–400, 403description, 392drain, backwash, 400effluent rate-control valve, 400head loss, 393, 402inlet, 396instrumentation, 400, 402log, operation, 408, 409media, 396methods, 393mudballs, 398operation, 402–408parts, 396–400plans, 410rapid sand filter, 393, 398rate-control valve, 400safety, 410scouring media, 398shutdown, 408specifications, 410strategy, 406systems, 392totalizer, 402troubleshooting, 408troughs, 398turbidity, 402types, 393underdrains, 398, 399wash water troughs, 398
Filter pressbelt, 240plate and frame, 236sludge dewatering, 236types, 236
Filters, membraneSee Membrane filtration (cross flow)
Filters, pressure, inert mediaabnormal operation, 422, 423backwash, 419–421chemical feed, 414decant tank, 421description, 412facilities, 412–421filter feed pumps, 414filters, 418holding tank, 412maintenance, 422, 423mudballs, 422, 423operation, 422
Index 767
Filters, pressure, inert media (continued)plans, 425pumps, 414recovery, backwash, 421safety, 424specifications, 425strategy, 422use, 412, 413wet well, 412
Filters, upflowabnormal operation, 436, 437coagulation, 432confined spaces, 437equipment, 430–432flocculation, 432maintenance, 436–439metering, flow, 432metering, turbidity, 430operation, 432–436plans, 440safety, 440specifications, 440strategy, 435turbidity metering, 430, 431use, 426
FiltrationAlso see Filter, gravity; Filters, pressure, inert media; Filters,
upflow; and Membrane filtration (cross flow)abnormal operation, 404, 422, 423, 437alarms, 402backwashing, 393, 398–400, 403, 419–421chemical feed, 414decant tank, 421description, 392differential pressure, 396drain, backwash, 400effluent rate-control valve, 400equipment, upflow, 430–432feed pumps, 414gravity filters, 392–411head loss, 393, 402holding tank, 412inlet, 396instrumentation, 400, 402maintenance, 422, 423, 436–439media, 396membrane filtration
See Membrane filtration (cross flow)methods, 393mudballs, 398, 422, 423operation, 402–408, 422, 432–436, 451–458parts, 396–400, 426, 427plans, 410, 425, 440pressure, differential, 396pumps, pressure filters, 414rapid sand filter, 393, 398rate-control valve, 400
recovery, backwash, 421safety, 410, 424, 440, 458scouring media, 398shutdown, 408specifications, 410, 425, 440strategy, 406, 422, 435systems, 392totalizer, 402troubleshooting, 408troughs, 398turbidity, 402, 406, 430types, 393underdrains, 398wash water troughs, 398wet well, 412
Fire protection in facilities, 646Fire triangle, 279Flagellates, 93, 94, 95Flammable oils, 98Flies, solids management, 303Float, level measurement, 648Flocculation, 220, 341, 377, 378, 432, 475Flow equalization
dairy wastes, 129, 131industrial wastes, 102, 104, 116
Flow measurements, 651–659Flow regulation, 102Flow segregation, 102Fluidized bed, 530, 532Fluidized, filter, 420Fluidized-bed reactors, 271Flux, membranes
concentration-dependent, 451membrane, 448water measurements, 456
Foam controlaeration basin, 124aerobic digestion, 211, 215brewery wastes, 124pulp mill wastes, 109SVI selectors, 563
Foaming, aerobic digestion, 211, 213, 214, 215Food processing wastes
activated sludge wastes, 126artichoke wastes, 126BOD, 126dairy wastes, 128dissolved oxygen, 127, 128, 134extended aeration, 126filamentous organisms, 127F/M, 127MCRT, 126mixed liquor suspended solids, 126, 134moving average, 127nutrients, 127odor control, 136operation, 127, 134
768 Advanced Treatment
Food processing wastes (continued)pH, 126, 129pilot plants, 126pretreatment, 126
Food/Microorganisms (F/M), 76, 78, 113, 122, 127, 137, 142Fouling, membranes, 451Free oil, 453
G
GBTSee Gravity belt thickener (GBT)
Gas, explosive mixtures, 645Gasification, 174, 175, 230Gas-phase hydrocarbon analyzer, 97Gear pump, 367Gear train guard, 640Gravimetric belt chemical feeder, 372Gravity belt thickener (GBT)
belt speed, 202belts, 202blinding, 202, 204cake, 204, 205efficiency, 202factors affecting performance, 202guidelines, operation, 202hydraulic loading, 203, 204operation, 204performance, 204polymers, 202, 204schematic drawing, 203sludge type, 204solids loading, 203solids recovery, 204troubleshooting, 204, 205variables, 202washing out, 202, 205
Gravity filter, 392–411Also see Filter, gravity
Gravity sludge thickeningage of sludge, 174anaerobic, 174baffle, 172blanket depth, sludge, 174, 175, 176, 178, 180, 181bound water, 174concentration factor, sludge, 178coning, 178denitrification, 174description, 172detention time, 174, 175, 176effluent, 177factors affecting performance, 174, 175filamentous organisms, 174gasification, 174, 175, 178, 180guidelines, operation, 175, 176hydraulic loadings, 174, 175liquid surface, 178
nitrifying bacteria, 174observations, 177operation, 175, 176overflow rate, 175performance, 175, 176plans and specifications, 304retention time, 175rising sludge, 174sampling, 176septicity, 178short-circuiting, 172shutdown, 176sludge/volume (S/V) ratio, 176, 179solids loading, 174, 175start-up, 176surface loading, 175temperature, 174, 175troubleshooting, 177, 181variables, 174, 175withdrawal rates, 175, 180, 181
Grease, industrial wastes, 98, 102Grit
channels, 98, 116industrial wastes, 102, 116
Groundwater contamination, effluent disposal, 582, 610Groundwater protection, 295, 296Groundwater recharge, wastewater, 596, 598Growth rate, Y, sludge, 169, 170
H
HMI (human machine interface), 666, 672, 673Hazards, instrumentation
confined spaces, 641–645electrical, 636explosive gas mixtures, 645falls, 646mechanical, 640oxygen deficiency or enrichment, 645pneumatic, 640
Head loss, gravity filter, 393, 402Heated discharges, 104Heavy metals in industrial wastewaters, 98Hepatitis B vaccination, 645Heterotrophic, 477, 518High-rate activated sludge, 76, 78Holding tank, filters, 412Holding tanks, 102Hollow fiber membranes, 444Horn, alarm, 666Human machine interface (HMI), 666, 672, 673Hydraulic loading
