Administration and Interpretation of the Career Profile Inventory Administration and Interpretation...

Administration and Interpretation of Administration and Interpretation of the the Career Profile InventoryCareer Profile Inventory

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Envisia LearningEnvisia Learning

Envisia Learning is a provider and developer of innovative, high-quality people and process solutions for consultants and business professionals working with individuals, teams and organizations.

We provide a variety of customized and off the shelf products in the areas of 360-degree feedback, personality, career & stress assessment, survey solutions and on-line performance management systems, all customized and branded for the client and all of which are well-researched and validated to meet your needs.

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BALANCING INDIVIDUAL AND BALANCING INDIVIDUAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL NEEDSORGANIZATIONAL NEEDS

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ORGANIZATIONAL CAREER ORGANIZATIONAL CAREER MANAGEMENT ISSUESMANAGEMENT ISSUES

Pre-employment personnel selection systems to optimize employee satisfaction and productivity

Identification of “high potentials” and a talent management pipeline at all job levels

A talent management system emphasizing employee development

Proper alignment of employee’s skills, abilities, interests, and experiences with current and future job openings

Retention of talent and reduction of voluntary turnover

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Retention Costs

The 2000 Retention Practices Survey (SHRM) reported an average 17% annual voluntary quit rate across 473 organizations (highest was 44.9% in hospitality and lowest was 14.9% in manufacturing)

Cost of recruiting and training new leaders (supervisors and managers) is approximately 90-150% of the employee’s salary

US Department of Labor estimates that it costs an organization approximately one-third of a new hire’s annual salary to replace a non-exempt employee

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Retention Factors

A recent McKinsey study of 13,000 executives at more than 120 companies and case studies of 27 leading companies, revealed compelling evidence that better talent management leads to increased performance

On average, companies that did a better job of attracting, developing, and retaining highly talented managers earned 22 percentage points higher return to shareholders

Michels, E., Habdfield-Jones, H & Axlerod, B. (2001). The War for Talent. Harvard Business Press.

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Retention FactorsRetention Factors

Gallup's Employee Engagement Index reveals that, on average, about 70 percent of U.S. workers are not engaged in or are actively disengaged from their work.

A recent Towers Perrin multi-company survey revealed that only half (50 percent) of employees polled said their company inspires them to do their best work, suggesting companies are performing below their potential because they are not engaging employees

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OPD Employee Engagement Study

Results of two company wide employee engagement surveys were analyzed for all corporate staff for a large food service corporation for 2002 and 2004

Employees rated their own involvement with their organization and job using a benchmarked 12-item Employee Engagement Index (alpha .91)

Employees were asked additional questions about retention (intention to leave in 12 months), job satisfaction and perceptions of job stress

Nowack, K. (2005). Employee Engagement Matters: Relationship between Employee Engagement, Retention, Job Satisfaction and Stress

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1.22

1.54

2.54

2.02

1.54

2.58

1

2

3

LowEngagement

HighEngagement

Job Stress

Retention

Satisfaction

OPD Employee Engagement Study (N=163) Significant Differences (all p’s < .01)

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BUILDING A RETENTION CULTUREBUILDING A RETENTION CULTURE

Hold managers accountable for talent management including tying retention and developmental coaching to performance reviews

Train leaders on retention and development strategies so they can build a retention culture in their own units

Implement strategic talent development programs including coaching, 360 degree feedback and assessment centers to identify high potential leadership talent

Institute formalized mentoring and career assessment and development programs

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WORKFORCE 2010WORKFORCE 2010THE CHANGING CAREER PARADIGMSTHE CHANGING CAREER PARADIGMS

OLD PARADIGMS Job Security Longitudinal Career Paths Job/Person Fit Organizational Loyalty Career Success Academic Degree Position/Title Full-Time Employment Retirement Single Jobs/Careers Change in jobs based on fear Promotion highly tenure

based

NEW PARADIGMS Employability Security Alternate Career Paths Person/Organization Fit Job/Task Loyalty Work/Family Balance Continuous Relearning Competencies/Development Contract Employment Career Sabbaticals Multiple Jobs/Careers Change in jobs based on growth Promotion highly performance

based

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2005 Retention Driver 2005 Retention Driver SurveySurvey

