Advanced Learning Theories: How Students Learn

Understanding how students learn is critical

Many models and theories address how

students learn

Theories provide a stepping-stone for

educators to understand

Translate understanding into practical strategies

Previous models are reinterpreted to model online student/teacher

interaction.

Introduction

The behaviorist model is one of the earliest learning models

Ivan Pavlov is regarded as the father of this

theory

Learning has occurred when a student’s

behavior demonstrates change

Behavior must be observed to

demonstrate progress

Behavior must be measured in a discrete

manner

Behaviorist Model

Advocates a drill-response mechanism in

order to change behavior

Pavlov’s experiment with a bell, dog, and

food reward

Trial-and-error methodology

Students should try to perform a task until they

succeed

When they achieve a positive result, learning is said to have occurred.

Behaviorist Model

Feedback is critical to guide the learning

process

Feedback denotes the point at which behavior

is changed

Feedback directly stimulates change in a

student’s behavior

BehavioristModel

A measurable task like successfully logging into

a website

Concepts with a single approach and correct

answer

It may not be possible to effectively measure a

student’s behavior online

Too short to change behavior or monitor any

change

Constant repetition may frustrate and inhibit

students

Behaviorist Model

Resources:Explore More

Weblinks:An Overview to the Behavioral Perspective

Play the interactive game Pavlov's Dog

Articles:Froyd, Jeff. (2001). Model for Inquiry and Reflection about Learning and Teaching. International Conference on Engineering Education, August 6-10, 2001

Chai, Lin. (2003). To Have or Have Not: An Examination of Feedback, Learner Control, and Knowledge Type in Online Learning. Proceedings of the 36th Hawaii International Conference on System Services, 2003

Cognitive Learning gradually replaced

behaviorism

As motivation and interaction between

students and instructors was understood

One of its champions was Noam Chomsky

Learning is an unobservable process in

the human brain

Behaviorist model is an insufficient

representation

CognitiveLearning

Feedback is still vital

Student receives the necessary behavior

correction

Student experiences satisfaction from

feedback

Reception of information through both visual and

auditory channels

Identifies short-term and long-term memory as

crucial aspects of learning

CognitiveLearning

Learning takes place when a learner

processes information

Online, cognitive learning holds an obvious

place

Able to provide materials in dual-and multi-modal fashion

Test both short-term and long-term retention of

information

CognitiveLearning

Resources:Explore More

Articles:

Pintrich, Paul R. (1999). The Role of Motivation In Promoting and Sustaining Self-regulated Learning. International Journal of Education Research. Vol. 31, 1999, pp. 459-470.

Strauss, S. (2000). Theories of Cognitive Development and their Implications for Curriculum Development and Teaching. In B. Moon, M. Ben-Peretz, and S. Brown (Eds.), Routledge International Companion to Education (pp. 33-50). London: Routledge.

Social interaction theory dismisses behaviorism and cognitive learning

Albert Bandura is credited with the genesis

of this model in the 1970s

Learning is not just an interaction between

instructor and student

Learning can occur within the environment

around the student

Students may learn from various social interactions

Social Interaction

The spread of behaviors through indirect

channels may be social contagion

Violence on TV may affect some students via

social contagion

Students learn the behaviors modeled by

instructors

Students learn from other students

Ensure that no unwanted behaviors are

being modeled

Social Interaction

Resources:Explore More

Web:Social Learning Theory

Social Learning Theory (A. Bandura)

Articles:Conte, Rosaria. (2000). Intelligent Social Learning. In AISB’00 Symposium on Starting from Society: The Application of Social Analogies to Computational Systems, Birmingham, AL, 2000, pp. 1-11.

Students learn “from” the world

Students should drive the learning process

Collaborative activities are critical segments of constructivist learning

Shared experiences can reinforce concepts

Students personalize their learning

Constructivist EducationalModel

Online and blended learning are natural expressions of the

constructivist modelStudents share with each

other in the classroom environment

Students take learning with them to the next

course

Constructivism is the most complete overview

of learning process

Constructivist EducationalModel

The following models may be referred to as

strategies

Resources:Explore More

Web:CSCL Theories

Articles:Edelson, D., Pea, R., and Gomez, L. (1996). Constructivism in the Collaboratory. In B. G. Wilson (Ed.), Constructivist Learning Environments: Case Studies in Instructional Design. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications. Pp. 151-164.

Oliver, Ron, Omari, Arshad, and Herrington, Jan. (1997). Exploring Student Interactions in Collaborative World Wide Web Learning Environments. In Proceedings of ED-MEDIA/EDTELECOM 1997, Calgary, Canada, June 14-19, 1997, Volume II, pp. 812-817.

Students learn through different channels and

situations

Advocates the use of a variety of educational

methodologies and tools

Students must practice critical thinking and active learning skills

Strategic implementation of

constructivism

Instructors are encouraged to engage

students’ minds, bodies, and souls

Integrative Model

Course material should be “integrated”

Within an History course, writing skills are

promoted

Online environment is an excellent venue for

utilizing integrative strategies

Integrative materials across courses requires buy-in from the school

Integrative Model

Resources:Explore More

Weblinks:Integrative Education

Articles:Braunger, Jane, and Hart-Landsberg, Sylvia. (1994). Crossing Boundaries: Explorations in Integrative Curriculum. Portland, OR: Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory for the Office of Educational Research and Improvement.