aerobic digestion, 210centrifuges, 194dissolved air thickeners, 184, 188gravity belt thickeners, 203, 204gravity thickeners, 174, 175
Index 769
Hydraulic loading (continued)sand drying beds, 254, 255thermal conditioning, 229
Hydrocarbon gases, measurement, 97Hydrogen peroxide
filamentous organism control, 124odor control, 138odors, 16oxygen, source, 104, 105phenol control, 138
Hydrogen sulfide, odors, 9, 10Hydrogen transfer, odors, 9Hydrologic cycle, 596Hydrolysis, 476Hydrostatic pressure, level measurement, 648
I
Impeller, 653, 654, 655Impingement scrubber, 277Incineration, multiple-hearth furnace
air flow, 276, 280, 282alarm systems, 284ash handling systems, 279autogenous burn, 286auxiliary fuel, 280bearings, 277burner, 279burnout, 284cake feed rate, 280clinkering, 286combustion, 279, 282combustion zone, 280conditions in furnace, 285controls, 279cooling zone, 272, 280cyclone separator, 277description
furnace, 271process, 270
draft, 279, 280drying zone, 272, 280fire triangle, 279flame, 281, 282fluidized-bed reactors, 271fuel, 279furnace zones, 272, 280hearths, 271, 273, 274impingement scrubber, 277instrumentation, 279lute cap, 271, 274, 275moisture content, 280off-gas system, 277, 278operation, 280, 284, 285oxygen analyzer, 282oxygen demand, 282protective clothing, 286
rabbling, 271, 272, 275refractory, 271rotary kilns, 271safety, 286sand seals, 271, 275shaft, 271, 272shutdown, 285sludge, 270, 286smoke, 281, 286start-up, 285temperature, 279, 285troubleshooting, 286Venturi scrubber, 277volatile content, 280
Indicators, instrumentation, 662Indole, 9Industrial waste monitoring, sewer-use ordinance, 97, 100Industrial waste treatment, activated sludge
Also see Chapters 3, 4, and 5, INDUSTRIAL WASTETREATMENT, Volume II
acclimation of microorganisms, 102ammonia treatment, 138artichoke wastes, 126BOD, 101brewery wastewaters, 115bulking sludge, 106, 115, 119COD, 101characteristics, 100clarification, 98, 107common industrial wastes, 97contact stabilization, 99cooling towers, 104dairy wastes, 128–135dissolved oxygen, 106, 119, 127, 128, 138, 139effects of industrial wastes, 98emergency storage tanks, 103, 104, 108equalizing basins, 103, 104filamentous organisms, 106, 114, 119, 124, 125, 127flow, 100, 102flow regulation, 102flow segregation, 102F/M, 113, 122, 127, 142food processing wastes, 126grease, 98, 102grit, 102, 116heated discharges, 104holding tanks, 102, 104industrial wastes, 97influent, 100laboratory testing, 126, 136, 138MCRT, 113, 122, 126, 136, 142microscopic examination, 92, 114monitoring, 97, 108, 136need for treatment, 100neutralization, 101, 106, 109, 129nutrients, 99, 101, 104, 105, 108, 114, 118, 127, 129observations, 98, 106, 138
770 Advanced Treatment
Industrial waste treatment, activated sludge (continued)odors, 102, 104, 105, 107oil, 98, 102, 138operation, 106, 119, 127, 130, 138operational strategy, 98, 106, 115periodic feeding for start-up, 113petroleum refinery wastes, 136pH, 101, 106, 126, 136, 138phenols, 138pilot plant, 126pretreatment, 97, 100, 102, 103, 104, 116, 126pulp and paper mill wastes, 107recordkeeping, 97, 107, 126restart, 105return activated sludge (RAS), 107sampling, 97, 138screening, 98, 102seed activated sludge, 105, 113shock loads, 136shutdown, 110sludge age, 122start-up, 105, 110, 113step-feed, 113sulfide shock load, 138suspended solids, 101toxicity, 98, 99, 101, 106troubleshooting, 104, 112waste activated sludge, 107, 123
Inferential flow-sensing techniques, 653–659Infiltration-percolation, 596, 598Inhibitory pollutants
aerobic digestion, 209anaerobic digestion, 208
Inlet, gravity filter, 396Inorganic matter, 167Input/output (I/O) control, 647Instrument air system, 667, 669Instrumentation
abbreviations, 625accuracy, 632alarms, 666annunciator panel, alarms, 666automatic control system, 635backup controls, 631battery-backed power supplies, 663Bourdon tube, 647, 648bubbler tubes, 648, 651, 652calibration
equipment, 670measurement process, 633
categories, 662–676chemical feed rate, 659closed-loop modulating control, 635confined spaces, 641–645control loop, 631, 633, 636control systems, 631–646discrete control, 647
effective range, 633electrical
hazards, 636symbols, 625–628
fail-safe design, 636feedback, 633, 636flow measurements, 651–659gravity filter, 400, 402importance, 631indicators, 662inferential flow-sensing techniques, 653–659input/output (I/O) control, 647laboratory, 670level measurements, 647linearity, 633loop, control, 631maintenance, preventive, 676–678measured variables, 647–661measurement, 631–646measurement process, 632mechanical hazards, 640motor control stations, 633, 636National Fire Protection Association Standard 820, 646ON/OFF control, 647operation and maintenance, 676–678orifice plate, 657, 658, 659panel instruments, 662power, 661, 663precision, 632pressure measurements, 647preventive maintenance, 676–678primary elements, 662process instrumentation, 659–661recorders, 663rotameter, 652, 653, 654safety hazards, 636–646sensitivity, 633sensors, types, 647–661signal transmitters/transducers, 661snubbers, 647, 650span, 633standardization, 633standby power generators, 663symbols, electrical, 625–628totalizers, 663types of sensors, 647–661ultrasonic devices, 648, 651, 653V-O-M (Volt-Ohm-Milliammeter), 670, 671variables, measured, 647–661Venturi tube, 657, 658, 659
Interface, operator, 633Interlock, instrumentation, 640Ion exchange, nitrogen removal, 139, 519Iron salts, 344, 345, 347Irrigation
sludge disposal, 300wastewater, 596, 598, 600, 607
Index 771
J
Jar test, 221, 223, 350–359, 405Jar test, phosphorus removal, 494
K
Kiln dryer, 267, 268
L
LEL (lower explosive limit), 64, 65, 646Laboratory
instrumentation, 670testing, 126, 138
Lag time, 636Lagoons
