Adaptive Urban Development Rutger de Graaf

Adaptive urban development A symbiosis between cities on land and water in the 21st century

Inaugural Lecture

Rutger de Graaf

Adaptiveurbandevelopment Asymbiosisbetweencitiesonlandandwaterinthe21stcentury

Colophon

ISBN:9789051797992

1stedition,2012

©2012RutgerdeGraaf

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ofRotterdamUniversityofAppliedSciences

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Adaptive urbandevelopment Asymbiosisbetweencities

onlandandwaterinthe21stcentury

InauguralLectureRutgerdeGraaf

RotterdamUniversityPress

5 Adaptive urban development

Contents 01. Introduction

1.1 Urbanizationindeltaareas 1.2 Urbanizationandflooding 1.3 Urbanizationandlandscarcity 1.4 Theimpactofurbanizationontheurbanwatersystem 1.5 Scarcewaterresourcesandlandsubsidence 1.6 Nutrientproblemofdeltacities 1.7 Aparasiticmetabolism 1.8 Overviewoftheproblemandanoutlineofthesolution

02. Adaptiveurbandevelopmentonland: transformingexistingcities

2.1 Increaselandavailability 2.2 Decreasefloodrisk 2.3 Produceresources 2.4 Apositiveimpactonecosystems 2.5 Feasibilityandknowledgegaps 2.6 Researchagenda 2.7 Realizationprocess:Rotterdamandotherdeltacities

03. Adaptiveurbandevelopmentonthewater: floatingcities

3.1 Increaselandavailability 3.2 Decreasefloodrisk 3.3 Produceresources 3.4 Apositiveimpactonecosystems 3.5 Feasibilityandknowledgegaps 3.6 Researchagenda 3.7 Realizationprocess:Rotterdamandotherdeltacities 3.8 Apeople’sperspective

04. Conclusion

References

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6 Inaugural lecture Rutger de Graaf


01. Introduction

“You could not step twice into the same river; for

other waters are ever flowing on to you.”–Heraclitus

Citiesindeltaareasareconstantlychanging.Drivenbysocialprocessesandphysicalprocesses theyconstantlyadapt to thenewrealityandcreatenewpossibilitiesatthesametime.Today,changeindeltaareasseemstotakeplacemuchfasterthanever before. This book is about adaptive urban development in delta areas andelaborateswhatkindofstrategiesandtechnologiescanbeusedtoadapturbanareastoimportantchallengesinthe21stcenturysuchasresourcescarcity,flooddamage,land availability and climate change. The process of urbanization in delta areas istakenastheoverarchingthemefortheanalysisthatispresentedinthisbook.

1.1UrbanizationindeltaareasMostofthelargestcitiesintheworldcitiesarelocatedinareasthatarevulnerabletofloodingsuchascoastalplainsandriverplains,asfigure1.2demonstrates.Moreandmorepeoplearemoving to thesevulnerableareasascitiescontinue togrow.Until2100,5.0billionpeoplewillmovetocities,thisequalsmorethan150,000peopleeveryday.1The largestproportionofthesenewcitydwellerswill live invulnerablefloodplains. It isestimatedthat in2050,halfof theworldpopulationwillbe livingwithin100kilometresfromthecoast.2

Figure 1.1:

Predictedglobalurbanization,in2030theurbanpopulationwillbe5.0billionpeople3


Traditionally,humanshavesettled indeltaareasforanumberofgoodreasons. Intheseareas,reliablewaterresourcesareavailableandwastecanbeeasilydisposedtotheriverwhichtransportsitdownstream.Theabundanceoffertilelandprovidesgoodopportunitiesforagriculture.Theresultingfoodsurplusmakesasignificantpartofthepopulationavailabletoproduceothergoodsandservicesthatarevaluabletotheeconomy.Thesegoodscanbetransportedeasilytoothercitiesallovertheworldbecausegoodconnectionsbywatertransportareavailable.Itisthereforenotsurprisingthatmostofthelargestcitiesintheworldarelocatedindeltaareas.Ontheotherhand,urbanizationindeltaareashasalsocreatedseveralproblems.Thefirstcitiesindeltaareasweremostlybuiltonslightlyelevatedplacesin coastal plains, such as sand ridges, dunes or hills. This provided strategic andmilitary advantages but also protected the city against the frequently occurringfloods.Mechanizationofagricultureandthetransitionfromaruraleconomytoanindustrialized,andlaterserviceeconomy,hasdrivenmanypeopletocities.Ascitiescontinuedtogrow,theywereforcedtoexpandintomarshlandsandlocationswithalowerelevationcomparedtothehistoriccitycentre.Asaresult,theflooddamageincreasedwhichoftenledtotheconstructionofdikestoprotectthebuildingsandpeople.

Figure 1.2:

Mostoftheworldlargestcitiesarelocatedonthecoastandaregrowingrapidly(Source:DiCartography

Centre(2000)4

Howmuchspacedo theglobalcitiescover together? In literature there isahugevariation of estimates of the global urban area, depending on the measurementmethod,thedatacollectionmethodbutalsoonthedefinitionofwhatanurbanareais.Anareacanbeclassifiedasurbanbyaminimumsizeofasettlement,aminimum


populationdensityorbymeasuringacertainlightintensityfromsatellites.Thearealextentofurban landcovergeneratedbyGLC00,MODIS,andGRUMPare308,007,726,943, and 3,524,109 square kilometres.5 NewGeography6 estimates the totalamountofurbanareaat1.2millionkm2,whereastheEDROwebsite7estimatesthetotalamountofurbanarea5.2millionkm2.Inthisbookanestimatedsizeofthetotalurbanareaof2.0millionkm2willbeused.

1.2 UrbanizationandfloodingWhiledikeshaveproventobequiteeffectiveinprotectingcitiesagainstfloodingtheyalsohaveadrawback.Dikesstopthenaturalsedimentationprocessinriverplains.Inanaturalsituation,witheachfloodalayerofsedimentisaddedtothesoil.Asaresult,the land riseswith the same rateas the river.Afterdikeshavebeenconstructed,no sediment deposition takes place any more in the river plains behind the dikes.Insteadallsedimentsaredepositedbetweenthedikesortransporteddownstream.The land no longer keeps up with the rising level of the river bed, increasing thepotentialflooddamageoftheriverplainbehindthedike.Moreover,thelandbehindthedikesisoftendrainedtocreatemorefavourableconditionsforagricultureandurbandevelopment.Theincreasedparticlepressureinthesoilcausesthelandbeginstosubside,creatingevenlargerdifferencesbetweentheriverlevelandthelandlevel.Duetotheseprocesses,manydeltacitiesarepartly locatedbelowtheleveloftheriverorseaandexperienceseriousfloodriskasaconsequence.

Thecontinuingurbanizationprocessinfloodproneareashasledtoalargeincreaseincapitalandpopulationinvulnerableareas.Asaconsequence,floodriskhasincreaseddramatically.Afloodthattodaywouldcauseahugedamageandlossoflifewouldhavecausedmuch lowerdamage100yearsago.Themainreason isthatboththepopulationandtheamountofcapitalintheaffectedareaweremuchloweratthattime.Alsothenumberofextremefloodshasrisenasfigure1.6shows.Theaverageglobalflooddamageisnowaround19.2billionUS$ayear.8Theaveragenumberofdeathsduetofloodingamountto7508peopleperyear.Thesenumberscontinuesto riseas theconventionalwayofurbanizing indeltaareascontinuous.Figure 1.3showsthattheglobaldamageduetonaturalcatastrophes, includingflooding,hasrisendramaticallyover thepastdecades.Thenumberofnaturalcatastropheshasalso risensharplyasfigure 1.4demonstrates.Looking to the futureflooddamageisexpectedtoincreaseto48,6billionUS$peryear2100onlyasaresultofincomegrowthandpopulationgrowthnottakingintoaccounttheexpectedeffectsofclimatechange.8Urbanizationinvulnerablecoastalplainsandriverplainswillcontinueandmore buildings and infrastructure will be constructed in these areas. Moreover,climate change and sea level rise will even make flood plains more vulnerable toflooding.TheOECDhasinvestigatedhowmanypeoplewillbeexposedtofloodingin2070.9Figure1.6showsthatinparticularinChinaandIndiathenumberofpeoplethatare exposed will increase. The increase is caused by socio economic developmentsuchasrisinglivingstandardsandurbanization,butalsobytheexpectedimpactsofclimatechange.


Figure 1.3:

Trendsofeconomiclosses(inbillionUS$)duetonaturalcatastrophes(MunichRe2012)

Figure 1.4:

Numberofnaturalcatastrophesworldwide(MunichRe,2012)


Figure 1.5:

Totalnumberofextremefloodsworldwide(DartmouthFloodObservatory,2012)10

Figure 1.6:

Top15countriesbypopulationexposedtofloodingtodayandin2070(Nichollsetal(2007)andOECD,Paris)


1.3UrbanizationandlandscarcityNexttoincreasingfloodrisk,urbanizationindeltaareasalsoincreaseslandscarcity.Urbanizationconvertsagriculturallandintourbanareas.Oneeffectofgrowingdeltacitiesisthereforethereductionofproductiveagriculturalland.Atthesametime,thesegrowingcitiesrequiremoreagriculturallandtosupplyfoodandotherresourcestotherisingnumberofinhabitantswithincreasinglivingstandards.Moderncitiescanonlysurvivebyanagriculturalsystemthatisbasedonmassiveinputofenergy,waterandartificialfertilizer.Forexample,anamountof10kJoffossilfuelsisneededtoproduceanddeliver1kJoffoodtoaconsumerintheUS.11Suchafoodsupplysystemcanonlyexistwithrelativelycheapfossilfuels,whichsoonwillnolongerbe available. Biofuels are oftenmentionedas sustainablealternative to fossil fuels.However, biofuels require large amounts of land and water and compete with foodcropsfortheseresources.Thegrowingmarketforbiofuelsthereforeleadstoanevenagreaterdemandforagriculturalproductsanddrivesupfoodprices.Figure1.7showsthathumanitynowuses1.5timestheresourcesthantheglobecanprovideinasustainableway.Thismeansthatthenaturalresourcesarebeingdepletedfasterthantheyarereplenished.Itisestimatedthatin2050,theequivalentof3planetsare used to supply the world population with their needs. This means populationgrowthandtheriseofwelfareassociatedwithurbanizationleadstoanenormouslackofspace,inparticularindeltaareaswheremostoftheurbanizationtakesplace.

