Administrative Behavior

88
Organization A consciously coordinated social unit, composed of two or more people, that functions on a relatively continuous basis to achieve a common goal or set of goals. Managers Managers Individuals who achieve goals Individuals who achieve goals through other people. through other people.

Transcript of Administrative Behavior

Page 1: Administrative Behavior

Organization

A consciously coordinated social unit, composed of two or more people, that functions on a relatively continuous basis to achieve a common goal or set of goals.

ManagersManagers

Individuals who achieve goals through Individuals who achieve goals through other people. other people.

Page 2: Administrative Behavior

Examples of Organization:Examples of Organization:

Managers do their work in an Managers do their work in an organizationorganization. . This is consciously coordinated social unit, This is consciously coordinated social unit, composed of two or more people, that functions composed of two or more people, that functions on a relatively continuous basis to achieve a on a relatively continuous basis to achieve a common goal or set of goals. On the basis of this common goal or set of goals. On the basis of this definition, manufacturing and service firms are definition, manufacturing and service firms are organizations and so are schools, hospitals, organizations and so are schools, hospitals, churches, military units, retail stores, police churches, military units, retail stores, police departments, and local, state, and federal departments, and local, state, and federal government agencies. The people who oversee government agencies. The people who oversee the activities of others and who are responsible the activities of others and who are responsible for attaining goals in these organizations are for attaining goals in these organizations are managers (although they’re sometimes called managers (although they’re sometimes called administrators.administrators.

Page 3: Administrative Behavior

Management Functions:Management Functions:

The Management Functions are as follows:The Management Functions are as follows:The Planning function encompasses defining an organization’s The Planning function encompasses defining an organization’s goals, establishing an overall strategy for achieving those goals, goals, establishing an overall strategy for achieving those goals, and developing a comprehensive hierarchy of plans to integrate and developing a comprehensive hierarchy of plans to integrate and coordinate activities.and coordinate activities.

Managers are also responsible for designing an organization’s Managers are also responsible for designing an organization’s structure. We call this function Organizing. It includes the structure. We call this function Organizing. It includes the determination of what tasks are to be done, who is to do them, determination of what tasks are to be done, who is to do them, how the tasks are to be grouped, who reports to whom, and how the tasks are to be grouped, who reports to whom, and where decisions are to be made.where decisions are to be made.

Every organization contains people, and it is management’s job Every organization contains people, and it is management’s job to direct and coordinate those people. This the Leading function. to direct and coordinate those people. This the Leading function. When managers motivate employees, direct the activities of When managers motivate employees, direct the activities of others, select the most effective communication channels, or others, select the most effective communication channels, or resolve conflicts among members, they are engaging in leading.resolve conflicts among members, they are engaging in leading.

The final function managers perform is Controlling. To ensure The final function managers perform is Controlling. To ensure that things are going as they should, management must monitor that things are going as they should, management must monitor the organization’s performance.the organization’s performance.

Page 4: Administrative Behavior

Management Roles:Management Roles:The four roles described earlier—Planning, Organizing, The four roles described earlier—Planning, Organizing, Coordinating, ControllingCoordinating, Controlling

Interpersonal Roles:Interpersonal Roles:Communication between human beings, fellow workers, Communication between human beings, fellow workers, colleagues, supervisors, bosses etc.colleagues, supervisors, bosses etc.

Informational Roles:Informational Roles:The formal flow of upward and downward information The formal flow of upward and downward information within an organizationwithin an organization

Decisional Roles:Decisional Roles:Goals and tasks are accomplished through decisions. The Goals and tasks are accomplished through decisions. The process of decision making in an organization.process of decision making in an organization.

Page 5: Administrative Behavior

Management SkillsManagement SkillsTechnical Skills:Technical Skills: Encompass the ability to apply specialized knowledge Encompass the ability to apply specialized knowledge or expertise.or expertise.

Human Skills:Human Skills: The ability to work with understanding, and motivate The ability to work with understanding, and motivate other people, both individually and in groups, other people, both individually and in groups, describes describes Human SkillsHuman Skills.. Conceptual Skills:Conceptual Skills: Managers must have the mental ability to analyze Managers must have the mental ability to analyze and diagnose complex situations. These tasks require and diagnose complex situations. These tasks require Conceptual Skills.Conceptual Skills.

Page 6: Administrative Behavior

Managerial ActivitiesManagerial Activities

1.1. Traditional Management.Traditional Management. Decision making, Decision making, Planning, and Controlling.Planning, and Controlling.

2.2. Communication.Communication. Exchanging routine information Exchanging routine information and processing paperwork.and processing paperwork.

3.3. Human Resource Management.Human Resource Management. Motivating, Motivating, Discipline, Managing conflict, Staffing, and Training.Discipline, Managing conflict, Staffing, and Training.

Page 7: Administrative Behavior

Organizational Behavior Organizational Behavior (OB)(OB)

A field of study that investigates the A field of study that investigates the impact that individuals, groups, and impact that individuals, groups, and structure have on behavior within structure have on behavior within organizations, for the purpose of organizations, for the purpose of applying such knowledge toward applying such knowledge toward improving an organization’s improving an organization’s effectiveness.effectiveness.

Page 8: Administrative Behavior

CONTRIBUTING DISCIPLINES TO THE OB CONTRIBUTING DISCIPLINES TO THE OB FIELDFIELD

Organizational behavior is an applied Organizational behavior is an applied behavioral science that is built on behavioral science that is built on contributions from a number of behavioral contributions from a number of behavioral disciplines. The predominant areas are disciplines. The predominant areas are psychology, sociology, social psychology, psychology, sociology, social psychology, anthropology, and political science.anthropology, and political science.

Page 9: Administrative Behavior

LearningMotivation PersonalityEmotions

PerceptionsTraining

Leadership EffectivenessJob satisfaction

Individual decision makingPerformance appraisalAttitude measurement

Employee selectionWork designWork stress

Psychology

Sociology

Social Psychology

Anthropology

Political Science

BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE CONTRIBUTION UNIT OF ANALYSIS OUTPUT

Individual

Group

Organization System

Study of Organizational

Behavior

Group dynamicsWork teams

CommunicationPower

ConflictIntergroup behavior

Formal organization theoryOrganizational technology

Organizational changeOrganizational culture

Behavioral changeAttitude changeCommunicationGroup processes

Group decision making

Comparative valuesComparative attitudesCross-cultural analysis

Organizational cultureOrganizational environment

ConflictIntraorganizational politics

Power

Page 10: Administrative Behavior

Managing Workforce DiversityManaging Workforce DiversityWorkforce Diversity:Workforce Diversity:

Means that organizations are becoming more Means that organizations are becoming more heterogeneous in terms of gender, race, and heterogeneous in terms of gender, race, and ethnicity.ethnicity.