aerated, 132facultative sludge storage, 287, 302odors, 301permanent, 300sludge storage, 287
Lake Tahoe, California, wastewater reclamation, 584Land disposal, effluent
boron, 608, 610cation exchange capacity, 610classes of irrigation waters, 607, 608corrosion, pipes, 608crop production, 596, 601description, 596drain tile systems, 611drainage wells, 611emergency operating procedures, 608equipment requirements, 596evapotranspiration, 596groundwater, 610guidelines, loadings, 599hydrologic cycle, 596infiltration-percolation, 596, 598irrigation, 596, 598, 600, 607layout, 597limitations, 599loadings, 599maintenance, 611monitoring, 610observations, 608odors, 608, 609, 611operation, 601, 605, 608, 611operational strategy, 605overland flow, 596, 598plans and specifications, 611ponding, 611review of plans and specifications, 611safety, 610salinity, soil, 599, 606shutdown, 605sidestreams, 597
sodium adsorption ratio, 607, 608soil moisture determination, 603soil sealing, solids, 599start-up, 601, 602troubleshooting, 608, 609wells, monitoring, 610
Land disposal, solidsagricultural reclamation, 288, 296, 297, 299alternatives, 289, 290birds, 303cadmium, 289, 296dedicated land disposal, 289, 294disposal options, 289, 290flies, 303flooding, 297, 300groundwater, 295, 296high-rate dedicated land disposal, 297lagoons, facultative sludge, 287, 302landfilling, 294monitoring, 287, 288, 301–303need, 287nitrogen requirements, 296odors, 300on-site dedicated land disposal, 294options, 289, 290public health, 301, 302regulations, 287ridge and furrow, 297, 300rodents, 303sanitary landfill, 289, 294sludge type, 167stabilized sludge
dewatered, 294liquid process, 296
storage of sludge, 296subsurface injection, 297, 298, 300surface runoff, 295, 302transportation of sludge, 297trenching, 295utilization options, 289, 290vectors, 301, 302, 303
Launders, 432Lemna Duckweed System, 541Leopold block underdrain system, 399Level measurements, 647Lime, 109, 222, 226, 251Lime analysis
See Chapter 16, OPERATION OF WASTEWATERTREATMENT PLANTS, Volume II
Lime, chemical treatment, 347, 363Lime precipitation, phosphorus removal
abnormal operation, 494emergency conditions, 494equipment, 491loading guidelines, 499maintenance, 498operation, 493–495
772 Advanced Treatment
Lime precipitation, phosphorus removal (continued)plans, 499process description, 491, 492recarbonation, 495–497review of plans and specifications, 499safety, 498sampling and analysis, 494shutdown, 493specifications, 499start-up, 493
Lime stabilization of sludges, 217Linearity, instrumentation, 633Liquid oxygen, 62–66Lockout devices, 641Log
chemical feeder, 374, 375, 376filter operation, 408, 409
Loop, control, 631Lower explosive limit (LEL), 64, 65, 646Lower explosive limit (LEL) instruments, 64, 65Luxury uptake, phosphorus, 478–489Lysimeter, 289
M
MCRT (mean cell residence time), 76, 79, 93, 94, 113, 122,126, 136, 142
MEA (Monoethanolamine), 138MLVSS (mixed liquor volatile suspended solids), 76, 82MSDS (Material Safety Data Sheet), 28, 359, 410Magnetic flow sensing, 653, 656Maintenance
activated sludge, 64, 66, 144alum flocculation, phosphorus removal, 503biological phosphorus removal, 487chemical treatment, 386lime precipitation, phosphorus removal, 498pressure filters, 422, 423preventive, instrumentation, 676–678pure oxygen systems, 64, 66, 144, 145upflow filters, 436–439
Mannich reaction polymer, 221Map, polymer, 348, 349Masking, odors, 20Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS), 28, 359, 410Materials, membrane, 444Mean cell residence time (MCRT), 76, 79, 93, 94, 113, 122,
126, 136, 142Measure, standard, 632Measured variables, instrumentation, 647–661Measurement
chemical feed rate, 659flow, 651instrumentation, 631–646level, 647odors, 11pressure, 647process, 632
Mechanical composters, 260Mechanical drying
description, 267nanofiltration, 444operation, 267performance, 267sludge type, 267troubleshooting, 269, 270types of dryers, 267variables, 267
Mechanical hazards, 640Media
gravity filter, 396vacuum filters, 250
Membrane filtration (cross flow)cleaning procedures, 455concentrating components, 448configurations, membranes, 444elements of membrane process, 448feed pretreatment, 453flux
concentration-dependent, 451membrane, 448water measurements, 456
fouling, 451hollow fiber membranes, 444materials, membrane, 444membrane life, 444microfiltration, 442nanofiltration, 444operation, 451–458permeate, 448plate and frame membranes, 447pressure, transmembrane, 450pretreatment, feed, 453recirculation flow, 450recordkeeping, 457reverse osmosis, 444safety, 458sampling, 457spiral membranes, 446temperature, 451transmembrane pressure, 450tubular membranes, 444types, 442ultrafiltration, 442
Membrane life, 444Mercaptans, 9Metabolism, 129, 478Metal salts, 344, 345, 347Metallic ions, odors, 17Metals, 98Microbial population, biological phosphorus removal, 477Microfiltration, 442Micron, 25, 344Microorganisms
activated sludge, 80, 82, 92, 93, 94, 113, 114biological phosphorus removal, 477
Index 773
Microwave, level sensors, 651Mixed liquor volatile suspended solids (MLVSS), 76, 82Modified activated sludge, nitrogen removal, 518, 530, 533Modulating control systems, 633Modulating controller, 667Monitoring, industrial wastes
acids, 98alkalies, 98automatic monitoring units, 97biological phosphorus removal, 485collection system, 97corrosion, 98cyanide, 98flammable oils, 98greases, 98heavy metals, 98hydrocarbon analyzers, 97metals, 98monitoring systems, 97, 108oils, 98organic toxicants, 98pesticide, 98pollutant strength, 100safety, 98sampling units, 97settleable solids, 98sewer-use ordinance, 97, 98, 100sludge disposal, 287, 301–303strength of pollutant, 100toxic gases, 98water supply, 98