Figure 1.7:

Ecologicalfootprintoftheworldpopulation.12


The largeecological footprint ismainlycausedbycities,because this is theplacewhere most resources are consumed. Cities cause 70% of humanities ecologicalfootprint12. Delta cities generally also have a large ecological footprint. Figure 1.8showstheecologicalfootprintofvariousdeltacities.Thefiguredemonstratesthattheareaneededtosustainthesecitiesismuchlargerthanthecityitself.

Figure 1.8:

Theecologicalfootprintdrawntoscaleofvariousdeltacities(DeltaSync,2012)13


1.4TheimpactofurbanizationontheurbanwatersystemNexttofloodproblems,urbanizationalsoaltersthenaturalwatercycleandcreatesurbanwatermanagementproblems.Figure1.9showsthattheurbanwatersystemconsistsofcomponentsthatarecloselyrelated.Therefore it is importanttoapplya systems perspective when investigating problems in the urban water system.Traditionally,urbanrunoff istransportedoutofthecityasquicklyaspossible.Forthis purpose, predominantly combined sewer systems have been implemented inmostDutchcitiesandotherdeltacities.Inthesesystems,stormwateristransportedwithwastewaterinthesamepipe.Duringheavyrainstormsthecapacityofthesewersystemisnotsufficienttotransportallrunoff.Inthatcase,combinedseweroverflows(CSO’s) take place. This leads to the emission of diluted wastewater and sewagesludgetotheurbansurfacewater,decreasingthewaterqualityoftheurbansurfacewater.Todealwiththisproblemcurrentlyseparatesystemsaremostlyconstructedinnewurbanareastotransportstormwaterrunoffandwastewater.InexistingurbanareasdisconnectionofpavedsurfacesfromthesewersystemtakesplacetopreventCSOemissionstothesurfacewatersystem.Morewaterstoragecapacityiscreatedtopreventpluvialflooding.

Figure 1.9:

Schematizationoftheurbanwatersystemwithacombinedsewersystem14

In general, urbanization converts permeable natural soils into paved surfaces androofs while vegetation is removed. This process decreases evaporation, decreasesinfiltration whereas runoff is increased. Due to the high amount of runoff, urban


pluvial flooding and erosion of natural streams takes place. Urban runoff is alsopollutedduetobuildingmaterials,trafficpollutantsandothersources.Evenatlowlevelsofurbandevelopment,thedischargeofurbanrunoffbycentralisedcollectionandtransportationsystemshasdetrimentaleffectsonaquaticecosystems.15Reportedeffects on receiving waters include: flooding, erosion, sedimentation, temperaturerise,dissolvedoxygendepletion,eutrophication,toxicity,andreducedbiodiversity.

1.5ScarcewaterresourcesandlandsubsidenceAscitiesindeltaareasgrowandindustrydevelops,oftentheavailablesurfacewaterisnolongersufficienttodelivertherisingwaterdemand.Eithertheavailablequantityis no longer sufficient, or the decreasing water quality causes a water shortage.Theextractionofgroundwaterresources isoftenthenextstep.Located indeeperlayers,groundwaterresourcesarenotyetimpactedbytheeffectsofurbanization.Acombinationofwaterextractionfromthegroundwaterandreducedwaterinfiltrationduetourbanizationleadstoasituationwheregroundwaterextractiontakesplaceataratethatexceedsthenaturalreplenishment.Thegroundwatertabledecreasesandtheporepressureinthesoilparticlesincreases,leadingtolandsubsidence.Excessivewateruseforirrigationhascausedmassivewaterextractionfromgroundwaterlayersandrivers.Asanexample,anequivalentof130millionpeopleinChinaand175millionpeopleinIndiaarebeingfedwithgrainirrigatedwithwaterthatisbeingpumpedoutofaquifersfasterthanitcanbereplaced.17Overexploitationofgroundwaterresourcesindeltaareashasalsoledtolandsubsidenceandsaltwaterintrusioninmanydeltacities such as Jakarta, Bangkok, Shanghai and Venice. In Jakarta, Indonesia, landsubsidence of 20 cm to 200 cm has been reported in various locations and landsubsidenceratesofmorethan10cmayeararenotuncommon.18Asaresult,largepartsof thecitieshavesubsidedbelow thesea level.Theflood risk in suchcitiesincreasesasaconsequence.Duetooverexploitationofwaterresourcesindeltaareas,someriversnolongerreachthe sea anymore because all water is extracted for irrigation and drinking waterextraction. Examples are the Colorado River and Rio Grande in the United StatesandtheYellowRiverinChina.InotherriverssuchastheNileinEgyptandtheIndusinPakistan,thedischargehasconsiderablydropped.19Becauseriverflowisseverelyreducedoreveneliminated,saltwaterintrusionthreatensseveralcoastalareas.Theproductivity of these areas decreases, which further puts food production understrain.


Figure 1.10:

SituationinJakarta,Indonesia.Thehousingareaonthelefthassubsidedbelowsealevelandisonly

protectedbyalowfloodwall(picture:PietDircke,2012)

1.6NutrientproblemofdeltacitiesNitrogen is available in large quantities in the atmosphere. It is used to produceartificial fertilisers through ammonia synthesis (Haber Bosch process). Industrialammoniasynthesisisvitalforglobalfoodproductiontosustainthecurrentsizeofhumanpopulation.However,ithasledtoradicalchangesintheenvironment,includingwaterandairpollutionandalossofbiodiversityduetoahugeincreaseinammoniaproduction.20 The use of artificial fertilizer and extraction of water for irrigationhashugeimpactsontheecosystemsinriverbasins.Theexcessiveuseoffertilizersleadstoeutrophicationofwatersystemswhichischaracterizedbyanabundanceofnutrientsthatcanleadtoexcessivegrowthofphytoplanktonandalgae,whichleadsto oxygen depletion destroying aquatic life in affected areas. Notwithstanding theexcessofnutrientsindeltaareasduetoeutrophication,thedepletionofnutrientsinparticularphosphateisaseriousriskforthefoodsecurityofcities.Nutrientssuchasphosphatearenitratearecriticaltofoodsupply.Currently,theglobalfoodsupplydependsonartificialfertilizers.Theproductionofmostfertilizersisbasedonminingoffinitereservesofrockphosphate.Provenphosphatereservesaresufficientfor100yearsofeconomicuse.21Atthesametime,localurbannutrientsources,inparticularlocalwastewaterstreamsarehardlyused.


1.7AparasiticmetabolismThe metabolism of current cities resembles the behaviour of parasites. The citiesuse food, energy, and various other resources from surrounding areas and areaselsewhere.Moreovertheyaregrowingrapidlybytakingupproductive land. In thecities,theimportedresourcesareusedandchangedintomaterialwaste,CO

2,heat

andwastewater.Thesewastestreamsarenotusedinaproductiveway.Insteadthewaste products and their negative effects are disposed to the surrounding areas.The parasitic behaviour of cities is characterized by linear resources flows thatleadtodepletionofresourcesandaccumulationofnegativeeffectsofurbanizationin ecosystems. Therefore, there is an urgent need for cities in general and deltacities inparticular to transform intoproductivecities that live inbalancewith therural surroundings and the ecosystem. The metabolism of such cities should becharacterizedbycyclicresourceflowsandproductiveuseofwastestreamstoreducetheimpactonecosystems.

1.8OverviewoftheproblemandanoutlineofthesolutionUrbanizationindeltaareascausesanincreasinglyseverefloodproblem.Theprocessis also heavily constrained by the availability of space, food, energy and otherresources. Moreover, conventional urbanization leads to degradation of land andecosystems.Increasingtheefficiencyofagricultureisneededbutwillnotbeenoughtokeepupwiththerisingdemandforfood,biofuelsandcarboncapturing.Inadditiontoincreasetheagricultureproduction,oftenmorewaterextraction,morefertilizersand more energy is needed. This will again increase rather than decrease theecologicalfootprintofcities.Therefore,theproblemthatiscausedbytheparasiticbehaviourofdeltacitiesneedstobeaddressedbothinthedeltacitiesitself,andintheirfutureexpansions.Whatisneededarecitiesthat:

¬Increaselandavailabilityratherthancreatelandscarcity¬Decreasefloodriskratherthancreatefloodrisk¬Produceenergy,food,waterandnutrientsinsteadofonlyconsumingresources

andproducingwaste¬Have positive impact on ecosystems and create ecological habitat rather than

degradeecosystems

Thisistheoutlineofproductivecitieswithacyclicresourcemetabolism,alsocalledadaptive urban development in thisbook. Itwillbediscussed inmoredetail in thenextchapter.


02. Adaptiveurbandevelopment onland: transformingexistingcities

“You never change things by fighting the existing

reality. To change something, build a new model that

makes the existing model obsolete.”–RichardBuckminsterFuller

Adaptiveurbandevelopmentisthedesign,constructionandcontinuingevolutionofurbanareastoanticipateandreacttochangesintheenvironmentandsociety.Thesechangesincludebothprocesseswithinthecityitselfandexternaldevelopments.Thepreviouschapterpresentedfourgeneralobjectivesofadaptiveurbandevelopment.These four general objectives are used in this book to discuss adaptive urbandevelopmenton land(thischapter)andadaptiveurbandevelopmentonthewater(nextchapter).ConcreteexamplesaregivenabouttheurbandevelopmentprocessinRotterdamandotherdeltacities.Afterdiscussingthefourobjectives,thischapterwillelaborateonthefeasibilityandknowledgegaps.Finallytherealizationprocessinwillbediscussed.