Direct instruction is the traditional view of higher education

A professor “professes” the subject matter to

students

Includes lecturing, one-to-one teaching, Q&A and didactic teaching

In every course, direct instruction must occur

The lecture material must be clear and direct

Direct InstructionModel

Resources:Explore More

Web:Instructional Strategies Online

Articles:Veenman, Simon, Denessen, Eddie, van den Oord, Ingrid, and Naafs, Ferdy. (2003). The Influence of a Course on Direct and Activating Instruction upon Student Teachers’ Classroom Practice. The Journal of Experimental Education, 71(3), pp. 197-225.

Straddles the line between direct instruction and

collaborative workInvolves the quiet, shy and non-participating

students

Ideas from lectures may be clarified, further

explored, and broadened

Students can challenge the instructor, concepts,

and each other

Discussions must be focused within a safe

and respectful atmosphere

Lecture/ DiscussionModel

Resources:Explore More

Articles:

Pimental, Maria da Graca, Ishiguro, Yoshihide, Kerimbaev, Bolot, Abowd, Gregory D., and Guzdial, Mark. (2001). Supporting Educational Activities through Dynamic Web Interfaces. Interacting with Computers. 13(3), pp. 353-374.

Davis, Robert L., and Ragsdell, Kenneth M. (2000). Design of an Effective, Web-Based, Global Learning Environment Using the Keller Plan. International Conference on Engineering

Concept attainment tests students’

understanding of concepts

An individual assignment

It can bridge the gap between individual and collaborative activities

Concept AttainmentModel

Students are presented with an identification

concept

“Investments with a ROI of greater than 3%”

“Bond with guaranteed 4.1% rate of return”

“Savings account with 1.5% rate of return”

Students quantify or classify them according to the preset structure

Concept AttainmentModel

Concept Attainment is ideally suited to online

delivery

Assignment can be researched online and

easily adapts to groups or individuals

Provide a clear overview of the concept

Clarify any incorrect classifications students

may have made

Concept AttainmentModel

Resources:Explore More

Web:

In-service Activities and Teaching Techniques to Promote Gender Equity

Additional PowerPoint:

Concept Attainment

Developed as a way to help medical students

learn biological processes

Students are presented with problems they must

solve by researching content

Learning occurs when students are presented with real-world cases

Students solve the problems or determine

how best to proceed

Problem-Based LearningModel

Problem-based learning is also referred to as

inductive learning

Inquiring learning, discovery learning, and

just-in-time learning

Easily implemented in online environments

Temptation to co-opt or plagiarize solutions to

questions

IDs and instructors should craft individual,

thought-provoking questions

Problem-based LearningModel

Resources:Explore More

Articles:

Mahling, D.E., Sorrows, B.B., and Skogseid, I. (1995). A Collaborative Environment for Semi-structured Medical Problem Based Learning. Proceedings of CSCL'95.

Prince, Michael J., and Felder, Richard M. (2006). Inductive Teaching and Learning Methods: Definitions, Comparisons, and Research Bases. Journal of Engineering Education, 95(2), pp. 123-138.

Fox, Geoffrey C., Furmanski, Wojtek, Nilan, Michael S., and Small, Ruth V. (1994). Assessing Virtual Reality for Education. Proposal to the National Science Foundation, January 1, 1994.

STAD (Student Teams-Achievement Divisions)

Addresses the need for collaborative

assignments for critical thinking

Instructor presents a concept

Students are grouped into teams of 3-4

members

The teams work together, then each

student is tested individually

STAD

Teams may complete a project, study a concept

or solve a problem

Student teams provide for socialization, social learning and sense of

communityDifficult for students to collaborate over diverse

time zones

Collusion or “riding on the coattails”

Difficult to assess the contribution of each

student

STAD

Resources:Explore More

Additional PowerPoint:

STAD

Articles:

Slavin, Robert E. (1977). Student Teams and Achievement Divisions: Effects on Academic Performance, Mutual Attraction, and Attitudes. Report No. 233 for the National Institution of Education. Johns Hopkins University, Center for Social Organization of Schools.

Instructors are hampered by the end-of-

course student questionnaires

Courses are designed by instructional designers

and curriculum managers

Students are able to learn from the spoken

as well as written word

Some instructors may record voice

announcements and explanations

Adapting Instruction ToImprove Effectiveness

Use a concept attainment question in the discussion board

Listen to the students

Learn if classroom materials could benefit from an improvement

Use student comments throughout the course

Discover areas where students may need extra

resources

Adapting Instruction ToImprove Effectiveness

Convey your students’ concerns to your Department Chair

Address concerns with IDs or Curriculum

Managers as appropriate

Adapting Instruction ToImprove Effectiveness

Faculty members must lead the way

Devise more coherent programs of general

education

Devise more useful, authentic assessments

of student learning

Institutional reward systems must provide

more incentives

More recognition for faculty contributions that increase student

success

Final Thoughts

Resources:Explore More

Web:

Improving Service Quality in Distance Education

Articles:

(2005). Accountability for Better Results - A National Imperative for Higher Education. State Higher Education Executive Officers with support from the Ford Foundation. Retrieved 5 Dec. 2007 from: Accountability for Better Business