Recent decades have seen large scale Recent decades have seen large scale movement of talent and expertise across movement of talent and expertise across national boundaries.national boundaries.

This phenomena or trend is also called “brain This phenomena or trend is also called “brain drain”. drain”.

All kinds, sizes and shapes of people move from All kinds, sizes and shapes of people move from one organization to another, creating a need for one organization to another, creating a need for “diversity management.” “diversity management.”

Page 11: Administrative Behavior

Improving Quality and Productivity:Improving Quality and Productivity:Quality Management (QM):Quality Management (QM): The constant The constant attainment of customer satisfaction through the attainment of customer satisfaction through the continuous improvement of all organizational continuous improvement of all organizational processes.processes.

Process reengineering:Process reengineering: Reconsidering how work Reconsidering how work would be done and an organization structured if it would be done and an organization structured if it were starting over.were starting over.

Improving Customer ServiceImproving Customer ServiceImproving people skillsImproving people skillsEmpowering peopleEmpowering peopleStimulating Innovation and ChangeStimulating Innovation and ChangeHelping Employees Balance Work/Life ConflictsHelping Employees Balance Work/Life ConflictsImproving Ethical BehaviorImproving Ethical BehaviorAbsenteeismAbsenteeismTurnoverTurnoverJob SatisfactionJob Satisfaction

Page 12: Administrative Behavior

HISTORICAL BACKGROUNDHISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Early management pioneers, such as Henri Early management pioneers, such as Henri Fayol, Henri Ford, Alfred P. Sloan, and even the Fayol, Henri Ford, Alfred P. Sloan, and even the scientific managers at the end of the 19scientific managers at the end of the 19thth century such as Frederick W. Taylor, century such as Frederick W. Taylor, recognized the behavioral side of recognized the behavioral side of management. management.

However, they did not emphasize the human However, they did not emphasize the human dimension; they let it play only a minor role in dimension; they let it play only a minor role in comparison with the roles of hierarchical comparison with the roles of hierarchical structure, specialization, and the management structure, specialization, and the management functions of planning and controlling.functions of planning and controlling.

Page 13: Administrative Behavior

HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF MANAGEMENTHISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF MANAGEMENT

The approaches to Management, historically The approaches to Management, historically speaking, can be divided into speaking, can be divided into threethree major schools. major schools.

1. 1. Scientific Management:Scientific Management: This School This School emphasized emphasized efficiency.efficiency.

2.2. Human Relations:Human Relations: Takes into consideration Takes into consideration the the human aspects of efficiency.human aspects of efficiency.

3.3. Administrative Management:Administrative Management: Stresses the Stresses the coordinated aspect of Management.coordinated aspect of Management.

The combination of these three Schools of The combination of these three Schools of Management has produced highly effective Management has produced highly effective management techniques for which American management techniques for which American business is known throughout the world.business is known throughout the world.

Page 14: Administrative Behavior

FREDRICK W. TAYLOR:FREDRICK W. TAYLOR:Father of scientific management concentrated on the Father of scientific management concentrated on the process of finding “One Best Way” to achieve the highest process of finding “One Best Way” to achieve the highest production from workers. Taylor spent years of his life production from workers. Taylor spent years of his life scientifically designing jobs in order to increase member scientifically designing jobs in order to increase member efficiency.efficiency.

In many ways, Taylor neglected the human aspect of In many ways, Taylor neglected the human aspect of worker production. His pig iron handling experiments at worker production. His pig iron handling experiments at the Bethlehem Steel Company in the late 1880s-1890s the Bethlehem Steel Company in the late 1880s-1890s created the scientific management-philosophy for which created the scientific management-philosophy for which Taylor is famous.Taylor is famous.

Taylor’s concept of Taylor’s concept of “Optimum Worker Efficiency”“Optimum Worker Efficiency” was was demonstrated when he designed a shovel which could demonstrated when he designed a shovel which could carry 21 lbs of coal, as against existing shovels which carry 21 lbs of coal, as against existing shovels which containing 4 lbs to 30 lbs. containing 4 lbs to 30 lbs.

The 21 lbs shovel saved his Company $ 75,000 to 80,000 The 21 lbs shovel saved his Company $ 75,000 to 80,000 annually; and reduced manpower from 500 to 150 in the annually; and reduced manpower from 500 to 150 in the Company.Company.

Page 15: Administrative Behavior

Fredrick & Lillian Gilberth researched into Fredrick & Lillian Gilberth researched into “Time & Motion” studies of finding the “Time & Motion” studies of finding the “One Best Way”“One Best Way” of doing a job.of doing a job.

Lillian Gilberth did a lot of work leading Lillian Gilberth did a lot of work leading to a field called Personnel Administration. to a field called Personnel Administration. She Was interested in scientific selection; She Was interested in scientific selection; placement; and training of personnel. For placement; and training of personnel. For her contribution she received Ph.D. in her contribution she received Ph.D. in Psychology in 1915.Psychology in 1915.

Page 16: Administrative Behavior

Human Relations School:Human Relations School:

In another setting, Scotland, Robert In another setting, Scotland, Robert Owen, emphasized the importance of Owen, emphasized the importance of humanizing the management process. humanizing the management process.

Eighty years later, a German, Eighty years later, a German, Dr. Hugo Dr. Hugo MunesterbergMunesterberg was hired by Harvard was hired by Harvard University; and soon became a great University; and soon became a great industrial psychologist. He was credited industrial psychologist. He was credited with developing a lot of with developing a lot of “aptitude tests”.“aptitude tests”.

Page 17: Administrative Behavior

Mayo-Father of Human Relations SchoolMayo-Father of Human Relations SchoolElton Mayo, the scientist behind Hawthorne Elton Mayo, the scientist behind Hawthorne experiments at the Western Electric Company marked experiments at the Western Electric Company marked the point in management history when employees the point in management history when employees governs began to be taken seriously.governs began to be taken seriously.