2.1IncreaselandavailabilityOneofthemainobjectivesofadaptiveurbandevelopmentistosolvethescarcityoflandindeltaareasingeneralanddeltacitiesinparticular.

UrbandensificationUrbandensificationisanimportantstrategytoincreasethelandavailabilityindeltacities.Citiesthataredensermakemoreefficientuseofspaceandotherresources.22Asthedistancesbecomesmallerincitiesthatbecomedenser,lessenergyisneededfortransportationofgoodsandpeople.Italsoincreasesthewalkabilityofacityandmakespublictransportmorecompetitive.Theinhabitantswillbelessdependentoncarsanditwillbemorelikelythatpeoplewillwalkortakethebike.

Urbandensification,however,alsohassomedisadvantages.Duetourbandensificationtherewillbeahigheramountofpavedareasinacity.Theresultisafasterrainfallrunoff process which will lead to more frequent pluvial flooding. Increasing theamountofconventionalwater retentioncapacity isdifficult insuchcircumstancesbecause space is lacking. Therefore, urban water management innovations, suchasgreenroofs,watersquares,urbanfloodplains,stormwater infiltrationandwater


retention under buildings are needed to achieve sufficient water storage in highdensitycities.Anotherimportantobjectiveofurbanwatermanagementinnovationsistocontributetoabetterlivingqualityofdeltacitiesforcitizensandcompanies.InRotterdam,this is illustratedbythetitleofthemunicipalWaterplan2:’workingonwaterforanattractivecity.’

Figure 2.1 a & b:

UrbanfloodplainalongtheWestersingelinRotterdamduringnormalcircumstances(left)andintensive

rainfall.Anexampleofrealizingwaterretentioncapacitywhilespaceisscarce(Source:RotterdamClimate

Proof).

MultifunctionaluseofspaceonthelandMultifunctional space is the use of urban space for more than one function toincreasetheefficiencyoflanduse.Integrationofurbanplanningwithfloodcontrolstrategiesisakeycomponentofmultifunctionaluseofspaceindeltacities.Agoodexampleof sucha strategy is thedevelopmentof superlevees inJapan (figure 2.2).DuetothehighvalueofbuildingsandinfrastructurealongtheriversinTokyoandthe importanceof landownership, it isnotpossible todemolishanurbanarea toconstructa levee.Therefore,superleveescanonlybecreated incombinationwithurbanrenewalprojects.Duringtheplanningofanurbanrenewalprojectalongtheriver, the river manager is involved and a superlevee is integrated in the urbanrenewalplan.Characteristic for this typeofplanning is the longtermperspective.Onesegmentofsuperleveewillhavenoimpactonitsowninreducingthefloodingprobabilityofthecity.Thisreductionwillonlybematerializedifmultiplesegmentsof superlevees are created and if these segments are connected in order to forma superlevee riverfront. This will take decades to accomplish. The example of thesuperleveethereforedemonstratesthevalueofintegratingwatermanagementandurbanplanning,andtheuseofalongtermperspectivetotransformacityinordertomake itfloodproof. InRotterdam,currentlya roofpark levee iscreated. It isacombinationofalevee,agreenroofandashoppingcentre.


Figure 2.2:

Illustrationofaconventionaldike(top)andsuperlevee(bottom)23

Figure 2.3:

IllustrationoftheroofparkwhichisintegratedwithaleveenearMarconiplein,Rotterdam24


MultifunctionaluseofspaceonthewaterSincespaceisscarceincities,alsothewatersurfaceshouldbeusedinamultifunctionalway.Anexampleofmultifunctionaluseofthewatersurfaceistheconstructionoffloating buildings. Floating urbanization enables multi-functional use of space indenselypopulatedareas,withoutfurtherincreasingfloodrisk.Duringfloods,floatingconstructions increase the flood coping capacity of an urban area. No damage totheconstructionwilloccurbecausefloatingbuildingswilladapttotherisingwaterlevel. Inaddition,thesebuildingsmayserveasemergencyshelterduringflooding.Becausefloatinghousescanberelocated,theyarealsoflexibleandreversible,whichisabenefittodealwithuncertainfuturedevelopmentssuchasclimatechange.Indeltacitiestherearecurrentlytwomainfieldsofapplicationoffloatingurbanization.Thefirstisfloatingurbanizationinportareasthathavelosttheircommercialfunction.Theseareoftentheshallowestportsthatareclosesttothecitycentre.Asnewdeepseaportsaredevelopedtoaccommodatemodernships,theindustrialactivitymovesaway to these new ports leaving old ports vacant. Waterfront development andfloatingurbanizationpresentasolution togiveaneweconomic function to theseareas.Atthesametime,urbansprawlispreventedbyachievingmultifunctionaluseofspaceandurbandensification.Thesecondapplicationoffloatingurbanizationindeltacitiesismultifunctionaluseofwaterretentionareas.Toadapttomorefrequentextremeweatherevents,deltacitiesneedtodevelopahigheramountofsurfacewatertoincreasetheirwaterretentioncapacity.Becausepropertyvalueandlandcostsaregenerallyhighindeltacitiesandinparticularindenselybuiltareas,itisnecessarytoalsousethesenewwatersurfacesinacommercialway.Floatingurbanizationisapotentialsolutiontothisproblem.Partofthenewlyconstructedwatercanbesoldtofutureresidentsorprojectdeveloperstoconstructfloatingbuildings.Thismethodenablesthemunicipalitytoreclaimpartofthecostsofdevelopingsurfacewaterforwaterretention.VariousmunicipalitiesintheNetherlands,includingDelft,AmsterdamandRotterdamhavealreadysoldwaterplotsorarecurrentlyintheprocessofsellingwaterplots.Nexttofloatingurbanizationinabandonedpotareasandwaterretentionsurfaces,floatingurbanizationcanalsocreateapossibilitytoexpandonthesea.Inthenextchapter,thisoptionwillbediscussedinmoredetail.

Figure 2.4:

Floatingurbanizationplan

fortheMaashaven,Rotterdam

(DeltaSync,2010)


Nexttofloatingurbanization,anotherfunctionofurbansurfacewaterthatcanbepromotediswaterbasedpublictransport.CitiessuchasVenicehavealreadyappliedthisconceptforalongtime.Historically,alsoDutchcitiesusedurbanwatersystemsintensively for transportation. In the Netherlands, water was the most importantmodeoftransportationuntilthe19thcentury.Inthatperiod,thetrainbecamemoreimportantandmanycanalswerefilledin,becauseofhygienicproblemsandwaterpollution. However, in many cities the main water infrastructure is still present. Inaddition, many Dutch cities have plans to restore the historic water systems. Thiscreatesopportunitiestousethewatersystemagainforwaterbasedurbantransport.

Figure 2.5:

AplanforawaterbasedtransportnetworkforRotterdam(DeltaSync,2010)25

2.2DecreasefloodriskUrbanizationinfloodplainsusuallyincreasesfloodriskbecauseitleadstoanincreasein investedcapitalandpeople inanareathat isthreatenedbyfloods.Howcanweurbanizeinsuchawaythatfloodriskisnotincreasedorevendecreasesthefloodriskofsurroundingarea?Onetechnicalsolutionisfloodproofurbandevelopment.Multipletechnicalmeasuresareavailabletoconstructbuildingsandinfrastructureinsuchawaythatdamageisreduced.1

WetfloodproofingWet flood proofing or wet proof construction is a building method that allowstemporaryfloodingofthelowerpartsofthebuilding.Topreventdamage,preferablywaterresistantbuildingmaterialsareapplied.Alternatively,materialscanbeusedthatcanbeeasilyrepairedorreplaced.

1 Section 2.2 is based on DeltaSync(2012) Technologies and concepts for flood proofing hotspot buildings. Research developed under the EC FP7

project FloodProBE: technologies for the cost-effective protection of the built environment.


Figure 2.6:

Wetproofmethodschemewithtemporary

escapeways(E.Pasche,2008).

DryfloodproofingWithdryfloodproofingordryproofing,waterispreventedtoenterthebuilding.Thebuilding ismadewaterproofby treating the facadeswithcoatings,using resistantmaterialsorbuildingmaterialswithalowpermeability.Openingsinthefacadescanbeclosedwithfloodshields,panelsordoors.

Figure 2.8:

Doorbarrier(Levenmetwater,2008).

ElevationofbuildingsAnothermethod toprotectabuilding fromfloods is toelevate theentirebuildingabove the expected flood level. To enable the continuing functioning of such abuilding,theconnectiontoinfrastructureshouldbesecuredagainstfloodingaswell.

Figure 2.7:

CombinationofmobilewallsandcatwalksinHamburg,

Germany(E.Pasche,2008).

Figure 2.9:

PohkitGoh:'FloodHouse'(Architecture.com,2011).


Methodstoelevateabuildingacoupleofbuildingsarebuildingonstiltsandbuildingonmounds.

Figure 2.10.

OfficebuildingonstiltsinAmsterdam,

TheNetherlands(Fghbank,2012).

FloatingandamphibiousconstructionsFloatingandamphibiousstructuresallow theverticalbuildingmovementwith thechangingwaterlevelwhilefixingthebuildingatthehorizontallocationbyamooringsystem. While floating structures have water constantly present at the location,amphibiousstructuresarefoundedonthegroundandhavetheabilitytostartfloatingassoonasafloodoccurs.

Figure 2.12:

FloatinghousesinUtrecht,

TheNetherlands(W.Lindemans,2009).

Figure 2.11:

BuildingsonstiltsinTrondheim,

Norway(Allshesaysis.blogspot.com,2010).

Figure 2.13:

FloatingPavilionunderconstructioninRotterdam,

TheNetherlands(Deltasync,2010).