Percentage (%) Retention Factor1

48.4 Exciting Work and Challenge

42.6 Career Growth, Learning and Development

41.8 Relationships/Working with Great People

31.8 Fair Pay

25.1 Supportive Management/Great Boss

23.0 Being Recognized, Valued and Respected

22.0 Benefits

17.0 Meaningful Work

16.5 Pride in Organization and Its Mission/Products

16.0 Great Work Environment/Culture

13.6 Flexibility

12.6 Autonomy/Sense of Control

10.5 Job Security/Stability

10.3 Location

7.7 Diverse and Changing Work Assignments

1Survey of over 7,600 employees in diverse industries by Career Systems International

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THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CONTRACTTHE PSYCHOLOGICAL CONTRACT

The overall set of expectations held by an individual with respect to what he or she will contribute to the organization and what the organization will provide in return.

Contributions fromthe Individual

• Effort• Ability• Loyalty• Skills• Time• Competencies

Inducements fromthe Organization

• Pay• Job security• Benefits• Career opportunities• Status• Promotion opportunities

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USES OF THE USES OF THE CAREER PROFILE INVENTORYCAREER PROFILE INVENTORY

Career Counseling Executive/Management Coaching Supervisory Training Management Development Career Resource Centers Assessment Centers Outplacement

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CAREER PROFILE INVENTORYCAREER PROFILE INVENTORYONLINE ADMINISTRATIONONLINE ADMINISTRATION

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SUMMARY OF SCALESSUMMARY OF SCALESCAREER PROFILE INVENTORYCAREER PROFILE INVENTORY

CAREER STAGE

CAREER PATH PREFERENCE

POLITICAL STYLE ORIENTATION

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CAREER MANAGEMENT PROCESSCAREER MANAGEMENT PROCESS

STEP 1

INDIVIDUAL ASSESSMENT

STEP 2

INTERPERSONAL ASSESSMENT

STEP 3

ORGANIZATIONAL ASSESSMENT

STEP 4

ACTION PLANNING

Who am I? (Career Stage, Path Preference, Political Style)

How do other see me? (Self-insight, image, political style, personality)

What are my options within the organization? (Knowledge of the organization, future trends, options, opportunities)

How do I achieve my goals? (Motivation, confidence, goal setting, action planning)

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COMBINATIONS OF CAREER COMBINATIONS OF CAREER INTERESTS AND SKILLSINTERESTS AND SKILLS

MinimizeMinimize DevelopDevelop

AvoidAvoid ExploreExplore

INTERESTS

Low High

Lo

wH

igh

SK

ILL

S

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CAREER PROFILE INVENTORYCAREER PROFILE INVENTORYPILOT RESEARCH STUDYPILOT RESEARCH STUDY

Initial pilot study established on 161 employed adults in 1990; Second item/scale analysis in 2002 (N=133)

Composed of 30% male and 70% female; 71.5% Caucasian, 11.5% Hispanic, 5.5% African American, 5.5% Asian, and 6% Other

Average age was 35.6 (S.D. =7.23) Sample was highly educated (50% possessed a

Bachelor’s degree, 19.3% a Masters, and 6% a Doctorate)

The employees came from over 14 diverse industries in both the public and private sectors

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CAREER PROFILE INVENTORYCAREER PROFILE INVENTORYPILOT RESEARCH STUDY NORMS (N=133)PILOT RESEARCH STUDY NORMS (N=133)

ALPHA CURRENT FUTURE

Career Stage Mean SD Mean SD

Entry .71 5.86 2.2 5.63 2.2

Development .64 7.04 1.7 7.49 1.7

Balance .68 5.28 1.9 6.96 2.0

Exploration .80 5.47 2.7 4.59 2.3

Career Path Preference

Managerial .60 9.29 2.7 9.68 2.9

Specialist .64 8.61 2.5 9.30 2.7

Generalist .67 9.62 2.7 11.30 2.7

Entrepreneurial .58 8.59 2.4 9.86 2.7

Political Style

Promoter .71 17.03 4.1 13.89 4.1

Strategist .63 17.67 2.9 17.22 3.9

Team Player .73 15.89 3.8 18.91 3.5

Independent .63 13.47 3.4 15.43 3.9

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CAREER PROFILE INVENTORYCAREER PROFILE INVENTORYSCALE CORRELATIONSSCALE CORRELATIONS

CAREER STAGE CORRELATIONS (*p < .01)

1 2 3 4

1. Entry __ .18 -.11 .09

2. Development __ .02 -.23*

3. Balance __ .02

4. Exploration __

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CAREER PATH CORRELATIONS (*p < .01)