Mayo was credited with developing the Mayo was credited with developing the Hawthorne Hawthorne EffectEffect; the ; the special treatment effect.special treatment effect.

Mayo tried to establish that respectful/respectable Mayo tried to establish that respectful/respectable treatment of workers pays in the long run. treatment of workers pays in the long run.

Mayo & his associates kept trying many types of Mayo & his associates kept trying many types of production incentives.production incentives.

Experiments failed because workers wanted a share in Experiments failed because workers wanted a share in the the decision making process.decision making process.

Page 18: Administrative Behavior

Results of Hawthorne StudiesResults of Hawthorne Studies

1.1.Human social & psychological needs Human social & psychological needs are every bit as effective as motivates are every bit as effective as motivates as money.as money.

2.2.The social interaction of the work The social interaction of the work group is an influential as the group is an influential as the organization of the actual work. organization of the actual work.

3.3.The human factor cannot be ignored in The human factor cannot be ignored in any accurate management planning.any accurate management planning.

Page 19: Administrative Behavior

The Organizational Behavioral The Organizational Behavioral Approach to Management:Approach to Management:

Organizational behavior represents the human Organizational behavior represents the human side of management, not the whole of side of management, not the whole of management. Other recognized approaches to management. Other recognized approaches to management include the process, quantitative, management include the process, quantitative, systems, knowledge, and contingency systems, knowledge, and contingency approaches. In other words, organizational approaches. In other words, organizational behavior does not intend to portray the whole behavior does not intend to portray the whole of management.of management.

Page 20: Administrative Behavior

O.B. CHARACTERISTICSO.B. CHARACTERISTICS

We are essentially concerned with finding We are essentially concerned with finding and analyzing the variables that have an and analyzing the variables that have an impact on employee productivity, impact on employee productivity, absence turnover, and satisfaction. absence turnover, and satisfaction. Obvious characteristics are an Obvious characteristics are an employee’s age, gender, marital status, employee’s age, gender, marital status, and length of service with an and length of service with an organization.organization.

Age: Age: The relationship between age and The relationship between age and job performance is likely to be an issue job performance is likely to be an issue of increasing importance.of increasing importance.

Page 21: Administrative Behavior

Advantages of Older Workers:Advantages of Older Workers:

1.1. They see a number of positive qualities They see a number of positive qualities that older workers bring to their jobs: that older workers bring to their jobs: specifically, experience, judgment, a specifically, experience, judgment, a strong work ethic, and commitment to strong work ethic, and commitment to quality. Older workers are also quality. Older workers are also perceived as lacking flexibility and as perceived as lacking flexibility and as being resistant to a new technology.being resistant to a new technology.

Page 22: Administrative Behavior

Disadvantages:Disadvantages:

2.2. And in a time when And in a time when organization organization actively actively seek seek individuals who are individuals who are adaptable adaptable and open to change, the and open to change, the negatives associated with age negatives associated with age clearly clearly hinder the initial hiring of hinder the initial hiring of older older workers and increase the workers and increase the likelihood likelihood that they will be let go that they will be let go during during cutbacks.cutbacks.

Page 23: Administrative Behavior

Gender:Gender: Few issues initiate more debates, Few issues initiate more debates, misconceptions, and unsupported opinions misconceptions, and unsupported opinions than whether women perform as well on jobs than whether women perform as well on jobs as men do. In this section, we review the as men do. In this section, we review the research on that issue.research on that issue.

The evidence suggests that the best place to The evidence suggests that the best place to begin is with the recognition that there are begin is with the recognition that there are few, if any, important differences between few, if any, important differences between men and women that will affect their job men and women that will affect their job performance.performance.

Page 24: Administrative Behavior

Similar Output:Similar Output:

There are, for instance, no consistent male-There are, for instance, no consistent male-female differences in problem-solving ability, female differences in problem-solving ability, analytical skills, competitive drive, analytical skills, competitive drive, motivation, sociability, or learning ability. motivation, sociability, or learning ability.

Psychological studies have found that women Psychological studies have found that women are more willing to conform to authority and are more willing to conform to authority and that men are more aggressive and more that men are more aggressive and more likely than women to have expectations of likely than women to have expectations of success, but those differences are minor. success, but those differences are minor.

Page 25: Administrative Behavior

Fair Assumption in Organizations:Fair Assumption in Organizations:

Given the significant changes that have Given the significant changes that have taken place in the past 30 years in terms of taken place in the past 30 years in terms of increasing female participation rates in the increasing female participation rates in the workforce and rethinking what constitutes workforce and rethinking what constitutes male and female participation rates in the male and female participation rates in the workforce and rethinking what constitutes workforce and rethinking what constitutes male and female roles, you should operate in male and female roles, you should operate in the assumption that there is no significant the assumption that there is no significant difference in job productivity between men difference in job productivity between men and women. Similarly, there is no evidence and women. Similarly, there is no evidence indicating that an employee’s gender affects indicating that an employee’s gender affects job satisfaction.job satisfaction.

Page 26: Administrative Behavior

Research in Western Research in Western Countries:Countries:

But what about absence and turnover But what about absence and turnover rates? Are women less stable employees rates? Are women less stable employees than men? First, on the question of than men? First, on the question of turnover, the evidence indicates no turnover, the evidence indicates no significant differences. Women’s quit significant differences. Women’s quit rates are similar to those for men. The rates are similar to those for men. The research on absence, however, research on absence, however, consistently indicates that women have consistently indicates that women have higher rates of absenteeism than men do.higher rates of absenteeism than men do.

Page 27: Administrative Behavior

Marital Status: Marital Status:

There are not enough studies to draw any There are not enough studies to draw any conclusions about the effect of marital conclusions about the effect of marital status on productivity. But research status on productivity. But research consistently indicates that married consistently indicates that married employees have fewer absences, undergo employees have fewer absences, undergo less turnover, and are more satisfied with less turnover, and are more satisfied with their jobs than are their unmarried their jobs than are their unmarried coworkers.coworkers.