Figure 2.14:

AmphibiousdwellingsinMaasbommel,

TheNetherlands

(beeldbank.rws.nl,Rijkswaterstaat/RensJacobs,2004).

TemporaryandpermanentbarriersByconstructingeithertemporaryorpermanentbarriers,buildingscanbeprotectedagainst flooding. Temporary barriers are installed if a flood is predicted whilepermanentbarrierssuchasdikesorfloodwallsarepermanentlyinstalledaroundabuilding.

Figure 2.16:

Multipleexamplesoftemporaryfloodbarriers

Figure 2.15:

AmphibioushouseinNewOrleans,Louisiana,

USA(DeltaSync,2012).


Figure 2.17:

DutchdikealongtheWaal

(beeldbank.rws.nl,Rijkswaterstaat,

RuimtevoordeRivier/MartinvanLokven,2010).

DesignconsiderationsoffloodproofingmeasuresforhotspotbuildingsFor floods with a low flood level of less than 1 metre, wet proofing, dry proofing,stilts,moundsortemporarybarriersarethemostsuitablesolutions.Fordryfloodproofing,inthatcase,onlythelowest1metreofthebuildinghastobemadefloodproof. Temporary barriers are only useful if the flood can be predicted. They aremost suitable for short floods, for instancewithadurationofdaysorweeks, andarelativelylowfloodlevel.Amoundisagoodsolutionforlowfloodlevels.Inthatcasethecostsforgrounddisplacementarerelativelylow.Forafloodwithdurationofweeksormonthsthissolutionseemsappropriate.

Wetproofing isapossiblesolutionwhenshortperiodsoffloodsareexpectedandtheexpected frequencyofflooding iscomparably low.Permanentbarriersmaybeagoodstrategyforflood levels lowerthanonefloorthatoccurfrequently.Also incasefloodscannotbepredicted,permanentbarrierscanbeapreferableoption.Forhighfloodlevelsthatexceed3metres,floatingandamphibiousconstructionscanbeusefuloptions.Contrarytomostotherfloodproofingtechnologies,thecostsofthesetechnologieshardlyincreasewiththeflooddepth.Floatingandamphibiousbuildingcanadjusteasilytochangingwater levels.Bothtechnologiesaremostappropriateforlongerfloodduration.Withstiltsitispossibletode-signandconstructabuildingabovetheexpectedfloodlevel.Stiltscanbeappliedfordifferentflooddurationsandfloodlevels.However,elevationonstiltscreatesmultipleuseofspace.Itisthereforemore appropriate if the expected flood levels are higher than one floor. In thatcasethegroundfloorcanbeusedforanotherfunctionsuchasparking.Figure2.19summarizesthedesignconsiderationsasafunctionofflooddurationandflooddepth.

Figure 2.18:

HousewithdikeinVicksburg,Mississippi,

USA(HuffingtonPost,2011).


Figure 2.19:

Floodproofingconceptsforhotspotbuildings(DeltaSync,2012)

CriticalinfrastructuresandhotspotbuildingsMultipletechnicalmeasuresareavailabletoprotectordinarybuildingsfromflooding.However,tosecurethefunctioningofentireurbanareasduringaflood,itiskeythatalsocriticalinfrastructuresareprotected.Criticalinfrastructuressuchaselectricitynetworks,watersupply,communicationandtransportationarevitalforthecontinuingfunctioningofurbanareasduringfloods.Hotspotbuildingswithin thesenetworksincludepowerstations,watertreatmentplants,controlcentresofpublictransport,wastewatertreatmentplants,firefightingstationsandhospitals.Theavailabilityandfunctioningofhotspotbuildingsisneededtomaintaindailylifeasnormalaspossibleduringfloodsbutisalsorequiredforfastandeffectiverecoveryafterflooddisasters.Thefloodvulnerabilitythereforelargelydependsonthedegreeinwhichbothhighvalueassetsandcriticalurbaninfrastructureareaffected,eitherdirectlyorindirectly.

IntheFP7projectFloodProBEthefeasibilityandcosteffectivenessoffloodproofingvulnerabilityhotspotshasbeenstudied.Aresultoftheresearchisshownintable2.1.Thistablepresentsandoverviewoffeasibleandunfeasiblefloodproofingconceptsfordifferenttypesofhotspots.


Table 2.1:

Floodproofingconceptsforvulnerability(R=retrofit,canbeappliedonexistingbuilding)(DeltaSync,2012)

Wet proof

Í

Í

Í

Í

Í

Í

Í

Í

Í

√R

Í

Í

Í

Í

Í

Í

Dry proof

√R

√R

Í

√R

√R

√R

√R

Í

Í

√R

√R

√R

Í

Í

Í

√R

Stilts

Í

Í

√

√

Í

Í

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

Í

Mound

√

√

√

√

Í

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

Í

Floating

√R

√

√

√

Í

√

√

√

√

√

√

Í

√

√

Í

Í

Amphi- bious

√

√

√

√

Í

√

√

√

√

√

√

Í

√

√

Í

Í

Temporary Barriers

√R

√R

√R

√R

√R

√R

√R

Í

Í

√R

√R

√R

√R

Í

Í

√R

Permanent Barriers

√R

√R

√R

√R

√R

√R

√R

√R

√R

√R

√R

√R

√R

√R

Í

√R

Drinkingwater

treatment

Sewagewater

treatment

Substations,surface

Substations,building

Substations,

underground

Energystorage

Hospitals

Firestations

Policestations

Communicationcentres

Fooddistribution

Financialbuildings

Airports

Busstation

Trainstation

platformandtracks

Metrostation

underground


2.3ProduceresourcesTodealwiththechallengeofenergyscarcityandtoreducethenegativeimpactofcitiesontheenvironmentitiskeythatcitiesabandonthelinearresourceflows.Tomovetowardscyclicresourceflowscitieswillhavetousetheir internalsourcesofwater,energyandnutrientsfirstbeforetheyextractresourcesfromotherareas.Thisdoesnotmeanacityshouldbecomeanisolatedcompletelyselfsupportingsystem.However,citiesshouldusetheirinternalresourcesinanoptimalway.UsingtheurbanwatersystemasasourceUrbanwatersystemscanbevaluablesourceofwater,energyandnutrients.Rainwater,forinstanceisaresourcethatisoftennotutilizedinmostcities,insteaditismainlyconvertedintowastewaterincombinedsewersystems.Howeverrainwaterhasmanyopportunities of application. For example it can be used for flushing toilets or toirrigategreenspaces.Inacitythereareusuallymanyimpermeablesurfacesthatcanbeusedtocollectrainwaterinstoragesystems,forexampleinundergroundtanks.Theextractionofexternalwaterresourcescanbereducedbyapplyingthisstrategy.Figure2.20showshowintheTokyoDome,Japan,rainwaterrunoffiscapturedandusedinthebuilding.

Figure 2.20:

SchemeforcapturingandusingofrainwaterinTokyoDome,Japan26


Instead of transporting rainwater runoff as quickly as possible outside the cityby sewer systems, water can also be infiltrated to the groundwater, adding to thegroundwaterstorageofthecity.Inmanycitiesthisisnowwidelyappliedandawidevariety of technologies is available for this purpose such as bioretention systems,raingardens,permeablepavements,planterboxesbutalso infiltrationof rainwatertodeepergroundwater layersbyAquiferStorageandRecovery(ASR). InAustralialandscapearchitecture,watermanagementandtransitionmanagementhavebeencombinedinanewdisciplineofWaterSensitiveUrbanDesign(WSUD)whichisnowcommonlyusedacrossAustraliatoreflectanewparadigmthataimstoachievethatwaterenvironmentandinfrastructureservicedesignandmanagementopportunitiesarebeingconsidered in theearliest stagesof thedecisionmakingprocess that isassociatedwithurbanplanninganddesign.TheconceptofWSUDisaholisticurbanwatermanagementapproachthatencompassesallaspectsofintegratedurbanwatercyclemanagement,includingwatersupply,sewerage,andstormwatermanagement.TheobjectivesofWSUDinclude:

¬Reducingpotablewaterdemandthroughwaterefficientappliances,rainwaterandgreywaterre-use.

¬Minimisingwastewatergenerationandtreatmentofwastewatertoastandardsuitableforeffluentreuseopportunitiesand/orreleasetoreceivingwaters.

¬Treatingurbanstormwatertomeetwaterqualityobjectivesforreuseand/ordischargetosurfacewaters.

¬Preservingthenaturalhydrologicalregimeofcatchments.

Urban wastewater streams contain high amounts of phosphate and nitrates thatcouldbeusedasfertilizerforagriculture.Onthelongerterm,thisiscrucialbecausetheprovenreservesofphosphatearefinite. Insteadofburningwastewatersludge,nutrients should be recovered and cities can become a net producer of usefulfertilizersforagriculture.Thecyclecanbeclosedevenmorebyencouragingurbanagriculturewith locallyproducedfertilizers.Manycitiesnowseeafast increaseofurbanagriculture.InRotterdamtherearealready14locationsforurbanagriculture.Thisdevelopmentcanassistinmakingcitieslessdependentonexternalfoodsupplyandatthesametimecreateamarketforlocallyproducedfertilizer.

Nexttousingurbanwatersystemsasasourceforwatersupplyandnutrients,theycanalsofunctionasasourceofenergy.Possibilitiesincludetheuseofwastewaterforbiogasproduction,recoveringheatfromwastewaterstreamsbyheatpumps,andusingtheurbangroundwaterandsurfacewatersystemsasasourceofheat.InthePaleiskwartierin‘sHertogenboschapondisusedtocollectsolarenergyinsummer.Heatfromthispondisstoredinanaquiferthermalenergystorage,andisusedinwinter for heating the houses, offices and apartments in the area. The requiredsurfacewaterareaperhouseis70to90m2tocollectenoughheat.28


Figure 2.21 a&b:

Capturing,treatmentandinfiltrationofrainwaterrunofffromroadsinMelbourne(left)andPerth(right)

Australia.