Monoethanolamine (MEA), 138Motor control circuit operation, 639Motor control stations, 633, 636Moving average, 78, 127Mudballs, 398, 422, 423Multimeter, 670, 671Multiple processing objectives, 553, 554Multiple-hearth incineration
See Incineration, multiple-hearth furnaceMunicipal and industrial waste treatment
Also see Monitoring, industrial wastesactivated sludge, 98clarifiers, 98comminutors, 98contact stabilization, 99effects on treatment processes, 98grit channels, 98industrial wastes, common, 97monitoring, 97nutrients, 99observations, 98, 106operation, 114operational strategy, 98organic wastes, 99recorders, 97sampling, 97screens, 98
sludge digesters, 98toxic wastes, 99
N
NPDES (National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System)permit, 97, 412, 582
Nameplate, 374Nanofiltration, 444National Fire Protection Association Standard 820, 646National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES)
permit, 97, 412, 582Nephelometric, 430Neutralization
activated sludge, 101, 106, 109industrial waste treatment, 101, 106, 108, 109, 129
Nitrificationactivated sludge nitrification, 139aerobic digestion, 214, 215alkalinity, 141ammonia stripping, 139bacteria, 139, 142, 174biological nitrification, 139breakpoint chlorination, 139denitrification, 143, 174detention time, 142dissolved oxygen, 139F/M, 139guidelines, 139influent nitrogen, 142ion exchange, 139MCRT, 80, 142methods of nitrification, 139microorganisms, 139, 142, 174nitrogen
concentrations, 139cycle, 140removal, 517, 520–531
nutrients, 142operating guidelines, 139petroleum refinery wastes, 136, 139pH, 141phosphorus addition, 142pretreatment, 142RAS flow rate, 68rising sludge, 143sludge age, 142superchlorination, 139temperature effects, 80, 142toxic materials, 142
Nitrifying bacteria, 174Nitrogen and phosphorus removal, biological, 556Nitrogen cycle, 140Nitrogen removal
Also see Enhanced biological treatmentactivated sludge, 518alkalinity, 521ammonia stripping, 519, 535–539
774 Advanced Treatment
Nitrogen removal (continued)attached growth reactors, 524–529biological nitrogen removal, 520–535biological nutrient removal, 518–519breakpoint chlorination, 519, 540, 541buffer capacity, 521chemical nitrogen removal, 519control reactions, 522denitrification, 518, 530–536fluidized bed, 530, 532ion exchange, 519modified activated sludge, 518, 530, 533nitrification, 517, 520–531nitrogenous food, 522nutrient, 517operation, 520–531, 535, 538–541overland flow, 518packed towers, 525–527pH, 521physical nitrogen removal, 519reactions, control, 522rotating biological contactors, 525, 528stripping, ammonia, 519, 535–539suspended growth reactors, 520–524temperature, 522trickling filters, 525, 526troubleshooting, 530, 531, 535, 536, 539types of systems, 517–519
Non-permit confined space, 642Nonvolatile matter, 167Nuclear generating station, reuse, 587Nutrient removal
See Enhanced biological treatmentNutrients, 99, 101, 104, 105, 108, 114, 118, 127, 129, 142,
517
O
ORP (oxidation-reduction potential)instrumentation, 659odors, 16
ORT (odor removal tower), 18–20OSHA regulations, 642OUR (Oxygen Uptake Rate), 84, 89–92Obligate aerobes, 477Observations
activated sludge, 98, 106, 138aerobic digestion, 214centrifuge thickeners, 201dissolved air flotation (DAF) thickeners, 188gravity thickeners, 177, 178land disposal, 608
Odor characteristics, 13Odor complaints, 14–15Odor control
absorption, 21activated carbon, 31–34
ammonia, 9biological generation, 9biological towers, 17characteristics, odor, 13chemical mist, 25, 26chemical treatment, 16chloramines, 16chlorination, 16chromate, 17combustion, 20complaints, 14–15electrolytic chemical scrubber, 21–24generation, 9hydrogen peroxide, 16, 138hydrogen sulfide, 9, 10hydrogen transfer, 9identification, 11indole, 9land disposal, 608, 609, 611masking, 20measurement, 11mercaptans, 9metallic ions, 17need, 9nitrate, 17odor panel, 11odor removal tower (ORT), 18–20olfactometer, 11, 302oxidation-reduction potential (ORP), 16ozone, 17, 20, 35packed bed, 28–30pH, 17phenol, 16plans, 38safety, 28, 31, 35scrubbers, 21–24, 28–30skatole, 9solids disposal, 301solutions, 14specifications, 38stripped odors, 17sulfur cycle, 12threshold odor, 11troubleshooting, 36, 37wet oxidation, 232
Odor panel, 11Odor removal tower (ORT), 18–20Odors
Also see Odor controlindustrial wastes, 102, 104, 105, 107land disposal, 300, 608, 609, 611monitoring, 301
Offset, instrumentation, 636Oil, industrial wastes, 98, 102, 138Olfactometer, 11, 302ON/OFF control, 647Open-loop control system, 636
Index 775
Operationactivated sludge, industrial wastes, 106, 119, 127, 129, 136activated sludge process, 68, 75activated sludge, RAS and WAS, 68, 75aerobic digestion, 211, 212alum flocculation, phosphorus removal, 503artichoke wastes, 127belt filter press, 244biological phosphorus removal, 484–487centrifuges, 196, 252, 253chemical conditioning, 220–228chemical treatment, 374, 377, 386–388chlorine stabilization, 217, 218composting, 265direct reuse of effluent, 591, 601dissolved air flotation (DAF) thickeners, 184, 187elutriation, 235food processing wastes, 127, 134gravity belt thickener, 204gravity filters, 402–408gravity sludge thickeners, 175, 176incineration, 280, 284, 285instrumentation, 676–678lime precipitation, phosphorus removal, 493–495lime stabilization, 217, 218mechanical drying, 267membranes, 451–458motor control circuit, 639multiple-hearth furnace, 280, 284, 285nitrogen removal, 520–531, 535, 538–541plate and frame filter press, 239pressure filters, 422pulp and paper mill wastes, 114pure oxygen, 64sand drying beds, 255sludge thickeners, 176, 186, 196, 204surfaced sludge drying beds, 256thermal conditioning, 230upflow filters, 432–436vacuum filtration, 250wet oxidation, 234