Page 28: Administrative Behavior

Tenure:Tenure:

The last O.B. characteristic we’ll look at is The last O.B. characteristic we’ll look at is tenure. With the exception of the issue of tenure. With the exception of the issue of male-female differences, probably no issue is male-female differences, probably no issue is more subject to misconceptions and more subject to misconceptions and speculations than the impact of seniority on speculations than the impact of seniority on job performance. Extensive reviews of the job performance. Extensive reviews of the seniority—productivity relationship have seniority—productivity relationship have been conducted. If we define seniority as been conducted. If we define seniority as time on a particular job, we can say that the time on a particular job, we can say that the most recent evidence demonstrates a most recent evidence demonstrates a positive relationship between seniority and positive relationship between seniority and job productivity. So tenure, expressed as job productivity. So tenure, expressed as work experience, appears to be a good work experience, appears to be a good predictor of employee productivity.predictor of employee productivity.

Page 29: Administrative Behavior

Ability:Ability:

An individual’s capacity to perform the An individual’s capacity to perform the various tasks in a job.various tasks in a job.

Intellectual ability:Intellectual ability:

The capacity to do mental activities.The capacity to do mental activities.

Multiple Intelligences:Multiple Intelligences:

Intelligence contains four subparts: Intelligence contains four subparts: Cognitive, social, emotional, and Cognitive, social, emotional, and cultural.cultural.

Page 30: Administrative Behavior

Physical ability:Physical ability: The capacity to do tasks demanding The capacity to do tasks demanding stamina, dexterity, strength, and similar stamina, dexterity, strength, and similar

characteristics.characteristics.

Learning:Learning: Any relatively permanent change in Any relatively permanent change in behavior thatbehavior that

occurs as a result of experience.occurs as a result of experience.

““You can’t Teach an Old Dog New Tricks!”You can’t Teach an Old Dog New Tricks!”This statement is false. It reflects the widely held This statement is false. It reflects the widely held

stereotypestereotypethat older workers have difficulties in adapting to new that older workers have difficulties in adapting to new

methodsmethodsand techniques.and techniques.

Studies consistently demonstrate that older employees Studies consistently demonstrate that older employees areare

perceived perceived as being relatively inflexible, resistant to as being relatively inflexible, resistant to change, andchange, and

less trainable than their younger counterparts, less trainable than their younger counterparts, particularly withparticularly with

respects to information technology skills. But these respects to information technology skills. But these perceptionsperceptions

are wrong.are wrong.

Page 31: Administrative Behavior

Shaping: A Managerial ToolShaping: A Managerial Tool Shaping behavior:Shaping behavior: Systematically Systematically

reinforcing each successive step that moves reinforcing each successive step that moves an individual closer to the desired response.an individual closer to the desired response.

Methods of Shaping Behavior:Methods of Shaping Behavior: There There are four ways in which to shape behavior: are four ways in which to shape behavior: through positive reinforcement, negative through positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment, and extinction. reinforcement, punishment, and extinction. Both positive and negative reinforcement Both positive and negative reinforcement result in learning. They strengthen a response result in learning. They strengthen a response and increase the probability of repetition.and increase the probability of repetition.

Page 32: Administrative Behavior

Well Pay Versus Sick Pay: Well Pay Versus Sick Pay: Organizations should Organizations should reward reward attendance attendance not not absent.absent.

Employee Discipline:Employee Discipline: Disciplining employees for Disciplining employees for undesirable behaviors tells them only what undesirable behaviors tells them only what not not to do. to do. It doesn’t tell them what alternative behaviors are It doesn’t tell them what alternative behaviors are preferred. Discipline does have a place in preferred. Discipline does have a place in organizations. In practice, it tends to be popular organizations. In practice, it tends to be popular because of its ability to produce fast results in the because of its ability to produce fast results in the short run.short run.

Developing Training Programs:Developing Training Programs: Most organizations Most organizations have some type of systematic training programs.have some type of systematic training programs.

Self-Management:Self-Management: Learning techniques that allow Learning techniques that allow individuals to manage their own behavior so that less individuals to manage their own behavior so that less external management control is necessary.external management control is necessary.

Page 33: Administrative Behavior

Values, Attitudes, and Job Values, Attitudes, and Job SatisfactionSatisfaction

Values:Values: Basic convictions that a specific mode of conduct Basic convictions that a specific mode of conduct or end-state of existence is personally or socially or end-state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence. They contain a conduct or end-state of existence. They contain a judgmental element in that they carry an judgmental element in that they carry an individual’s ideas as to what is right , good, or individual’s ideas as to what is right , good, or desirable. Values have both content and intensity desirable. Values have both content and intensity attributes. The content attribute says that a attributes. The content attribute says that a mode of conduct or end-state of existence is mode of conduct or end-state of existence is important. important. The intensity attribute specifies The intensity attribute specifies how how important important it is.it is.

Page 34: Administrative Behavior

Values System:Values System: A hierarchy based on a ranking of an A hierarchy based on a ranking of an individual’s values in terms of their individual’s values in terms of their intensity. When we rank an individual’s intensity. When we rank an individual’s values in terms of their intensity, we obtain values in terms of their intensity, we obtain that person’s that person’s value systemvalue system. All of us have . All of us have a hierarchy of values that forms our value a hierarchy of values that forms our value system. This system is identified by the system. This system is identified by the relative importance we assign to values relative importance we assign to values such as freedom, pleasure, selfrespect, such as freedom, pleasure, selfrespect, honesty, obedience, and equality.honesty, obedience, and equality.

Page 35: Administrative Behavior

Importance of Values: Values are important to the study of organizational behavior because they lay the foundation for the understanding of attitudes and motivation and because they influence our perceptions. Individuals enter an organization with preconceived notions of what “ought” and what “ought not” to be. Suppose that you enter an organization with the view that allocating pay on the basis of seniority is wrong or inferior. How are you going to react if you find that the organization you have just joined rewards seniority and not performance?

Page 36: Administrative Behavior

Attitudes: Evaluate statements or judgments concerning objects, people, or events. Attitudes are evaluate statements—either favorable or unfavorable—concerning objects, people, or events. They reflect how one feels about something.

When I say “I like my job,” I am expressing my attitude about work. Attitudes are not the same values, but the two are interrelated. You can see this by looking at the three components of an attitude: cognition, affect, and behavior.