Figure 2.22:

PaleiskwartierDenBosch,ashallowpondisusedasheatcollectorforthenearbyapartments.

(Photo:E.Aparicio,2008).


2.4ApositiveimpactonecosystemsUsingnutrients,CO

2andotherwasteinaproductivewaywillreducetheimpactof

citiesontheenvironment.Theurbanmetabolismwillhaveamorecycliccharacter,less waste will be disposed to the surrounding area and fewer resources will beextracted.However,citiescanalsothemselvesbeavaluablepartofanecosystemandcreatehabitat.Incitiesthebiodiversitycanbeevenhigherthaninruralareaswithmonoculturesofagriculturalcrops.Urbanwatersystemscanformaconnectionbetween different nature areas as they offer a migration route for fish and otheranimals.AgoodexampleistheBlueConnection(BlauweVerbinding)inRotterdam.This isawaterconnectionof13kilometresbetweenBarendrecht,anewlandscapeparkinAlbrandswaardandthesouthofRotterdam.Atthesametimetheconnectionhasrecreationalfunctionsandservesaswaterretentionstorage.Nexttourbanwatersystems,alsobuildingscanbeusedtocreatehabitatbythedevelopmentofgreenroofsandgreenwalls.

2.5FeasibilityandknowledgegapsInthischaptermanypossibilitieshavebeendiscussedforcitiestobecomemorefloodproof,reducelandscarcity,produceresourcesandcreateecologicalhabitat.Mostofthepossibilitieswereillustratedwithpracticalexamplesofrealizedprojects.However,forfloodproofurbanization,mostoftheexampleswerelimitedtoindividualbuildings.There is a lack of knowledge how these technologies and concepts could be usedtodevelopanintegralconceptforfloodproofneighbourhoodsorcities.Scalingupfloodproofingtechnologiesbeyondthescaleofanindividualbuildingisanimportantfieldofresearchforthecomingyears.Suchastudyshouldalsotake intoaccountcriticalinfrastructuresandhotspotbuildingswithintheseinfrastructures.Floodproofbuildingsarenotsufficienttomakeafloodproofcityascriticalinfrastructuresshouldalsofunctionduringafloodtomaintaindailylife.Alsotheinterdependenciesbetweendifferent critical infrastructures play a key role.29 A system to evaluate and selectdifferentfloodproofingoptionsforcriticalinfrastructuresshouldalsobedeveloped.

Although technologies and concepts are available for delta cities to transformintoadaptivecities, theactual implementationremains limited tosmall scalepilotprojectswithsmalloverallimpactontheurbansystem.Therefore,moreknowledgeis needed what the required skills, capacities and development methods are thatcities would need to transform successfully into cities that are less vulnerable toflooding, produce resources, create ecological habitat and deal with land scarcity.An international classification of delta cities in different stages of developmentand research on strategies to progress from one stage to the following stage areneeded. Also more insight needs to be built on which capacities are needed forcities to implement adaptation measures. An international research network withclimateadaptationcentresindeltacitiesworldwidewouldbeusefultofacilitatejointresearch,knowledgeexchangeandcapacitybuilding.


2.6ResearchagendaIn this chapter, knowledge gaps have been identified for adaptive urbanizationon land. These knowledge gaps will be addressed in the coming years. Within theresearchcentreRDMSustainableSolutionswhichisapartofRotterdamUniversityofAppliedSciences,thesegapsofadaptiveurbandevelopmentwillbestudiedinclosecollaborationwithgovernmentorganizations,NGO’sandentrepreneurs,SME’sandlargecompanies.Forthispurposeafouryearsresearchagendaforadaptiveurbandevelopmentandwatermanagementhasbeendevelopedthatincludesthefollowingtopics.30Thisagendafitsintheoverarchingstrategicplanoftheresearchcentre.31

Table 2.2

Adaptiveurbandevelopmentonlandresearchprojectsthatwillbeexecutedinthecomingyearstoaddress

knowledgegapsthatwerediscussedinthischapter

Knowledgegaps

Largescalestrategiesforprotectinghotspotbuildings

andcriticalinfrastructures

Integralconceptsoffloodproofneighbourhood

development

Contributionofinnovativewatermanagementconcepts

onsystemwidechange

Developmentmethodsandstrategiestotransitionto

stagesofdevelopmentofwatercities

Requiredskillsandcapacitiestoorganiseclimate

adaptationprocesses

Comparisonbetweentransitionprocessesindeltacities

withregardtoclimateadaptation

Project

ProtectingVulnerabilityHotspots

inCriticalInfrastructure

Innovativefloodproofing

Innovationsinurbanwatermanagement

Rotterdamasentrepreneurialwater

andadaptationshowcase

Organisingadaptationcapacities

indeltacities

Climatechangeadaptationdeltacentres

2.7Realizationprocess:RotterdamandotherdeltacitiesWhat determines if innovations are applied and eventually become mainstreampractice?Recentresearchgivesanoutlineofimportantfactors.32

IncludinginnovationsinspatialdevelopmentFirst, innovations should be included in spatial development processes. For thispurpose,watermanagersandspatialplannersshouldcollaborateinlongtermvision


development.AstudyonRotterdamWatercity2035showsthatcooperationbetweendisciplines can lead to a change in perception in which both disciplines becameconvinced of the benefits of cooperation.33 To successfully integrate flood controlandurbanplanning, the roleofwatermanagers in spatialdevelopmentprocessesshouldchangefromareactiveroleat theendof thespatialdevelopmentprocesstowardarolewherethewatermanagertakesmoreinitiative.Bytakingthisapproach,waterresourcesandfloodcontrolinterestscanbeincludedmuchearlierinthespatialdevelopment process. In the Netherlands, Waterboard De Stichtse Rijnlanden hastakensuchaninitiativebydevelopingaspatialplanforafloodproofurbandistrict.Thisdistrictincludesmultiplefloodproofingconceptssuchaswetfloodproofing,dryfloodproofing,amphibioushousing,floatinghousing,developingfloodsheltersandbuildingonstilts.

StakeholderreceptivityAsecondfactorthatdeterminesifinnovationsareappliedisstakeholderreceptivity.JeffreyandSeaton34definedreceptivityas“the extent to which there exists not only a willingness (or disposition) but also an ability (or capability) in different constituencies (individuals, communities, organisations, agencies, etc) to absorb, accept and utilise innovation options.”Formainstreamingofnewprofessionalpracticesandalternativetechnological options, four attributes are required according to the receptivityframework:

¬Awareness:beingawarethataproblemexists,andthatalternativeoptionsareavailable

¬Association:associatetheseoptionswiththestakeholdersownagendaandobjectives

¬Acquisition:beingabletoacquire,implement,operateandmaintainthealternativeoptions

¬Application:havingsufficientlegalandfinancialincentivestoapplythealternativeoptions

Receptivity means that stakeholders need to be open to the concepts that aredevelopedbychangeagentsinenvisioningprocesses.InRotterdam,watermanage-menttraditionallyreceivedlittlepriority.Urbanplannersdiscoveredthatwaterhadthe potential to make the city more attractive to citizens and companies.35 Thiscreatedawillingnesstoincludewaterinnovationsinurbanplanning.SolutionsthatweredevelopedintheRotterdamWatercity2035processwereseenasapotentialcontributiontotheurbanchallenge.Asaresult,politicianswerewillingtosupportthevision.Thewaterboardssawthevisionasanopportunitytorealisetheirwaterretention objectives in an urban environment where space for water retention isscarce.Asaconsequence,manyideasthatweredevelopedinRotterdamWatercity2035wereeventuallyincludedinofficialwatermanagementpolicyandarenowbeingimplementedinpractice.


Figure 2.23:

Rijnenburgduringnormaloperation:plandevelopedbyawaterboardforafloodproofurbandistrict

(DeltaSync/WaterboardStichtseRijnlanden,2011)

Figure 2.24:

Rijnenburgduringextremeweatherevent:plandevelopedbyawaterboardforafloodproofurbandistrict,

(DeltaSync/WaterboardStichtseRijnlanden,2011)


ImprovinginnovationsInnovationsinwatermanagement,energyandconstructionthatrequireanewwayof working, new skills and new knowledge will not easily be adopted even if theyaretechnicallyandeconomicallyfeasible.Innovationsareoftenisolatedshowpiecesthat hardly contribute to the overall transformation of the urban water system.36

These innovations are hardly evaluated and improved. Neither does replication ofdemonstrationprojectstakeplaceonalargescale.Therefore,theyremainisolatedand fail to influence mainstream day to day urban water management practice.BrownandKeathhavearguedthatsustainabilitypractitionersandstrategistsshouldfocusmoreonprovidingthecapacitiesandtoolsforreplicationandimprovementofdemonstrationprojectsratherthanjustthedemonstrationoftechnologyitself.37Forasuccessfultransitionfromcurrentcitiestofloodproofecocities, it isessentialtomakeinnovationsmorecompetitivecomparedtomainstreampractices.InRotterdam,RDM Campus aims provides an environment for improving innovations to be abletocompetewithmainstreampractice.Atthesametimestudentsandpractitionersgainnewskillsandknowledgethatwillenablethemtoworkinthisnewmarketofsustainabletechnologies.38

CreatingacommercialmarketItisnecessarytocreateacommercialmarketforinnovationsinordertorealizefloodproofecocities.Atthismoment,therearehardlyanyincentivesfordevelopersandcitizenstodemandlocalwatermanagementandenergyinnovations.Suchincentivescouldbecreatedbyawards,subsidies,increasedcompetitionamongdevelopers,andbindingtargetsandregulationswithregard towatermanagement for instanceonwaterrobustbuildings,sourcecontrol,waterquality,qualityoftheurbanlandscape,and integration with water management. For citizens, waterboard taxes should bemade dependent on the surface of connected paved area to the sewer system tostimulatelocalwaterretentionandwateruseonprivateproperty.