Operation guidelinesactivated sludge, 68, 71, 74, 76, 80, 83aerobic digestion, 209belt filter press, 241centrifuge, dewatering, 252centrifuge, thickeners, 194, 196, 253dissolved air flotation (DAF) thickeners, 184, 187elutriation, 235gravity belt thickener, 202gravity sludge thickeners, 175, 176land disposal, effluent, 599nitrification, 139plate and frame filter press, 236pulp and paper mill wastes, 114, 115sand drying beds, 254thermal conditioning, 229
vacuum filtration, 245, 248wet oxidation, 234
Operational checks, instrumentation, 678Operational strategy
activated sludge, industrial wastes, 98, 106, 115activated sludge, RAS and WAS, 68, 75brewery wastewaters, 115direct reuse of effluent, 591enhanced biological treatment, 556industrial wastes, activated sludge, 98land disposal, 605
Operator interface, 633Optimizing enhanced biological treatment, 560Organic
matter, 167overflow rate, gravity thickeners, 175toxicants, 98wastes, 99
Orifice, 420Orifice plate, 657, 658, 659Overland flow
biological nutrient removal, 518waste treatment, 596, 598
Overrange protection, pressure, 647Oxidation-reduction potential (ORP)
instrumentation, 659odors, 16
Oxygenaerobic digestion, 207, 209, 211, 212, 215deficiency or enrichment, 645
Oxygen production, pure oxygen activated sludge, 57, 62Oxygen uptake rate (OUR), 84, 89–92Ozone, odors, 17, 20, 35
P
PLC (Programmable Logic Controller), 453PPE (personal protective equipment), 645PSA (Pressure Swing Adsorption), pure oxygen, 60, 62Packed bed, odors, 28–30Packed towers, nitrification, 525–527Panel instruments, 662Paper mill wastes, 107, 108Part 503 Sewage Sludge Regulations, 288Periodic feeding for start-up, 113Permeate, 448Permit space, 642Permit-required confined space, 642Personal protective equipment (PPE), 645Pesticides, 98Petroleum refinery wastes
activated sludge treatment, 136ammonia treatment, 138characteristics, 136dissolved oxygen, 138extended aeration, 136hydraulic loading, 136
776 Advanced Treatment
Petroleum refinery wastes (continued)hydrogen peroxide, 138laboratory testing, 138MCRT, 136monoethanolamine (MEA), 138nitrification, 136, 139observations, 138odors, 138operation, 138pH, 136, 138phenols, 138sampling, 138shock loading, 136, 138sulfide shock load, 138thiocyanate, 138toxicity, 138, 139treating ammonia, 138waste characteristics, 136
pH control, dairy wastes, 129pH, industrial waste treatment, 101, 106, 109, 126, 136, 138pH meter, 660Phenol, odors, 16, 138Phosphate monitoring, 358Phosphorus removal
Also see Enhanced biological treatment and Biologicalphosphorus removal
aerobic condition, 476alum flocculation, 500–504anaerobic condition, 476anoxic condition, 476biological phosphorus removal, 476–489lime precipitation, 491–499purpose, 475types of systems, 475
Physical nitrogen removal, 519Physical treatment
clarification, 377, 379–386operation, 386–388safety, 389troubleshooting, 389, 390
Pilot plant, activated sludge, 126Pin floc, 94, 95Pitot tube, 654Plan review
alum flocculation, phosphorus removal, 504biological phosphorus removal, 488, 565, 569–570lime precipitation, phosphorus removal, 499odors, 38
Plansgravity filters, 410pressure filters, 425upflow filters, 440
Plans and specificationsactivated sludge, 143biological nitrogen removal, 565, 570biological phosphorus removal, 488, 565, 569–570centrifuges, 304chemical conditioning, 304
direct reuse of effluent, 595dissolved air flotation (DAF) method, 304enhanced biological treatment, 565–570filter presses, 303, 304gravity thickening, 304land disposal, 611thermal conditioning, 304
Plate and frame filter pressescake, 236, 240chemicals, 239cleaning media, 236, 239conditioning of sludge, 236, 239description, 236, 237factors affecting performance, 236filter cloth, 236, 238, 240filter yield, 236guidelines, operation, 236operation, 239performance, 239plans and specifications, 304precoat, 236, 238, 240pressure, 238, 240solids loading, 238solids recovery, 239time of filtration, 238, 240troubleshooting, 240variables, 236yield, 236
Plate and frame membranes, 447Plunger pump, 367Pneumatic bubbler tubes, level measurement, 648Pneumatic hazards, 640Pneumatic instrumentation, 651, 667Polarization, concentration, 451Polishing process, chemical treatment, 342, 345Pollutant strength, 100Polyelectrolyte, 220, 347, 405, 415, 494Polymer
belt filter press, 241–244centrifuge, 253centrifuge, thickening, 196, 197, 198, 199, 201, 253chemical conditioning, 220–227composting, 262gravity belt thickener, 202, 204mannich reaction, 221map, 348, 349phosphorus removal, 478safety, 221solids removal, secondary effluents, 344, 345, 366, 412, 415,
432Polymeric flocculants, 347Polysaccharide, 228Ponding, land disposal, 611Potting compounds, 444Power failures, 663Power, instrumentation, 661, 663Precipitates, 344Precision, instrumentation, 632
Index 777
Precoat, 236, 238, 240Pre-entry checklist, confined space, 644Pressure filters
See Filters, pressure, inert mediaPressure measurements, 647Pressure swing adsorption (PSA), pure oxygen, 60, 62Pressure, transmembrane, 450Pretreatment
Also see PRETREATMENT FACILITY INSPECTION in thisseries of operator training manuals
dairy wastes, 130–133feed, 453industrial wastes, 97, 100, 102, 103, 104, 116, 126inspection, 97nitrification, 142
Preventive maintenance, instrumentation, 676–678Primary clarifier, 118Primary elements, instrumentation, 662Primary sludge production, 169Primary standards, measurements, 632Priorities, enhanced biological treatment, 553Priority alarms, 675Probes, level measurement, 648, 650Process computer control system, 672Process control, enhanced biological treatment, 555Process instrumentation, 659–661Process variables, 632, 647, 659Production of sludges, 169Programmable Logic Controller (PLC), 453Propeller meters, 653, 654, 655Proportional-band, controller adjustment, 636Proteinaceous, 228Protozoa, 92, 93, 114Pug mill, 260Pulp and paper mill wastes