Page 37: Administrative Behavior

In organizations, attitudes are important because they affect job behavior. If workers believe, for example, that supervisors, auditors, bosses, and time-and-motion engineers are all in conspiracy to make employees work harder for the same or less money, then it makes sense to try to understand how these attitudes were formed, their relationship to actual job behavior, and how they might be changed.

Cognitive Component of an attitude The opinion or belief segment of an attitude.

Effective Component of an attitude The emotional or feeling segment of an attitude.

Behavioral Component of an attitude An intention to behave in a certain way toward someone or something.

Page 38: Administrative Behavior

Types of Attitudes Most of the research in OB has been concerned with three attitudes: Job Satisfaction, Job Involvement, and Organizational Commitment.

Job Satisfaction:

The term job satisfaction refers to an individual’s general attitude toward his or her job. A person with a high level of job satisfaction holds positive attitudes abut the job, while a person who is dissatisfied with his or her job holds negative attitudes about the job. When people speak of employee attitudes, more often that not they mean job satisfaction.

Page 39: Administrative Behavior

Job Involvement: The degree to which a person identifies with his or her job, actively participates in it, and considers his or her performance important to self-worth. Job involvement measures the degree to which a person identifies psychologically with his or her job and considers his or her perceived performance level important to self-worth.

Page 40: Administrative Behavior

Organizational Commitment: The degree to which an employee identifies with a particular organization and its goals, and wishes to maintain membership in the organization. Organizational Commitment the third, job attitude we will discuss is organizational commitment, which is defines as a state in which an employee identifies with a particular organization and its goals, and wishes to maintain membership in the organization. So, high job involvement means identifying with one’s specific job, while high organizational commitment means identifyi8ng with one’s employing organization.

Page 41: Administrative Behavior

The Effect of Job Satisfaction on Employee Performance

Managers’ insert in job satisfaction tends to center on its effect on employee performance. Researchers have recognized this interest, so we find a large number of studies that have been designed to assess the impact of job satisfaction on employee productivity, absenteeism, and turnover.

Page 42: Administrative Behavior

”Happy Workers Are Productive Workers”

This statement is generally false. The myth that “happy workers are productive workers” developed in the 1930s and 1940s largely as a result of findings drawn by researchers conducting the Hawthorne studies at Western Electric. Based on those conclusions, managers began efforts to make their employees happier by engaging in practices such as laissez-faire leadership, improving working conditions, expanding health and improving working conditions, expanding health and family benefits such as insurance and college tuition-reimbursement, providing company picnics and other informal get-togethers, and offering counseling services for employees.

Page 43: Administrative Behavior

Satisfaction and ProductivitySatisfaction and Productivity:: As the “Myth As the “Myth or Science?” box concludes, happy workers or Science?” box concludes, happy workers aren’t necessarily productive workers. At the aren’t necessarily productive workers. At the individual level, the evidence suggests the individual level, the evidence suggests the reverse to be more accurate—that productivity reverse to be more accurate—that productivity is likely to lead to satisfaction.is likely to lead to satisfaction.

Satisfaction and Absenteeism:Satisfaction and Absenteeism: We find a We find a consistent negative relationship between consistent negative relationship between satisfaction and absenteeism.satisfaction and absenteeism.

Satisfaction and Turnover:Satisfaction and Turnover: Satisfaction is Satisfaction is also negatively related to turnover.also negatively related to turnover.

Page 44: Administrative Behavior

How Employees Can Express DissatisfactionExit:Dissatisfaction expressed through behavior directed toward leaving theorganization.

Voice: Dissatisfaction expressed through active and constructive attempts toimprove conditions.

Loyalty: Dissatisfaction expressed by passively waiting for conditions to improve.

Neglect: Dissatisfaction expressed through allowing conditions to worsen.

Job Satisfaction and Customer SatisfactionThe evidence indicates that satisfied employees increase customer

satisfactionand loyalty.

Page 45: Administrative Behavior

Personality and Emotions

Personality: Dissatisfaction expressed through behavior directed toward leaving the organization.

Personality DeterminantsHeredity: Heredity refers to those factors that were determined at conception. Physical Stature, facial attractiveness, gender, temperament, muscle composition and reflexes, energy level, and biological rhythms are characteristics that are generally considered to be either completely or substantially influenced by who your parents are; that is, by their biological, physiological, and inherent psychological makeup.

Page 46: Administrative Behavior

If personality characteristics were completely dictated by heredity, they would be fixed at birth and no amount of experience could alter them. If you were relaxed and easy going as a child, for example, that would be the result would not be possible for you to change those characteristics. But personality characteristics are not completely dictated by heredity.

Page 47: Administrative Behavior

Environment: Among the factors that exert pressures on our personality formation are the culture in which we are raised; our early conditioning; the norms among our family, friends, and social groups; and other influences that we experience. These environmental factors play a substantial role in shaping our personalities.

For example, culture establishes the norms, attitudes, and values that are passed along from one generation to the next and create consistencies over time. An ideology that is intensely fostered in one culture may have only moderate influence in another.

Page 48: Administrative Behavior

Careful consideration of the arguments favoring either heredity or environment as the primary determinant of personality forces the conclusion that both are important. Heredity sets the parameters or outer limits, but an individual’s full potential will be determined by how he or she adjusts to the demands and requirements of the environment.

Situation A third factor, the situation, influences the effects of heredity and environment on personality. An individual’s personality, although generally stable and consistent, does change in different situations. The different demands of different situations call forth different aspects of one’s personality. So we shouldn’t look at personality patterns in isolation.

Page 49: Administrative Behavior

It seems only logical to suppose that situations will influence an individual’s personality, but a neat classification scheme that would tell us the impact of various types of situations has so far eluded us. However, we do know that certain situations are more relevant that others in influencing personality.

Page 50: Administrative Behavior

Personality Traits: Enduring characteristics that describe an individual’s behavior.

The Big Five Models: Extraversion: A personality dimension describing someone who is sociable, gregarious, and assertive.

Agreeableness: A personality dimension that describes someone who is good-natured, cooperative, and trusting.

Conscientiousness: A personality dimension that describes someone who is responsible, dependable, persistent, and organized.

Emotional Stability: A personality dimension that characterizes someone as calm, self-confident, secure (positive) versus nervous, depressed, and insecure (negative).