ThetaskofdesignersInaspatialdevelopmentprocesswithamoreimportantroleforcitizens,theroleofthedesignerwillchangefromadeterminingroletoafacilitatingandinspiringrole.Co-designwithcitizensbecomesanimportantapproachtodevelopsolutionsthatarefeasiblefromasocietalpointofview.Theroleofdesignisnottoproduceablueprintforafuturesituation,buttoinspirestakeholderstotakethedirectiontowardsfloodproofecocities.Additionally,theroleofdesignistoprovideinputfordiscussionsandstakeholderinvolvement.TheRijnhavenpark,aprojectthatisdiscussedinchapter4ofthisbook,isagoodexampleofthisapproach.

NewrolesforprofessionalsandcitizensThecapacityofurbanprofessionalsandcitizenstoperformdifferentrolesthanthetraditionalroles,isanenablingfactorforrealizingfloodproofecocities.Forexample,usingtheurbanwatersystemfornewfunctionsimpliesthaturbanwatermanagersandcitizenswillhavetofulfilnewtasksthatareunfamiliartothem.Anexampleofanewroleisthewaterboardasadeveloperofwaterplotsforfloatingurbanisation.Thewaterutilitycompanymaybecomeafacilitatoroflocalwatersupply.Apossibilityis


thatlocalwatertreatmentsareownedbyresidentsandthatthewaterutilitydevelopsanewbusinessmodelbasedonsupplyingtechnologyandservicecontracts.

InstitutionalmechanismsProfessionals should no longer be rewarded based on effective execution of theirfragmentedstatutorytasks,shorttermtargetsandcostsminimisation.Instead,theyshouldbejudgedontheircontributiontothetotalsystemperformanceandlongtermtargets.Thiscreatesroomforstakeholderstobeinvolvedinlongtermcollaborativeprojects. To secure public interests, selection of urban development partnershipsshouldbebasedoncosts,qualityandsystem impacts rather thancostsonly.Thisshouldbesupportedbyamanagementculturethatisleadershipdrivenratherthanresponsibilitydriven.Suchaculturerequiresthatprofessionalswillhavetodowhatisconsideredbeneficial insteadofdoingwhat is legallyprescribed.Thesechangeswillincreasethepotentialofsustainabilityinnovationstobreakthroughtoday-to-dayprofessionalpractice.


03. Adaptiveurbandevelopment onthewater: floatingcities

“We are tied to the ocean. And when we go back to

the sea, whether it is to sail or to watch - we are going

back from whence we came.”–JohnF.Kennedy

The previous chapter presented concepts and technologies for adaptive urbandevelopmentofexistingcitiesontheland.Thesetechnologiesandconceptscanbeappliedincityexpansionsorinurbanrenewalprojectsinexistingcities.Thischapterwillelaborateondevelopinganentirelynewmodelofacitybymakinguseoffloatingurbanization.Thechapterisstructuredaroundthesameobjectivesofadaptiveurbandevelopmentthatwerediscussedinthepreviouschapter.

¬ Increaselandavailabilityratherthancreatelandscarcity¬Decreasefloodriskratherthancreatefloodrisk¬Produceenergy,food,waterandnutrientsinsteadofonlyconsumingresources

andproducingwaste¬Havepositiveimpactonecosystemsandcreatehabitatratherthandegrade

ecosystemsSimilarasthepreviouschapter,attheendofthischapterthefeasibilityandknowledgegaps,andtherealizationprocesswillbediscussed.

3.1IncreaselandavailabilityTounderstandthenecessityofconstructingfloatingcitiesforlandavailability,firsttheglobalimpactofconventionallandbasedurbanizationneedstobeunderstood.Atpresent,thereareabout3.5billioncitydwellerslivingonanestimated2millionsquare kilometres of land. This is an average density of 1750 inhabitants/km2.Notwithstanding the objective of urban densification that was discussed in theprevioussection,datashowsthattheurbandensityhasactuallybeendecliningwiththerisingpopulationoverthepastdecades.39Until2100,5billioncitydwellerswillbeaddedtotheglobalurbanpopulation.Withrisinglivingstandards,peoplegenerallyrequiremorespace.Ifstilltheestimationismadethatthisprocesswilltakeplacewiththesamedensity,another2.85millionsquarekilometresof landareneeded.Thisnewurbanareasequals69timesthetotalareaoftheNetherlands,ormorethanhalfofthetotallandareaoftheEuropeanUnion.


Ascitiesgrow,theygenerallyusefertilecroplandforthispurposebecausethisistheareathatismostlylocatedaroundcities.Atthismoment,thereisatotalareaof16millionsquarekilometresofcroplandsintheworld.40Losing2.85millionsquarekilometresofcroplandtonewurbanareasmeansareductionof18%offertilecropland.Atthesametimethedemandforfoodwillrisedramaticallyduetothegrowingcities,risinglivingstandardsandincreasingpopularityofbiofuels.Itisestimatedthatalreadyby2050globalfoodsupplyneedstoincreasewith70%to100%comparedtocurrentlevelstoachieveglobalfoodsecurity.41Theremainingcroplandshouldbecome2to2.5timesasproductiveascurrentproductivitytoachievethis.Toachievethisgrowth,anannualproductivitygrowthof2to2.4%overthenext38yearsisneeded.However,figure3.1showsthattheproductivitygrowthofagriculture, isalreadydecliningfordecades.The required freshwater resourcesand fertilizers tosupport theneededdoublingofagriculturalproductivityarealso lacking.Fromtheperspectiveof landavailabilityandfoodsecurity,itisthereforenotfeasibletoaccommodate5.0billionadditionalcitydwellersinnewurbanareasontheland.

Figure 3.1:

Productivitygrowthin

agriculturehasalready

beendecliningforsome

decades

Figure 3.2:

Globallandavailability,in

2050,theworldlacksan

estimated22millionsquare

kilometres,ormorethantwo

timesChina.Iftherequired

CO2compensationistaken

intoaccount,theshortageis

evenmuchlarger

(DeltaSync,2012)


Amorefeasiblestrategythatisproposedinthisbook,istourbanizeonthesea.About70%oftheearthsurfaceissea.Thisareaisnotyetoptimallyused.Only0.8%oftheglobalseasurfaceisneededtoaccommodate5.0billionpeopleinfloatingcitiesatthe same average urban density as current land based cities. This density can beeasilyachievedbecausetheaveragedensityofurbanareasisquitelow.Urbanizationontheseawouldkeepthefertilecroplandsaroundcurrentcitiesinexistence.Thesecroplandsareurgentlyneededtoproducetherequiredfoodinthenextcentury.

3.2DecreasefloodriskBesidesaddressingtheproblemoflandscarcity,floatingcitiesarealsoaninterestingsolutionforreducingfloodrisk.Nodamagetotheconstructionwilloccurbecausefloatingbuildingswilladapttotherisingwaterlevel.Inaddition,floatingcitiesmayserve as emergency shelter for urban areas nearby during major flood disastersthat are more frequently taking place. Because floating cities can be relocated,theyarealsoflexibleandreversible,whichisabenefittodealwithuncertainfuturedevelopmentssuchasclimatechange.Asdescribedinthefirstchapter,theincreaseinfloodriskismainlyduetourbanization,socioeconomicchangesandmoreextremeweather events. Income rise and population rise will lead to an increase in yearlyflooddamagetoabout30billionUS$in2100.Floatingurbanizationisanalternativestrategythatdoesnotincreasefloodrisk.Therefore,onaglobalscaletheeconomicbenefits of floating urbanization are in the order of magnitude of multiple billiondollarseveryyearbypreventingariseinyearlyflooddamage.

3.3ProduceresourcesNext to reducing flood risk, floating cities can play a key role in increasing globalfoodsupplyandglobalenergyproductionbyproductivelyusingwasteproductsoflandbasedcities.CitiesonlandproduceCO

2,heatandnutrientsaswasteproducts.

Thesewasteproductscouldbeusedbyfloatingcitiestoproducefoodandbiofuels.Aroundfloatingcities,floatingalgaefarmsandseaweedfarmscouldbeconstructedthatprotectthefloatingcityagainstwaves.TheywillabsorbtheCO

2andnutrients

wasteofthelandbaseddeltacitiesandatthesametimeproducebiofuelsandfoodresourcesforthefloatingcityandlandbasedcities.

Algaebiomassproductionisstillinitsearlyyears.Biofuelproductionfrommicroalgaewithlipidcontentsofaround40%givesabiodieselyieldsof40to50tonsperhaperyear42andbyfarexceedthemostpromisingyieldsfromlandcrops.43Growingalgaetoproducebiofuelcanbe10to20timesmoreproductivecomparedtocornorsugarcane.

Foodproduction,inparticularaquaculturecanberealizedinfloatingcities.Therearemultipleconceptsandtechnologiesavailableforwaterbasedfoodproduction.Theconceptofaquaponics,forinstance,canbeappliedforthispurpose.Aquaponicsisacombinationofhydroponicsandaquaculture.Hydroponicsisamethodtogrowplantsin a liquid solution consisting of water and the required nutrients for a particular


plant.44Aquaponicscombinesplantgrowingwithfishfarminginaselfcontainedecosystem.Plantsandbacteriausethenutrientsthatfishcreateandpurifythewater.Bothfreshwaterfishandmarinefishcanbeproducedinfloatingtanks.Thisismuchmoreefficientthancattlefarmingonlandtofulfiltheworld’srisingproteindemand.Aquaculturecanbemorespaceefficientasproducingmeatontheland,theproductionofbiofuelcanbe10to20timesasefficientperunitareaasbiofuelproductionontheland.Thereforeplacingtheseactivitiesontheoceanmakesspaceavailableonthelandforinstancetocreatenatureagainoutofcroplands.Anotherhugebenefitisthatlessfreshwaterresourcesareneededforthistypeofproduction.Figure3.3showsthatifitispossibletomakethecombineddevelopmentofcities,foodproductionandbiofuelonthesea50timesmoreefficientthanaveragelandproductivitybyclosingtheloopandtheapplicationofbestpractices,only0.15%oftheoceansisneededandathirdofthecurrentagriculturalareaonlandcanbetakenoutofproduction.