activated sludge treatment, 107bulking sludge, 114, 115cellulose, 109, 110color, 110dissolved oxygen, 114emergency storage tanks, 108emergency systems, 110fiber, 109filamentous growths, 114flows, 110foam control, 109food/microorganism, 113MCRT, 113microscopic examination, 114mixed liquor suspended solids, 114monitoring, 107, 108neutralization, 109nutrients, 108, 114odor, 110operating guidelines, 115operation, 114periodic feeding for start-up, 113pH control, 109
protozoa, 114recordkeeping, 107recycle, 109return activated sludge, 115safety, 112shutdown, 110sources of wastes, 108start-up, 110, 113steady-state conditions, 111temperature effects, 115treatment variables, 108troubleshooting, 112turbidity, 110
Pump, chemical feed, 367, 368Pump controllers, instrumentation, 667, 668Pumps, pressure filters, 414Pure gas, 60, 65Pure oxygen
cryogenic air separation, 62, 63description of systems, 57dissolved oxygen, 64explosive conditions, 64gas space pressure, 64instrumentation, 144layout, 58, 61liquid oxygen, 62–66maintenance, 64, 66, 144, 145modes, 64noise, 144oxygen, 64PSA, 60, 62plan view, 58plans and specifications, 143pressure swing adsorption (PSA), 60, 62preventive maintenance, 144, 145process control, 64purge, 60, 64review of plans and specifications, 143safety, 64, 65, 144schematic, 61silica gel trap, 63spill, liquid oxygen, 65start-up, 64surface aerators, 57, 61system control, 64turbulent mixers, 60vent, 60, 64
Q
Quantities of sludges, 169, 170
R
RASSee Return Activated Sludge (RAS)
Rabbling, 271, 272, 275Range, instrument, 633
778 Advanced Treatment
Rapid sand filter, 393, 398Rate of flow, 651Rate-control valve, gravity filters, 400Rate-of-flow controller, 419Recalcination, 476Recarbonation, 486, 495–497Recharge rate, 582Recirculation flow, membranes, 450Reclaimed wastewater, 581Recorders, 97, 107, 663Recordkeeping, membranes, 457Recovery, backwash, 421Recycled wastewater, 581Recycling, 581Refractory furnace, 271Regeneration, activated carbon, 34Regulations
OSHA, 642solids disposal, 287
Reset, controller adjustment, 636Restart, industrial waste treatment, 105Return activated sludge (RAS)
adjustment of process, 71, 72, 74brewery wastes, 119, 122comparison of RAS control approaches, 70constant percentage RAS flow, 70constant RAS flow, 68control, 68flow diagram, 69industrial waste treatment, 107measurement of sludge blanket depth, 71methods of RAS flow control, 68, 70nitrification, 68pulp and paper mill wastes, 115purpose, 68SVI approach, 72separate sludge reaeration, 73settleability approach, 70, 72sludge blanket depth, 70troubleshooting, 71, 74
Reused wastewater, 581Reverse osmosis, 444Review of plans and specifications
alum flocculation, phosphorus removal, 504biological nitrogen removal, 565, 570biological phosphorus removal, 488, 565, 569–570centrifuges, 304chemical conditioning, 304direct reuse of effluent, 595dissolved air flotation, 304enhanced biological treatment, 565–570filter presses, 304gravity thickening, 304land disposal, 611lime precipitation, phosphorus removal, 499pure oxygen, 143thermal conditioning, 304
Rising sludge, 143, 173, 174, 184, 189, 405
Rodents, solids management, 303Rotameter, 415, 652, 653, 654Rotary chemical feeder, 371Rotary kiln dryers, sludge, 271Rotating biological contactors, nitrification, 525, 528Rotifers, 92–94, 106
S
SAR (sodium adsorption ratio), 607, 608SCADA (Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition), 672SCBA (self-contained breathing apparatus), 642SCF (Standard Cubic Feet), 232SCFM (Standard Cubic Feet per Minute), 185SCR (silicon controlled rectifier), 415SPC (Statistical Process Control) Charts, 457S/V (sludge/volume) ratio, 176, 179SVI (Sludge Volume Index) control, 563, 564, 570Safety
alum flocculation, phosphorus removal, 504biological phosphorus removal, 483chemical treatment, 359, 389confined spaces, upflow filters, 437gravity filters, 410lime precipitation, phosphorus removal, 498membrane filters, 458odor control, 28, 31, 35polymer, 221pressure filters, 424upflow filters, 437, 440
Safety hazardsactivated sludge, 65, 144direct reuse of effluent, 594incineration, 286industrial wastes, 98instrumentation, 636–646land disposal, 610liquid oxygen, 65noise, 144pulp and paper mill wastes, 112pure oxygen, 65, 144surfaced sludge drying beds, 258
Salinity, soil, 599, 606Sampling
aerobic digestion, 212devices, 97equipment, 97gravity thickeners, 176industrial wastes, 97, 138membrane systems, 457surfaced sludge drying beds, 258units, 97
Sampling and analysis, lime precipitation, 494Sand drying beds
application of sludge, 253, 254blinding, 254cake, 255chemical requirements, 254
Index 779
Sand drying beds (continued)climatic conditions, 253, 254conditioning, 253covered, 254description, 253factors affecting performance, 253guidelines, operation, 254loading rates, 254, 255operation, 255performance, 253, 255plugged media, 255removal of dried sludge, 253, 254solids recovery, 255troubleshooting, 255type of sludge, 253, 254variables, 253
Sanitary landfill, sludge disposal, 294Scouring media, 398Screens
industrial waste treatment, 98, 102pretreatment, 102
Scroll centrifuge, 189, 191, 192, 196, 199, 200, 201Scrubbers, odors, 21–24, 28–30Secondary sludge production, 169Secondary standards, measurements, 632Secondary treatment, 169Sedimentation, chemical treatment, 377–386Seed activated sludge, 105, 113Selector recycle, 555Selectors
biological phosphorus removal, 477foam control, 563
Self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA), 642Sensitivity, instrumentation, 633Sensors, types, 647–661Septicity
clarifiers, 385gravity sludge thickening, 178
Sequencing batch reactor (SBR), enhanced biological treatment,560
Set point, 636Settleability approach for RAS, 70, 72Settleable solids, 98Sewer-use ordinance, 97, 98, 100Shock loads, 136, 138Short-circuiting