1 2 3 4

1. Managerial __ .48* -.09 .06

2. Generalist __ .08 .19*

3. Specialist __ .49*

4. Entrepreneurial __

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POLITICAL STYLE CORRELATIONS (* p < .01)

1 2 3 4

1. Independent __ .40* .02 -.18*

2. Team Player __ .32* -.22*

3. Strategist __ -.23*

4. Promoter __

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Correlations Between Preferred Political Style and Preferred Career Path Preferences (*p < .01)

Preferred Political Style Orientation

Preferred Path Promoter Strategist Team Independent Player Player

Managerial .31* .34* .02 -.01

Generalist .26* .35* .26* .16

Specialist .08 .13 .21* .42*

Entrepreneurial .15 .21* .19* .30*

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CAREER PROFILE INVENTORYCAREER PROFILE INVENTORYCAREER STAGE SCALECAREER STAGE SCALE

ENTRY

DEVELOPMENT

BALANCED

EXPLORATION

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CAREER PROFILE INVENTORYCAREER PROFILE INVENTORYSTAGES OF CAREER DEVELOPMENTSTAGES OF CAREER DEVELOPMENT

Stage 5: Late Career (ages 55–retirement):Stage 5: Late Career (ages 55–retirement):Remain productive in work, maintain self-esteem, prepare for retirement.Remain productive in work, maintain self-esteem, prepare for retirement.

Stage 5: Late Career (ages 55–retirement):Stage 5: Late Career (ages 55–retirement):Remain productive in work, maintain self-esteem, prepare for retirement.Remain productive in work, maintain self-esteem, prepare for retirement.

Stage 4: Midcareer (ages 40–55):Stage 4: Midcareer (ages 40–55):Reappraise early career and early adulthood goals, reaffirm or modify goals, make choices Reappraise early career and early adulthood goals, reaffirm or modify goals, make choices appropriate to middle adult years, remain productive.appropriate to middle adult years, remain productive.

Stage 4: Midcareer (ages 40–55):Stage 4: Midcareer (ages 40–55):Reappraise early career and early adulthood goals, reaffirm or modify goals, make choices Reappraise early career and early adulthood goals, reaffirm or modify goals, make choices appropriate to middle adult years, remain productive.appropriate to middle adult years, remain productive.

Stage 3: Early Career (ages 25–40):Stage 3: Early Career (ages 25–40):Learn job, learn organizational rules and norms, fit into chosen occupation and Learn job, learn organizational rules and norms, fit into chosen occupation and organization, increase competence, pursue goals.organization, increase competence, pursue goals.

Stage 3: Early Career (ages 25–40):Stage 3: Early Career (ages 25–40):Learn job, learn organizational rules and norms, fit into chosen occupation and Learn job, learn organizational rules and norms, fit into chosen occupation and organization, increase competence, pursue goals.organization, increase competence, pursue goals.

Stage 2: Organizational Entry (ages 18–25):Stage 2: Organizational Entry (ages 18–25):Obtain job offer(s) from desired organization(s), select appropriate job based on complete Obtain job offer(s) from desired organization(s), select appropriate job based on complete and accurate information.and accurate information.

Stage 2: Organizational Entry (ages 18–25):Stage 2: Organizational Entry (ages 18–25):Obtain job offer(s) from desired organization(s), select appropriate job based on complete Obtain job offer(s) from desired organization(s), select appropriate job based on complete and accurate information.and accurate information.

Stage 1: Preparation for Work (ages 0–25):Stage 1: Preparation for Work (ages 0–25):Develop occupational self-image, assess alternative occupations, develop initial Develop occupational self-image, assess alternative occupations, develop initial occupational choice, pursue necessary education.occupational choice, pursue necessary education.

Stage 1: Preparation for Work (ages 0–25):Stage 1: Preparation for Work (ages 0–25):Develop occupational self-image, assess alternative occupations, develop initial Develop occupational self-image, assess alternative occupations, develop initial occupational choice, pursue necessary education.occupational choice, pursue necessary education.

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CAREER PROFILE INVENTORYCAREER PROFILE INVENTORYCAREER STAGE: ENTRYCAREER STAGE: ENTRY

This stage is characterized as the beginning of one's career (or new career), initial placement, the early process of "learning the ropes," figuring out what is expected from others in the organization and developing basic knowledge, skills and abilities.