Openness to Experience: A personality dimension that characterizes someone in terms of imagination, sensitivity, and curiosity.

Page 51: Administrative Behavior

Locus of Control: Some people believe that they are masters of their own fate. Other people see themselves as pawns of fate, believing that what happens to them in their lives is due to luck or chance The first type, those who believe that they control their destinies, have been labeled internals, whereas the latter, who see their lives as being controlled by outside forces, have been called externals. A person’s perception of the source of his or her fate is termed locus of control.

Internals: Individuals who believe that they control what happens.

Externals: Individuals who believe that what happens to them is controlled by outside forces such as luck or chance.

Page 52: Administrative Behavior

Self-esteem:

Individuals’ degree of liking or disliking themselves. People differ in degree to which they like or dislike themselves . This trait is called self-esteem. The research of self-esteem (SE) offers some interesting insights into organizational behavior. For example, self-esteem is directly related to expectations for success. High SEs believe that they possess the ability they need to succeed at work.

Page 53: Administrative Behavior

Individually with high self-esteem will take more risks in job selection and are more likely to choose unconventional jobs than people with low self-esteem. The most generalizable finding on self-esteem is that low SEs are more susceptible to external influence than are high SEs. Low SEs are dependent on the receipt of positive evaluations from others. As a result, they are more likely to seek approval from others and more prone to conform to the beliefs and behavior those they respect than are high SEs. In managerial positions, low SEs will tend to be concerned with pleasing others and, therefore, are less likely to take unpopular stands than are high SEs.

Page 54: Administrative Behavior

Self-Monitoring: A personality trait that has recently received increased attention is called self-monitoring. It refers to an individual’s ability to adjust his or her behavior to external, situational factors. Individuals high in self-monitoring show considerable adaptability in adjusting their behavior to external situational factors. They are highly sensitive to external cues and can behave differently in different situations.

High self-monitors are capable of presenting striking contradictions between their public persona and their private self. Low self-monitors can’t disguise themselves in that way. They tend to display their true dispositions and attitudes in every situation; hence, there is high behavioral consistency between who they are and what they do.

Page 55: Administrative Behavior

However, preliminary evidence suggests that high self-monitors tend to pay closer attention the behavior of others and are more capable of conforming than are low self-monitors. In addition, high self-monitoring managers tend to be more mobile in their careers, receive more promotions (both internal and cross-organizational), and are more likely to occupy central positions in an organization.

We might also hypothesize that high self-monitors will be more successful in managerial positions in which individuals are required to play multiple, and even contradicting, roles. The high self-monitor is capable of putting on different “faces” for different audiences.

Page 56: Administrative Behavior

Risk Taking: People differ in their willingness to take chances. This propensity to assume or avoid risk has been shown to have an impact on how long it takes managers to make a decision and how much information they require before making their choice. In general, managers in large organizations tend to be risk averse, especially in contrast to growth-oriented entrepreneurs who actively manage small businesses.

Page 57: Administrative Behavior

Types of Personality: Do you know people are excessively competitive and always seem to be experiencing a sense of time urgency? “aggressively involved in a chronic, incessant struggle to achieve more and more in less and less time, and, if required to do so, against the opposing efforts of other things or other persons.

Type A Personality:1. Are always moving, walking, and eating rapidly;2. Feel impatient with the rate at which most events

take place;3. Strive to think or do two or more things at once;4. Cannot cope with leisure time;5. Are obsessed with numbers, measuring their

success in terms of how many or how much of everything they acquire.

Page 58: Administrative Behavior

Type B Personality:1. Never suffer from a sense of time urgency with its

accompanying impatience;2. Feel no need to display or discuss either their

achievements or accomplishments unless such exposure is demanded by the situation;

3. Play for fun and relaxation, rather than to exhibit their superiority at any cost;

4. Can relax without guilt.

Type A’s operate under moderate to high levels ofstress. They subject themselves to more or lesscontinuous time pressure, creating for themselves alife of deadlines. These characteristics result in

somerather specific behavioral outcomes.

Page 59: Administrative Behavior

For example, Type A’s are fast workers, because they emphasize quantity over quality. In managerial positions, Type A’s demonstrate their competitiveness by working long hours and, not infrequently, making poor decisions because they make them too fast. Type A’s are also rarely creative. Because of their concern with quantity and speed, they rely on past experience when faced with problems. They will not allocate the time necessary to develop unique solutions to new problems. They rarely vary in their responses to specific challenges in their milieu; hence, their behavior is easier to predict than that of Type B’s. Type A’s do better in job interviews because they are more likely to be judged as having desirable traits such as high drive, competence, aggressiveness, and success motivation. Are Type A’s or Type B’s more successful in organizations? Despite the Type A’s hard work, the Type B’s re the ones who appear to make it to the top. Great salespersons are usually Type A’s; senior executives are usually Type B’s.

Page 60: Administrative Behavior

“Deep Down, People Are All Alike”

This statement is essentially false. Only in the broadest sense can we say that “people are all alike.” For instance, it’s true that people all have values, attitudes, like and dislikes, feelings, goals, and similar general attributes. But individual differences are far more illuminating. People differ in intelligence, personality, abilities, ambition, motivation, emotional display, values, priorities, expectations, and the like. If we want to understand, explain, or predict human behavior accurately, we need to focus on individual differences. Your ability to predict behavior will be severely limited if you constantly assume that all people are alike or that everyone is like you.

Page 61: Administrative Behavior

Realistic: Prefers physical activities that require skill, strength, and coordination.

Investigative: Prefers activities that involve thinking, organizing, and understanding.

Social: Prefers activities that involve helping and developing others.

Conventional: Prefers rule-regulated, orderly, and unambiguous activities.

Enterprise: Prefers verbal activities in which there are opportunities to influence others and attain power.

Artistic: Prefers ambiguous and unsystematic activities that allow creative expression.

Page 62: Administrative Behavior

What are emotions?Affect: A broad range of feelings that people experience.

Emotions: Intense feeling that are directed at someone or something.

Moods: Feelings that tend to be less intense than emotions and that lack a contextual stimulus.

Emotional Labor: A situation in which an employee expresses organizationally desired emotions during interpersonal transactions.