clarifiers, 385, 386gravity thickeners, 172
Shutdownbiological phosphorus removal, 484, 486centrifuge thickeners, 196chemical treatment, 374dissolved air flotation (DAF) thickeners, 186gravity filters, 408gravity thickeners, 176incineration, 285industrial waste processes, 110instrumentation systems, 676
land disposal, 605lime precipitation, phosphorus removal, 493multiple-hearth furnace, 285pulp and paper mill, 110thermal conditioning, 230vacuum filtration, 250, 251
Signal transmitters/transducers, 661Silica, gel trap, 63Silicon controlled rectifier (SCR), 415Skatole, 9Slake, 347Sludge
aerobic digestion, 207anaerobic digestion, 206belt filter press, 240bulking, enhanced biological treatment, 554, 563centrifuges, 189–205, 251characteristics, 167chemical conditioning, 220chemical stabilization, 217composting, 260conditioning, 220density, 167dewatering, 236drying beds
See Sand drying beds and Surfaced sludge drying bedselutriation, 234gravity belt thickener, 202growth rate, Y, sludge, 169, 170incineration, 270lagoons, 287, 288, 300mechanical drying, 267plate and frame filter press, 236pressure filtration, 236primary sludge production, 169production of sludges, 169quantities, 169sand drying beds, 253–255secondary sludge production, 169stabilization, 206surfaced sludge drying beds, 256thermal conditioning, 228thickening, 171types of sludges, 167vacuum filtration, 245volume reduction, 260volumes of sludges, 170wet oxidation, 231Y, growth rate, sludge, 169, 170
Sludge ageactivated sludge, 76, 122nitrification, 142
Sludge blanketdepth measurement, 70gravity thickeners, 175, 176, 178, 180, 181return activated sludge (RAS) approach, 70time of measurement, 71
Sludge bulking, enhanced biological treatment, 554, 563
780 Advanced Treatment
Sludge dewateringSee Dewatering, sludge
Sludge digestion, effects of industrial wastes, 98Sludge disposal
agricultural reclamation, 288, 296, 297, 299biological phosphorus removal, 487dedicated land disposal, 289, 294flooding, 297, 300grit, 301groundwater protection, 295high-rate dedicated land disposal, 297incineration, 288, 289incinerator ash, 300irrigation, 300lagoons, 299, 300land application, 289land disposal, 289–296landfilling, 294mechanically dried solids, 300monitoring, 287, 302–303need, 167, 287odors, 300on-site dedicated land disposal, 294options, 289, 290reduced volume sludges, 300regulations, 287ridge and furrow, 297, 300sanitary landfill, 289, 294screenings, 301scum, 301subsurface injection, 297, 298, 300surface disposal, 289trenching, 295utilization, 289, 290vectors, 301, 302, 303
Sludge regulations, limits, 288Sludge Volume Index (SVI) control, 563, 564, 570Sludge/volume (S/V) ratio, 176, 179Slurry, 217, 483Snubbers, 647, 650Sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), 607, 608Sodium hydroxide, 364Soil sealing, solids, 599Solids contact clarifier, 381, 382Solids, land application, 289Solids loadings
dissolved air flotation (DAF) thickener, 184, 188gravity belt thickener, 203gravity thickener, 174, 175
Solids management, biological phosphorus removal, 486Solution preparation, chemical, 226Sonar devices, 648Span, instrumentation, 633Specific gravity, 167, 404Specifications
alum flocculation, phosphorus removal, 504biological phosphorus removal, 488, 565, 569–570
gravity filters, 410lime precipitation, phosphorus removal, 499odor control, 38pressure filters, 425upflow filters, 440
Sphaerotilus natans, 124, 131Spills
dairy wastes, 132liquid oxygen, 64, 65
Spiral membranes, 446Square root extraction, 625Stabilization of sludges
aerobic digestion, 207anaerobic digestion, 206
Also see Chapter 6, INDUSTRIAL WASTE TREATMENT,Volume II
chemical stabilization, 217purpose, 206
Standard Cubic Feet per Minute (SCFM), 185Standard Cubic Feet (SCF), 232Standard unit of measure, 632Standardization, instrumentation, 633Standby power generators, 663Start-up
activated sludge, industrial wastes, 64, 105, 110, 113biological phosphorus removal, 484centrifuge thickeners, 196chemical treatment, 374, 386, 387direct reuse of effluent, 591dissolved air flotation (DAF) thickeners, 186goals, 112gravity thickeners, 176incineration, 285industrial waste treatment, 105, 110, 113instrumentation systems, 676land disposal, 601, 602lime precipitation, phosphorus removal, 493multiple-hearth furnace, 285pulp and paper mill, 110, 113pure oxygen, 64restart, industrial waste treatment, 105thermal conditioning, 230vacuum filtration, 250
Static pile composting, 260, 261Statistical Process Control (SPC) Charts, 457Steady state, activated sludge, 75, 111Steel mill, reuse, 589Step-feed technique, activated sludge, 64, 68, 113Straggler floc, 93, 94Strategy
biological phosphorus removal, 487enhanced biological treatment, 556gravity filter operation, 406pressure filters, 422upflow filters, 435
Strength of pollutant, 100Strip-chart recorders, 663, 665
Index 781
Stripped gases, 60Stripped odors, 17Stripping, ammonia, 519, 535–539Struvite control, 202Substrate, 555Sulfide forms, 10, 11, 12Sulfide shock load, 138Sulfur cycle, 12Superchlorination, 139Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition (SCADA), 672Surface aerators, 57, 61Surface disposal, sludge, 289Surface loading, gravity thickeners, 175Surfaced sludge drying beds
application of sludge, 258cleaning, 259description, 256, 257layout, 256need, 256operation, 256removal of sludge, 259safety, 258sampling, 258water-sludge separation, 259
Surfactant, 134, 448Surge protection, pressure, 647, 650Suspended growth reactors, nitrogen removal, 520–524Suspended solids, industrial wastes, 101Symbols, electrical, 625–628
T
TDR (time domain reflectometry) level sensors, 651Tagged off, 641Temperature effect