Figure 3.3:

Bluerevolution:locatingapartoftheurban

areasontheoceanandreplacinginefficient

foodproductiononlandbyefficientseabased

production(DeltaSync,2012)


Floatingcitiesarethemissinglinktoclosethelinearresourceflowsthatcharacterizethecurrentdeltacities.Becausetheproposedmethodofaquaculturecanbebasedonsaltwateranduseswastenutrientsfromdeltacitiesinsteadofartificialfertilizers,it isoneofthefewpossibilitiesto increasetheglobalfoodandbiofuelproductionwithoutincreasingtheextractionoffreshwaterresourcesandrockphosphate.Thisconceptofafloatingcitybasedoncyclicresourceflowsiscalledthecyclicity(DeltaSync,

2012). Figures 3.4 - 3.6 illustrate the concept. In the cyclicity blue energy45 can beproducedbymakinguseoftheosmoticpressurebetweenfreshwaterandsaltwater.Alsotheconcepttousewaterforheatingandcoolingofbuildingsbyapplyingheatpumpsthatwasdescribedinthepreviouschapter,canbeappliedinthefloatingcity.Infloatingcities thatarenear thedeepocean,OceanThermalEnergyConversion(OTEC)canbeappliedasanadditionalenergysource.46

Figure 3.4

SchemeoftheCyclicity.Wastefromdeltaareasisusedforproductionoffoodandenergycreatinga

symbioticrelationbetweenthelandbasedcityandthefloatingcity(DeltaSync,2012).


Figure 3.5:

ImpressionoftheCyclicity.(DeltaSync,2012).

3.4ApositiveimpactonecosystemsByextractingnutrientsandCO

2fromthesurroundings,floatingcitiesalreadyhave

positiveimpactontheecosystemsindeltaareas.ExtractingCO2willalsobeameasure

againsttheincreasingacidityoftheseawater,whichisamajorthreattocoralreefsworldwide.47 Also an excess of nutrients in delta areas has a negative impact onmarineecosystems,animpactwhichisreducedbythecyclicityconcept.Inacylicity,the productivity per square meter of the aquaponics system is much higher thantheconventionalpracticeofcatching(anddepleting)stocksofwildfish.Thechangefrom catching wild fish towards aquaculture can be compared with the transitionfromhuntergatherersocietiestoagricultureontheland.Thistransitionincreasedthe foodavailability toagreatextent.Consequently,apartof thepopulationwasnolongerneededforfoodproductionandcouldspendtimeonthedevelopmentoftechnical innovations, science, culture, religionandpoliticalorganization.Thefirstcivilizationsandcitiesweretheresultofthisdevelopment.Ittookplaceonthelandwithinthelast11,000yearsafterbeinghuntergathersforabout7millionyearssincetheancestorsofmodernhumanbeingsdivergedfromtheancestorsofthecurrentgreatapes.48


Figure 3.6:

Currentcitieshavealinearmetabolism(top),thecyclicityconcept(bottom)createsaclosedloopof

nutrientsbetweenthelandcityandthefloatingcity

Onthesea,thebiggestpartofourplanet,humanityisstillinthehuntergatherphaseandshouldalsomakethetransitiontofoodproductioninanorganized,plannedandstructuredway.ThischangeiscalledtheBlueRevolutioninthisbook.Becausethefood productivity will rise dramatically compared to the current hunter gathererpractices,onlyavery smallpartof theoceanwill beneeded for foodproduction.In the remaining part of the ocean marine nature reserves should be created toprotectfishandotherspecies.Thisstrategywillgivemarineecosystemsalongtermperspectivetosurvival,aperspectivethatiscurrentlylackingwiththeglobalcollapseoffishstocksduetooverexploitationandthecontinuingdestructionofcoralreefs.


Figure 3.7:

Backwherewestartedfrom:floatingurbanizationasalogicalnextstepinhumandevelopment(DeltaSync,

2012)

Floatingcitiescanalsoprovidehabitatformultiplespecies.Mostofthemarinelifeisconcentrated inarelativelysmall fractionoftheseawithshallowareas,aroundland-water interfacesandnearstructuressuchascoral reefs.Theconstructionoffloatingcitieswillmakethe lengthof the land-water interfacesubstantially longerandproportionallyincreasetheecologicalpotentialofthecoastline.Aroundfloatingcitieswetlandsandartificialreefsshouldbecreatedtoprotectthefloatingcityfromwaves and at the same time create valuable habitat for a wide range of species.Artificialreefscanbemadefromrecycledmaterialsorwasteproductssuchasglassormetal.Aroundfloatingcitiesindeepwater,artificialreefsandwetlandscouldbeconstructedasconnectedfloatingorsuspendingobjects.Theresultwouldbethatthe amount of shallow water would increase and the potential habitat for wildlifewouldexpand.


3.5FeasibilityandknowledgegapsIs itpossibletocreatefloatingcitiesonthesea?Could itreallybethesolutiontosomeofhumanitiesmosturgentproblemssuchas landscarcity,urbanizationandfiniteresources?Inthischapterthefeasibilityandknowledgegapstoachievefloatingurbanizationwillbediscussed.

TechnicalfeasibilityandgapsManyfloatingprojectsthathavebeenrealizeddemonstratethatistechnicallypossibletobuildonthewater.Offshoreprojectssuchasoilplatformsbutalso largecruiseships have such a scale that they can almost be considered floating cities. Otherelements such as floating infrastructures, shallow water and deep water mooringsystems, artificial reefs, floating wetlands are already available on the market.This is also the case for decentralized production technologies of drinking water,energyandotherutilities.Themaintechnicalknowledgegapforthedevelopmentoffloatingcitiesisthereforenotthedevelopmentofnewtechnologiesbutmoretheintegrationofahugeamountofdifferentexistingtechnologiesandtheupscalingandimprovementof these technologies.This is theessentialchallenge for thecomingyears.OneofthekeycomponentsoftheurbanexpansionstrategyonthewateristheuseofwastenutrientsandCO

2toproducealgae,fishandcrops.Thetechnologies

toachievethisarealreadyonthemarketandrapidlydeveloping. Inparticularthefurtherimprovementandtheintegrationofthesetechnologiesinfloatingcitiesisagapthatneedstobeaddressedinthecomingyears.

DesignfeasibilityandgapsThe ideatocreatefloatingcities isnotnewandovertheyearsmanydesignsandplans have been proposed for floating cities on the sea or inland water. In 1895,JulesVernealreadydescribedaconstructedfloatingislandinhisnovell’IleaHélice.More recently, a huge amount of innovative designs for floating buildings alreadyhavebeenmade.Mostofthemcouldbeeasilyimplementedinfloatingcities.Whatislacking,however,isanurbandesignphilosophythatisspecificallydevelopedforfloatingcities.Manydesignsforfloatingcitiesarestillclearlyderivedfromlandbasedcitiesandfocusedonthebuildingscale.Othershaveafuturisticcharactersimilartospaceships.Integratedknowledgeabouturbandensities,buildingtypologiesandabroadervisionandimaginationonhowitwouldactuallybetoliveinafloatingcityisstilllacking.Thereisthereforeaneedtodevelopurbandesigninstrumentsthatarespecifically accustomed to floating cities. This includes solutions for public space,separation between public space and private space, mobility and transportation,densities,landuseandaboveall,moredetailedknowledgeandunderstandingaboutthepossiblewayoflifeinfloatingcities.


Figure 3.8:

JulesVerne,l’IleaHélice(1895),inthisbook

thealreadyaconstructedfloatingisland

wasdescribed

Figure 3.8:

JulesVerne,l’IleaHélice(1895),inthisbook

thealreadyafirstconstructedfloatingisland

wasdescribed

EnvironmentalfeasibilityandgapsFloatingcitieswillbesurroundedbywetlandsandartificialreefsandcreatehabitatformanyspecies.FloatingcitieswillalsoabsorbCO

2andnutrientsandsolvepart

oftheenvironmentalproblemsofdeltaareasonland.Onefieldofknowledgethatstill needs to be developed is the impact of floating cities on water quality andecology.Creatingsmallplatformscreatesshadingandhidingplacesforfish.However,coveringwatersurfacesthataretoolargecoulddeprivethewaterfromsunlightandwillhavenegative impactsonplantsandfish.Thisproblemcouldbeaddressedbyleavingpartsofthesurfaceinafloatingcityopen.Theknowledgehowmuchwatershouldbeleftopenandwhatthemaximalsizeoffloatingplatformscouldbewithoutnegativeimpactsonthewaterqualityandecologyisanareaofresearchthatwillbeinvestigatedinthecomingyears.

EconomicfeasibilityandgapsFloatingcitiesneedtohaveathrivingeconomyandenoughjobsforitsinhabitants.Inaglobalizedeconomythatisconnectedthroughmoderninformationtechnology,the location of companies is becoming more and more independent from thelocationofthemarket.Manycompaniesalreadyproduceandsellproductsallovertheworld.Theycouldalsofindanexcellentlocationinafloatingcity.Floatingcitiescouldbecreatednear internationalshippingroutes,givingcompaniesconnectivityadvantagesoverlandbasedcompanies.Theextensiveaquaculturearoundfloatingcitieswouldalsogeneratejobsandcreateopportunitiesforhightechcompaniestodevelopand implementnewtechnologies. Iffloatingcitiesare locatedoutside theterritorialwaters,theycouldbenefitfromtaxbenefitsandattractmanycompaniesandentrepreneurs.AnexampleofsuchaplanisBlueSeed,asiliconvalleyfloatingtechnologyincubatorthatisplanned12nauticalmilesfromSanFranciscotoattractentrepreneursfromallovertheworldwithouttheneedtoapplyforworkvisa.