Page 63: Administrative Behavior

Felt Versus Displayed Emotions: There are people with whom you have to work toward whom you find it very difficult to be friendly. May be you consider their personality abrasive. May be you know they’ve said negative things about you behind your back. Regardless, your job requires you to interact with these people on a regular basis. So you’re forced to feign friendliness.

Felt Emotions: An individual’s actual emotions.

Displayed Emotions: Emotions that are organizationally required and considered appropriate in a given job.

Page 64: Administrative Behavior

Emotions Dimensions

Variety: There are dozens of emotions. They include anger, contempt, enthusiasm, envy, fear, frustration, happiness, hate, hope, jealousy, joy, love, pride, surprise, and sadness. One way to classify them is by whether they are positive or negative. Positive emotions—like happiness and hope—express the opposite.

Emotions DimensionsEmotions Dimensions

Happiness Surprise Fear Sadness Anger Disgust

Page 65: Administrative Behavior

Perception and Individual Decision MakingPerception: A process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment. Why is perception important in the study of OB? Simply because people’s behavior is based on their perception of what reality is, not on reality itself. The world as it is perceived is the world that is behaviorally important.

Factors influencing perception: When an individual looks at a target and attempts to interpret what he or she sees, that interpretation is heavily influenced by the personal characteristics of the individual perceiver. Personal characteristics that affect perception include a person’s attitude personality, motives, interests, past experiences, and expectations.

Selective perception: People selectively interpret what they see on the basis of their interests, background, experience, and attitudes.

Page 66: Administrative Behavior

Halo Effect: A Drawing a general impression about an individual on the basis of a single characteristics. When we draw a general impression about an individual on the basis of single characteristic, such as intelligence, sociability, or appearance, a Halo effect is operating. The reality of the halo effect was confirmed in a classic study in which subjects were given a list of traits such as intelligent, skillful, practical, industrious, determined, and warm and were asked to evaluate the person to whom those traits applied.

When those traits were used, the person was judged to be wise, humorous, popular, and imaginative. When the same list was modified—cold was substituted for warm—a completely different set of perceptions was obtained. Clearly, the subjects were allowing a single trait to influence their overall impression of the person being judged.

Page 67: Administrative Behavior

Contrast Effects : Evaluation of a person’s characteristics that are affected by comparisons with other people recently encountered who rank higher or lower on the same characteristics.

Projection: Attributing one’s own characteristics to other people.

Stereotyping: Judging someone on the basis of one’s perception of the group to which that person belongs.

Page 68: Administrative Behavior

Specific Applications in Organizations:

People in organizations are always judging each other. Managers must appraise their employees’ performances. We evaluate how much effort our co-workers are putting into their jobs. When a new person joins a work team, he or she is immediately “sized up” by the other team members. In many cases, these judgments have important consequences for the organization. Let’s briefly look at a few of the more obvious applications.

Page 69: Administrative Behavior

Employment Interview:

Interviews generally draw early impressions that become very quickly entrenched. If negative information is exposed early in the interview, it tends to be more heavily weighted than if that same information comes out later. Studies indicate that most interviewers’ decisions change very little after the first four or five minutes of the interview. Aas result, information elicited early in the interview carries greater weight than does information elicited later, and a “good applicant” is probably characterized more by the absence of unfavorable characteristics than by the presence of favorable characteristics.

Page 70: Administrative Behavior

Self-fulfilling Prophecy: A situation in

which one person inaccurately perceives a second person and the resulting expectations cause the second person to behave in ways consistent with the original perception. The terms self-fulfilling prophecy, or Pygmalion effect, have evolved to characterize the fact that people’s expectations determine their behavior. In other words, if a manager expects big things from his people, they’re not likely to let him down. Similarly, if a manager expects people to perform minimally, they’ll tend to behave so as to meet those low expectations. The result then is that the expectations become reality.

Page 71: Administrative Behavior

THE LINK BETWEEN PERCEPTION AND INDIVIDUAL DECISION MAKING DECISION: The choices made from among two or more alternatives. Individuals in organizations make decisions. That is, they make choices from among two or more alternatives. Top managers, for instance, determine their organization’s goals, what products or services to offer, how best to finance operations, or where to locate a new manufacturing plant.

Middle-and lower-level managers determine production schedules, select new employees, and decide how pay raises are to be allocated. Of course, making decisions is not the sole province of managers. Non-managerial employees also make decisions that affect their jobs and the organizations for which they work.

Page 72: Administrative Behavior

Problem:

A discrepancy between some current state of affairs and some desired state. Decision making occurs as a creation to a Problem. That is, there is a discrepancy between some current state of affairs and some desired state, requiring the consideration of alternative courses of action. So if your car breaks down and you rely on it to get to work, you have a problem that requires a decision on your part. Unfortunately, most problems don’t come neatly packaged with a label “problem” clearly displayed on them.

One person’s problem is another person’s satisfactory state of affairs. One manager may view her division’s two percent decline in quarterly sales to be a serious problem requiring immediate action on her part. In contrast, her counterpart in another division of the same company, who also had a two percent sales decrease, may consider that percentage quite acceptable.

Page 73: Administrative Behavior

How Should Decisions Be Made

The Rational Decision-Making Process: Rational: Making consistent, value-maximizing choices within specified constraints.

1. Define the Problem2. Identify the decision criteria3. Allocate weights to the criteria4. Develop the alternatives5. Evaluate the alternatives6. Select the best alternative

Steps in the Rational Decision-Making ModelSteps in the Rational Decision-Making Model

Page 74: Administrative Behavior

The Rational Model: The six steps in rational decision-making model are:

The Model begins by defining the problem.

Once a decision maker has defined the problem, he or she needs to identify the decision criteria that will be important in solving the problem. In this step, the decision maker determines what is relevant in making the decision. This step brings the decision maker’s interests, values and similar personal preferences into the process. Identifying criteria is important because what one person thinks is relevant another person may not.

To weight the previously identified criteria in order to give them the correct priority in the decision.

Page 75: Administrative Behavior

The fourth step requires the decision maker to generate possible alternatives that could succeed in resolving the problem. No attempts is made in this step to appraise these alternatives, only to list them.

This is done by rating each alternative on each criterion. The strengths and weaknesses of each alternative become evident as they are compared with the criteria and weights established in the second and third steps.

The final step in this model requires computing the optimal decision. This is done evaluating each alternatives against the weighted criteria and selecting the alternative with the highest total score.