It The major developmental theme associated with the entry career stage might be conceptualized as “self-validation” of an individual’s skills, abilities, and potential.

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CAREER PROFILE INVENTORYCAREER PROFILE INVENTORYCAREER STAGE: DEVELOPMENTCAREER STAGE: DEVELOPMENT

This stage is characterized by being accepted into the organization, being promoted and receiving increasingly more challenging assignments and responsibilities.

The major developmental theme associated with the development career stage might be conceptualized as “self-improvement” of an individual’s skills, abilities, and potential.

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CAREER PROFILE INVENTORYCAREER PROFILE INVENTORYCAREER STAGE: BALANCEDCAREER STAGE: BALANCED

This stage is characterized by self-satisfaction with previous organizational efforts and accomplishments, a re-assessment of career/life goals and developing a greater balance between work, family, children, recreation, leisure

The major developmental theme associated with the balance career stage might be conceptualized as “self-fulfillment” with an individual’s work/family activities, experiences and accomplishments.

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CAREER PROFILE INVENTORYCAREER PROFILE INVENTORYCAREER STAGE: EXPLORATIONCAREER STAGE: EXPLORATION

This stage is characterized by feelings of lack of mobility, options, choices or “fit” regarding one’s position, or career advancement (upward, laterally, or downward).

The major developmental theme associated with the exploration career stage might be conceptualized as active “self-exploration” and redefining of career options and opportunities where an individual can be successfully challenged, stimulated and continue to develop personally and professionally.

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BEHAVIORS OF EMPLOYEES IN THE BEHAVIORS OF EMPLOYEES IN THE EXPLORATION/TRAPPED CAREER STAGEEXPLORATION/TRAPPED CAREER STAGE

DISENGAGEMENT: Depressed aspirations, low organizational commitment, non-responsibility

CONSERVATIVE RESISTANCE: Chronic negativity/criticism, lack of initiative, low risk taking, territoriality

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CAREER PROFILE INVENTORYCAREER PROFILE INVENTORYTHE PLATEAUING TRAPTHE PLATEAUING TRAP

Career Plateau Situation in which for either organizational or

personal reasons the probability of moving up the career ladder is low.

Types of Plateaus Structural plateau: end of advancement Content plateau: lack of challenge Life plateau: crisis of personal identity

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CAREER STAGE THEORYCAREER STAGE THEORYSELECTED REFERENCESSELECTED REFERENCES

Berlew, D. & Hall, D. (1966). The socialization of managers. Administrative Science Quarterly, 2, 207-223

Dalton, G. & Thompson, P. (1977). The four stages of professional careers. Organizational Dynamics, 19-42

Erickson, E. (1959). Identity and the life cycle. Psychological Issues, New York: International Universities.

Hall, D. (1975). Pressures from work, self, and home in the life stages of married women. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 6, 121-132.

Hall, D. (1976). Careers in organizations. Santa Monica, CA: Goodyear Publishing.

Levinson, D. et al. (1974). The psychological development of men in early adulthood and the mid-life transition. In D.F. Hicks, A. Thomas, & M. Roff (eds.), Life history research in psychopathology. Vol. 3, Minneapolis, Minnesota: University of Minnesota Press.

Schein, E. (1971). The individual, the organization, and the career: A conceptual scheme. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 7, 401-426.

Super, D. & Bohn, M. (1970). Occupational psychology. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing.

Super, D. et al. (1957). Vocational development: A framework for research. New York: Teachers College Press, pp. 40-41.

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CAREER PROFILE INVENTORYCAREER PROFILE INVENTORYCAREER PATH PREFERENCES RESULTSCAREER PATH PREFERENCES RESULTS

0 5 10 15 20

Managerial

Generalist

Specialist

Entrepreneurial

Current

Prefer

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CAREER PROFILE INVENTORYCAREER PROFILE INVENTORYCAREER PATH PREFERENCESCAREER PATH PREFERENCES

MANAGERIAL

GENERALIST

SPECIALIST

ENTREPRENEURIAL

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CAREER PROFILE INVENTORYCAREER PROFILE INVENTORYMANAGERIAL CAREER PATHMANAGERIAL CAREER PATH

Traditional vertical movement with increasing levels of authority & responsibility in a managerial path

Decreasing opportunities for upward mobility in most upward mobility & career movement organizations

Organizational reward systems support upward mobility & career movement

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MANAGERIAL CAREER PATHMANAGERIAL CAREER PATHTYPICAL MOTIVES & REWARDSTYPICAL MOTIVES & REWARDS

TYPICAL MOTIVES Power Influence Control Managerial

Competence Leadership Achievement

TYPICAL REWARDS Promotion Increased Authority Increased Span of

Promotion Control Executive Perks

(e.g., stock options) Titles

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How Do You Develop Leaders?How Do You Develop Leaders?