activated sludge, 80, 115, 122aerobic digestion, 210, 211, 215gravity sludge thickening, 174, 175nitrification, 80, 142
Test and calibration equipment, 670Thermal conditioning, sludge
acid flushing, 230decant tank, 229, 230detention time, 228dewaterability, 228, 230, 231efficiency, operation, 229factors affecting performance, 229fuel supply, 230gasification, 230guidelines, operation, 229, 230heat exchanger, 230, 231heating requirements, 228, 229hydraulic loadings, 229influent sludge, 228, 229odor control, 230operation, 230performance, 229, 230
plans and specifications, 304pressure, 228, 229, 230, 231pressure drop, 230reactor, 228, 229shutdown, 230sludge dewaterability, 228, 229, 231sludge types, 231solids loading, 229start-up, 230temperature, 228, 229, 230, 231troubleshooting, 231, 232variables, 229withdrawal of sludge, 229, 230, 231
Thermophilic, 260Thickening, sludges
alternative methods, 172–181centrifuges, 189dissolved air flotation (DAF) thickeners, 182gravity belt thickeners, 202gravity thickening, 172–181purpose, 171
Thiocyanate, 138Threshold odor, 11Time domain reflectometry (TDR) level sensors, 651Total flow, 651Totalizers
gravity filters, 402instrumentation, 663
Toxic compounds, 98, 99, 123Toxic gases, 98Toxic wastes
activated sludge, 99, 101, 106ammonia, 138dairy wastes, 130, 132fish, 139organic, 98
Toxins, 130, 132Tramp oil, 453Transducers (signal), 661Transmembrane pressure, 450Transmitters (signal), 661Trickling filters, nitrification, 525, 526Troubleshooting
activated sludge, 71, 74, 76, 112aerobic digestion, 214, 216belt filter press, 244centrifuge thickeners, 200chemical conditioning, sludge, 228chemical treatment, 389, 390composting, 265, 266direct reuse of effluent, 592, 593disinfection, 593dissolved air flotation (DAF) thickeners, 188gravity belt thickener, 204gravity filters, 408gravity sludge thickeners, 177, 178, 181incineration, 286
782 Advanced Treatment
Troubleshooting (continued)land disposal, 608, 609lime stabilization, 217nitrogen removal, 530, 531, 535, 536, 539odor control, 36, 37plate and frame filter press, 240ponds, 593pretreatment facilities, 104pulp and paper mill wastes, 112rotating biological contactor, 593sand drying beds, 255thermal conditioning, 231, 232trickling filter, 593upflow filter, 437–438vacuum filtration, 250wet oxidation, 232
Troughs, gravity filters, 398True color, 357Tube settlers, 383, 384Tubular membranes, 444Turbidity meter, 431Turbulent mixers, 60Types of sensors, 647–661
U
UEL (upper explosive limit), 646Ultimate disposal
effluent, 596solids, 287
Ultrafiltration, 442Ultrasonic devices, 653Ultrasonic devices, level measurement, 648, 651, 653Underdrains, gravity filters, 398Upflow filters
See Filters, upflowUpper explosive limit (UEL), 646Urea, 114
V
V-O-M (Volt-Ohm-Milliammeter), 670, 671Vaccination, hepatitis B, 645Vacuum filtration
blinding, 250, 251cake, 249, 250conditioning sludge, 227, 245, 250cycle time, 245, 249, 251depth of submergence, 245, 250description, 245dewatering, 245, 251drum speed, 245, 251factors affecting performance, 245filter loading, 248filter yield, 248, 249, 251guidelines, operation, 248loading, 248
media, 250operating schematic, 247operation, 250performance, 250plans and specifications, 304rotary drum, 248shutdown, 250, 251sludge type, 245, 250solids recovery, 249, 250start-up, 250troubleshooting, 250, 252vacuum applied, 245, 250variables, 245yield, 248, 249, 251
Variables, measured, instrumentation, 647–661Variables, process, 632, 647, 659Vectors, solids management, 301, 302, 303Velocity flow sensing, 653, 655Venturi scrubber, 277Venturi tube, 657, 658, 659Vibrations, centrifuges, 200, 202Viscosity, 134, 354, 489Visual inspection
activated sludge, 98, 106aerobic digestion, 214centrifuge thickeners, 201dissolved air flotation (DAF) thickeners, 188gravity thickeners, 177
Volatile acids, 478Volatile matter, 167, 206Volatile solids inventory, 81Volt-Ohm-Milliammeter (V-O-M), 670, 671Volume reduction, sludge
composting, 260incineration, 270mechanical drying, 267multiple-hearth furnace, 271purpose, 260
Volumes of sludges, 170Volumetric screw chemical feeder, 369
W
WASSee Waste activated sludge (WAS)
Wash water troughs, gravity filters, 398Waste activated sludge (WAS)
adjustment of process, 76Al West method, 95control of wasting, 76conventional rate, 76, 78extended aeration, 76, 78F/M control, 76, 78filamentous bacteria, 92flow diagram, 69high rate, 76, 78industrial waste treatment, 107, 123
Index 783
Waste activated sludge (WAS) (continued)MCRT control, 76, 79MLVSS control, 76, 82methods of wasting, 76microscopic examination, 92mixed liquor, 76nitrification, 80purpose of wasting, 75sludge age control, 76steady state, 75troubleshooting, 76volatile solids inventory, 81
Waste reduction, dairy wastes, 136Wastewater reclamation
Also see Direct reuse of effluent and Land disposal,effluent
agricultural, 288, 296–299case histories, 583direct reuse, 581equipment requirements, 582, 596land disposal, 596land treatment, 596limitations, 582, 599maintenance, 595, 611monitoring, 594, 610nuclear generating station, 587operation, 591, 601plans and specifications, 595, 611review of plans and specifications, 595, 611safety, 594, 610South Lake Tahoe, California, 584steel mill, 589treatment levels for reuse, 581, 582uses, 581, 582
Wasting activated sludge, 75Water Environment Federation (WEF), 288Water hammer, 404Water quality criteria, 582Water supply, 98Wells, monitoring, 610West, Al, 95Wet oxidation
air, 232detention time, 232factors affecting performance, 232feed sludge, 232guidelines, operation, 234odor control, 232operation, 234performance, 232pressures, 232temperatures, 232troubleshooting, 232variables, 232
Wet well, pressure filter, 412Windrow composting, 260, 263
X
(NO LISTINGS)
Y
Y, growth rate, sludge, 169, 170
Z
Zoogleal mass, 18, 525