Page 76: Administrative Behavior

Assumptions of the Model

Problem Clarity: The Problem is clear and unambiguous. The decision maker is assumed to have complete information regarding the decision making.

Known Options:It is assumed the decision maker can identify all the relevant criteria and can list all the viable alternatives.

Clear Preferences: Rationally assumes that the criteria and alternatives can be ranked and weighted to reflect their importance.

Page 77: Administrative Behavior

Constant Preferences: It’s assumed that the specific design criteria are constant and that the weights assigned to them are stable over time.

No time or cost constraints: The rational decision maker that there are no time or cost constraints.

Maximum Payoff: The rational decision maker will choose the alternative that yields the highest perceived value.

Page 78: Administrative Behavior

Improving Creativity in Decision Making

The rational decision maker needs creativity, that is, the ability to produce novel and useful ideas. These are ideas that are different from what’s been done before but that are also appropriate to the problem or opportunity presented.

Three-Component Model of Creativityi. Expertise in the foundation for all creative work.ii. The second component is creative-thinking skills.iii. The final component is our model is intrinsic task motivation. This is the desire to work on something because it’s interesting, involving, exciting, satisfying, or personally challenging.

This motivational component is what turns creativity potential into actual creative ideas. It determines the extent to which individuals fully engage their expertise and creative skills. So creative people often love their work, to the point of seeming obsessed.

Page 79: Administrative Behavior

How are decisions actually mad in Organization

Are decision makers in organization rational? Do they carefully assess problems, identify all relevant criteria, use their creativity to identify all viable alternatives. Most decisions in the real world don’t follow the rational model. For instance, people are usually content to find an acceptable or reasonable solution to their problem rather than an optimal one. As such, decision makers generally make limited use of their creativity.

Bounded RationalityIndividuals make decisions by constructing simplified models that extract the essential features from problems without capturing all their complexity. Because the capacity of the human mind for formulating and solving complex problems is far too small to meet the requirements for full rationality, individuals operate within the confines of bounded rationality.

Page 80: Administrative Behavior

How does bounded rationality work for the typical individual? Once a problem is identified, the search for criteria and alternatives begins. But the list of criteria is likely to be far from exhaustive. The decision maker will identify a limited list made up of the more conspicuous choices. These are the choices that are easy to find and that tend to be highly visible. Once this limited set of alternatives is identified, the decision maker will began reviewing them.

Page 81: Administrative Behavior

But the review will not be comprehensive—not all the alternatives will be carefully evaluated. Instead, the decision maker will begin with alternatives that differ only in a relatively small degree from the choice currently in effect. Following along familiar and well-worn paths, the decision maker proceeds to review alternatives only until he or she identifies an alternative that is “good enough”—one that meets an acceptable level of performance. The first alternative that meets the “good enough” criterion ends the search. So the final solution represents a satisfaction choice rather than an optimal one.

Page 82: Administrative Behavior

Making Choice – Biases that creep in: Bin order to avoid information overload, decision makers rely on heuristics, or judgmental shortcuts, in decision making. There are two common categories of heuristics—availability and representatives.

Availability Heuristic: The tendency for people to base their judgments on information that is readily available to them.

Representative Heuristic: Assessing the likelihood of an occurrence by drawing analogies and seeing identical situations in which they don’t exist.

Escalation of Commitment: An increased commitment to a previous decision in spite of negative information.

Page 83: Administrative Behavior

Decision Making Styles:

1. The basic foundation of the model is the recognition that people differ along two dimensions.

2. The first is their way of thinking. Some people are logical and rational. They process information serially.

3. In contrast, some people are intuitive and creative. They perceive things as a whole. Note that these differences are above and beyond general human limitations such

as those we described regarding bounded rationality. The other dimension addresses a person’s tolerance for

ambiguity. Some people have a high need to structure information in ways that minimize ambiguity, while others are able to process many thoughts at the same time.

Page 84: Administrative Behavior

There are: directive, analytic, conceptual, and behavioral.

People using the directive style have a low tolerance for ambiguity and seek rationality. They are efficient and logical but their efficiency concerns result in decisions made with minimal information and with few alternatives assessed.

Directive types make decisions fast and they focus on the short run.

The analytic type has a much greater tolerance for ambiguity than do directive decision makers. This lead to the desire for more information and consideration of more alternatives than is true for directives. Analytic managers would be with novel and unexpected situations.

Page 85: Administrative Behavior

Individuals with a conceptual style tend to use data from multiple sources and consider many alternatives. Their focus is long range, and they are very good at finding creative solutions to problems.

The final category—the behavioral style—characterizes decision makers who have a strong concern for the people in the organization and their development. They’re concerned with the well-being of their subordinates and are receptive to suggestions from others.

Although these four categories are distinct, most managers have characteristics that fall into more than one. It’s probably best to think in terms of a manager’s dominant style and his or her backup styles.

Page 86: Administrative Behavior

What about Ethics in Decision Making

Three Ethical Decision CriteriaUtilitarianism: Decisions are made to provide the greatest good for the greater number.

Whistle-blowers: Individuals who report unethical practices by their employer to outsiders. Another ethical criterion is to focus on rights. This calls on individuals to make decisions consistent with fundamental liberties and privileges as set forth in documents like the Bill of Rights.

A third criterion is to focus on justice. This requires individuals to impose and enforce rules fairly and impartially so that there is an equitable distribution on benefits and costs. Union members typically favour this view. It justifies paying people the same wage for a given job, regardless of performance differences, and using seniority as the primary determination in making layoff decisions.

Page 87: Administrative Behavior

Ethics and National Culture: What is seen as an ethical decision in China may not to be seen as such in Canada. The reason is that there are no global ethical standards. Contrasts between Asia and the West provide an illustration. Because bribery is commonplace in countries such as China, a Canadian working in China might face the dilemma: Should I pay a bribe to secure business if it is an accepted part of that country’s culture?

Page 88: Administrative Behavior

Although ethical standards may seem ambiguous in the West, criteria defining right and wrong are actually much clearer in the West than in Asia. Few issues are black and white there; most are gray. The need for a global organizations to establish ethical principles for decision makers in countries such as India and China, and modifying them to reflect cultural norms, may critical if high standards are to be upheld and if consistent practices are to be achieved.