Job change/rotation Special projects and assignments Exposure and involvement in key business challenges Task forces, committees, change initiatives

Job Performance feedback Executive coaching 360-degree feedback process Developmental assessment workshops

Critical skill building training programs Transition training programs Key external training programs Self-directed learning initiatives

Asc

endi

ng V

alueE

xper

ien

ceF

eed

bac

k &

Co

ach

ing

Fo

rmal

L

earn

ing

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DEVELOPING LEADERS WITH A DEVELOPING LEADERS WITH A MANAGERIAL CAREER PATH PREFERENCEMANAGERIAL CAREER PATH PREFERENCE

Cross-Functional Versatility

-Exposure to all functions

-Understanding of the organization Job/Developmental Challenges

-Structured experiences to facilitate development

-Strategic Assignments/Responsibilities Core Competencies

-Training on specific competencies/skills

-Transition training Derailment Factors

-Multi-rater feedback to identify strengths/development

-Coaching

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ENHANCING JOB/DEVELOPMENTAL ENHANCING JOB/DEVELOPMENTAL CHALLENGESCHALLENGES

Carry an assignment from beginning to end Become involved in a merger, acquisition,

strategic alliance, or partnership opportunity Implement an organization wide change

initiative Negotiate agreements with external

organizations Operate in a high pressure or high-visibility

situation Head a visible committee or organization wide

task force

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CAREER PROFILE INVENTORYCAREER PROFILE INVENTORYGENERALIST CAREER PATHGENERALIST CAREER PATH

Spiral career movements based on related experiences, knowledge & skills

Career movements result in a generalist background and experience

Consistent with a project and program management organizational career path

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GENERALIST CAREER PATHGENERALIST CAREER PATHTYPICAL REWARDS & MOTIVESTYPICAL REWARDS & MOTIVES

TYPICAL MOTIVES Professional Growth Personal

Development Continuous Learning Innovation Developing Others

TYPICAL REWARDS Cross-Training Job Rotation Project Management Education

Reimbursement Mentoring

Assignments

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CAREER PROFILE INVENTORYCAREER PROFILE INVENTORYSPECIALIST PATHSPECIALIST PATH

Typically remain in one occupational field for most of one’s career

Remain either economically anchored to one occupational area or utilize specialized education, knowledge & credentials

Some “Dual-Career” paths allow for independent contributor role

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SPECIALIST CAREER PATHSPECIALIST CAREER PATHTYPICAL MOTIVES & REWARDSTYPICAL MOTIVES & REWARDS

TYPICAL MOTIVES Technical

Competence Expertise Independence Affiliation Security Service to Others

TYPICAL REWARDS Recognition Job Security Benefits Continuing Education Involvement in

Professional Associations

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CAREER PROFILE INVENTORYCAREER PROFILE INVENTORYENTREPRENEURIAL CAREER PATHENTREPRENEURIAL CAREER PATH

Frequent occupational/career /job changes often unrelated to previous experiences

Traditionally viewed as “unstable” or “unreliable”

Fastest growing path among women and minority groups

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ENTREPRENEURIAL CAREER PATHENTREPRENEURIAL CAREER PATHTYPICAL MOTIVES & REWARDSTYPICAL MOTIVES & REWARDS

TYPICAL MOTIVES Entrepreneurship Autonomy Variety Risk/Challenge Achievement Creativity Flexibility

TYPICAL REWARDS Flexible Schedules Job Sharing Bonuses Independent

Contracts Consulting

Assignments

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CAREER PATH PREFERENCECAREER PATH PREFERENCEDISCUSSION QUESTIONSDISCUSSION QUESTIONS

What individual motives & rewards are most relevant for each path?

What opportunities exist within your organization for each career path?

What differences, if any, exist between your “Current” and “Prefer” scores on this scale?

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CAREER PATH PREFERENCECAREER PATH PREFERENCECOMMON BLENDSCOMMON BLENDS

Entrepreneurial + Specialist = External Consultant

Generalist + Specialist = Internal Consultant

Entrepreneurial + Manager = Entrepreneurial Leader

Generalist + Manager = Program Manager

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CAREER PATH THEORYCAREER PATH THEORYSELECTED REFERENCES SELECTED REFERENCES

Schein, E. (1978). Career Dynamics: Matching Individual and Organizational Needs. Menlo Park, Ca: Addison-Wesley.

Dalton, G., Thompson, P., & Price, R. (1977). Career stages: A model of professional careers in organizations. Organizational Dynamics, Summer, 19-42.

Dalton, G. & Thompson, P. (1986). Novations: Strategies for Career Management. Glenview, Ill: Foresman & Co.

McClelland, D. (1976). Power is the greater motivator. Harvard Business Review, 54, 100-110.

Driver, M. (1982). Career concepts: A new approach to career research. In R. Katz (ed.), Career Issues in Human Resources. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Von Glinow, M., Driver, M., Brousseau, K., & Prince, J. (1983). The design of a career oriented human resource system. Academy of Management Journal, 8, 23-32.

Derr, C.B. (1986). Managing the new careerist. San Franciso, Jossey-Bass.

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CAREER PROFILE INVENTORYCAREER PROFILE INVENTORYPOLITICAL STYLE ORIENTATION SCALEPOLITICAL STYLE ORIENTATION SCALE

PROMOTER

STRATEGIST

TEAM PLAYER

INDEPENDENT PLAYER

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CAREER PROFILE INVENTORYCAREER PROFILE INVENTORYPOLITICAL STYLE ORIENTATIONPOLITICAL STYLE ORIENTATION

Impression Conflict Management Management

Political Style Orientation

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Impression Management--Extent to which an individual sells, markets & promotes one’s self and/or his/her team

Conflict Management--Extent to which an individual fights for his/her way and/or his/her team

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CAREER PROFILE INVENTORYCAREER PROFILE INVENTORYPOLITICAL STYLE ORIENTATIONPOLITICAL STYLE ORIENTATIONIMPRESSION MANAGEMENTIMPRESSION MANAGEMENT

Promotes Self to a Low

Extent

Promotes Others to a Low Extent

Promotes Others to a High Extent

Promotes Self to a High

Extent

INDEPENDENTINDEPENDENT

STRATEGISTSTRATEGISTPROMOTERPROMOTER

TEAM PLAYERTEAM PLAYER

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CAREER PROFILE INVENTORYCAREER PROFILE INVENTORYPOLITICAL STYLE ORIENTATIONPOLITICAL STYLE ORIENTATIONCONFLICT MANAGEMENTCONFLICT MANAGEMENT

Fights for Self Interests to a Low Extent

Fights for Others Interests to a Low

Extent

Fights for Others Interests to a High

Extent

Fights for Self Interests to a High Extent

INDEPENDENTINDEPENDENT

STRATEGISTSTRATEGISTPROMOTERPROMOTER

TEAM PLAYERTEAM PLAYER

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PROMOTER: High Self Impression Management/Competitive Conflict Style

STRATEGIST: High Self & High Team Impression Management/Collaborative Conflict Style

TEAM PLAYER: High Team Impression Management/Compromising Conflict Style

INDEPENDENT PLAYER: Low Self & Low Team Impression Management/Avoiding Conflict Style

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POLITICAL STYLE ORIENTATIONPOLITICAL STYLE ORIENTATIONDISCUSSION QUESTIONSDISCUSSION QUESTIONS

How would you describe the “political culture” of your organization?

How are the four political styles rewarded?

How are the four political styles viewed by each other?

What differences, if any, exist between your “Current” and “Ideal” scores on this scale? What does this say about your political style orientation?

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POLITICAL STYLE THEORYPOLITICAL STYLE THEORYSELECTED REFERENCESSELECTED REFERENCES

K. Thomas (1976). Conflict and conflict management. In M. D. Donnette (ed.) Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology. Chicago: Rand McNally, pp. 889-935.

K. Thomas. (1977). Toward multidimensional values in teaching: Examples of conflict behaviors. Academy of Management Journal, 2, 480-489.

Kilman, T. & Thomas, K. (1978). Four perspectives of conflict management: An attributional framework for organization description and normative theory. Academy of Management Journal, 4, 59-68.

Leary, M. & Kowalski, R. (1990). Impression management: A literature review and two component model. Psychological Bulletin, 107, 34-47.

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