Floating cities will not be connected to mainland electricity and water networks.Mainly decentralized technologies for water and energy production will be used.Floatingcitiesareagreattestinganddevelopinggroundforthesetechnologiesbutatthesametime,theywouldalsobeagrowingmarketforthem.Thiswillincreasethe attractiveness for companies to invest in research and development of thesetechnologies.Lowercostsandahigherqualitywill be the result.Also jobswill becreated. Ultimately, decentralized sustainable technologies will be better ableto compete with the land based outdated infrastructures that are dependent onfossil fuel input and were invented during the industrial revolution. Floating citiesthereforealsoprovidethemeansforlandbasedcitiestobecomemoresustainablebydevelopinganewmodelofcityandgeneratingmoreefficientandcompetitivecleantechnologies.Othereconomicbenefitsoffloatingurbanizationarethepreventionofflooddamagecompared to urbanization on land and saving scarce agricultural land from beingconvertedintourbanspace.Theconversionoflandwouldultimatelybepaidbytheglobalhumanpopulationintheformofrisingfoodprices.Thisisalreadyhappeningtoday.Thelocationacquisitioncoststobuildacitywillalsobemuchlowerontheseathanonthelandwhileconstructioncostswillbehigher.Although the general economic feasibility looks promising, the current economicmodels for real estate development are probably not suitable for floating citydevelopment.Citiescouldsellpiecesofwater inasimilarwayastheysellplotsofland to real estate developers. However, usually cities are not the owners of thesea. New economic models need to be studied and developed to support floatingcity development. As an alternative to sea acquisition, floating cities could alsorentacoastallocationfromacertaincountry.TherentcouldbepaidbydeliveringecologicalservicessuchasCO

2capturing,biofuelproductionandwasteprocessing

fromcitiesonland.Suchanon-monetarysymbioticeconomicmodelcouldprovetobeofgreatvalueasapossiblealternativetothecurrentgrowthdependentglobalfinancialsystemthatisnotproperlyfunctioningandunsustainableinthelongterm.

Figure 3.9:

Blueseed:aplanforafloatinghitechstartupincubator12milesfromthecoastofSanFrancisco,USA


GovernancefeasibilityandgapsHowcouldafloatingcitybegoverned?Overthelastdecadestherehasbeenashiftfrom top down hierarchical steering (government) towards more network drivendecentralizedformsofpolicymakingwithmultipleactors(governance).Floatingcitiesofferanopportunitytotakethisdevelopmentastepfurtherbyusingtheopportunitiesthatdecentralizedtechnologiesoffer.Inthefloatingcity,decentralizedconceptsforwatersupply,energyproductionandotherutilitiesareapplied.Citizensandgroupsofcitizenshavetheopportunitytomanagetheirownutilitiesandproduceelectricityandwaterinsteadofonlybeingapassiveconsumeroflargeutilitycompaniesthatarestilldependentonfossilfuels.Thiswillincreasetheinfluenceofcitizensinsocietyandstrengthentheir independencecomparedtotheirfellowcitizensin land-basedcities.Citizensarebettercapablethaneverbeforetoassumesucharole.Thelevelofeducationandaccesstotechnicalinformationhasneverbeenashighasitistoday.Whileordinarygovernancestructuresfromcitiesonthelandwithmunicipalcouncils,aldermen, a mayor and elections could equally be applied in floating cities, it isimportanttonoticethatthecurrentdemocraticmodelsthatarebasedonelectionsand representations partly stem from the past logistic impossibility to collect allcitizensinoneroomandalloweveryonetospeakandvoteonacertainissue.Withmodern information technology this has become possible. Therefore, in a floatingcity, citizens could have much more direct influence on the city governance anddirectlyvoteanddiscusscertaincityissuesonline.Humanbehaviourinfloatingcitiesisalsoafieldofresearchthatshouldbestudied.Anotherknowledgefieldthatshouldbeinvestigatedishowfloatingcitiescouldbepartofnationstates,oralternativelyfloatingcitiesontheoceancouldconstitutetheirownstateandbecomemembersofinternationalorganizationssuchastheUnitedNations.

3.6ResearchagendaInthischapter,knowledgegapshavebeen identifiedforfloatingurbanizationthatneed to be addressed in the coming years. Similar to the research projects onadaptiveurbandevelopmentonland,alsoprojectforadaptiveurbandevelopmentonwaterhavebeenidentified.Table3.1providesanoverviewoftheseprojectsandtheknowledgegapstheyaddress.

3.7Realizationprocess:RotterdamandotherdeltacitiesHowcanwegetfromthecurrentsituationtowardsafuturewithcitiesontheseaandapopulationofbillionsofpeoplelivingontheoceans?Theanswertothisquestionformsaconnectionbetweenthischapterandthepreviouschapter.Citiesonthelandwerenotdeveloped inoneday.Theystartedassmallvillages thatdeveloped intocities,aprocessthatsometimestookcenturies.Similarly,thefirstfloatingdistrictsandsmallcitieswillnotbecreatedontheocean.Itismorelikelythattheywillbecreatedin the current delta cities as part of the land based adaptive urban developmentstrategy.Fromthatpositionthescaleoffloatingdevelopmentscanincreaseuntilthesteptotheseaandoceancanbemade.Atthesametime,consideringthechallengesoflandscarcityinthe21stcenturyandtherapidprocessofurbanization,waterbaseddevelopmentshouldtakeplacefasterthanitiscurrentlyoccurring.


RotterdamThecityofRotterdamhasincludedplansforfloatingdistrictsaspartofthemunicipalclimateadaptationandurbanplanningpolicy.Portactivitiesmovefromthecentreofthecitytothewestwherenewportsarebeingdevelopedtoallowforlargershipstodock.Theoldportareasandsiteswilllosetheiroldfunction,leavingavastareadirectlynearthecitycentreopenforredevelopment.Thisareaof1600haiscalledthe Stadshavens area, and is located outside the dikes. It will be one of the mainlocations for the futureurbanexpansionof thecity insteadof theoldstrategyofexpanding outwards (suburbanization). Floating urban development presents theopportunity to create new urban space in the vast area of the old ports that willbecomeavailable.Moreover, itmakesforaflexibleandclimateproofsolutionthatcancopewithuncertain futurescenarios.Following the realizationof theFloatingPavilion, Rotterdam intends to build 6000 sustainable floating homes over thenext20to40years.50Figure3.11showsinwhichportshavebeendesignatedbythemunicipalpolicyforfloatingurbanizationontheshorttermorlongterm.Comparedtoalternativessuchaslandreclamation,floatingstructureshavealowerimpactonthelocalenvironment.Landreclamationcanhaveseriousenvironmentalconsequences,suchasreductioninbiodiversity,erosionandpollution.

Knowledgegaps

Integratingtechnologiesandupscalingfromhouse

toneighbourhoodandcitylevel.Integratingfloating

aquacultureinnovationsinfloatingstructures.

Urbandesigninstrumentsspecificallyaccustomedto

floatingcities,includingpublicspace,separation,identities,

mobilityandpossiblewaysoflivinginfloatingcities

Developmentofneweconomicmodels,newmethodsof

collaborationbetweenresearch,government,companies

andSME’s,startingpilotprojects

Dataandunderstandingaboutwaterqualityandecological

impacts,establishingdesignguidelinesbasedonthis

understanding.

Roleofshowcasesinthedevelopmentandtransition

processofwatercities

Project

Floatingstructuresandutilities

Urbandesignoffloatingcities

Realizingfloatingurbanization

Impactsonwaterqualityandecology

Rotterdamasentrepreneurialwater

enadaptationshowcase

Table 3.1

Adaptiveurbandevelopmentonwaterresearchprojectsthatwillbeexecutedinthecomingyearsto

addressknowledgegapsthatwerediscussedinthischapter


Figure 3.10:

ThefloatingpavilioninRotterdam,thefirststeptowardsfloatingdistricts

(Photo:R.DeWit,Source:DeltaSync)

Figure 3.11:

PortsinthecityofRotterdamwherethemunicipalityfacilitatesfloatingbuildingsonshortterm(red)and

longerterm(orange)(MunicipalityofRotterdam,2011).


WithRDMAquaDock,atesting,developmentanddemonstrationcentreisavailableintheportofRotterdamforfloatingurbanization.AquaDockislocatedintheDokhavenand facilitates thecollaborationbetweeneducation institutes, startupcompanies,research institutes and the government. The partners involved in developing theAquaDockprojectareCityofRotterdam,PortofRotterdamAuthorityandRotterdamUniversity.AtAquaDocknew technologies forfloatingurbanizationcanbe tested,improvedandscaleduptomakethesteptowardsfloatingdistrictsandeventually,floatingcities.Theintegrationwitheducationandentrepreneurshipensuresthatanewgenerationoffloatingurbanizationexpertsandcompaniesisdeliveredthat isneededtodevelopfloatingcitiesinpractice.

Figure 3.12:

VisionofAquaDock,atestinganddemonstrationcentreforfloatingurbanizationinRotterdam(RDM

Campus,2011)

The example of the Rijnhaven, one of the ports that are designated for floatingurbanfunctionsshowshowaphaseddevelopmentprocesscouldlooklike.Floatingurbanization has started with the realization of the Floating Pavilion, a floatingexhibitionandconferencecentrethatiscurrentlyusedbytheNationalWaterCentreasthemainshowcaseoftheDutchwaterexpertise.TheRijnhavenpark,aconceptforfloatingpublicspacecombinedwithawiderangeofurbanfunctionswasdevelopedduringthepastyears.Theconcept includes functionssuchas:greenspace,hotel,restaurant,flexibleofficespace, theatreandstage,andmanyother functions.TheRijnhavenproject isafirststeptodevelopaportfolioofdifferenturbanfunctionson the water that are all needed to develop a comprehensive floating city that ismorethanacollectionofbuildings.Insteaditwouldalsoincludepublicspace,publicfunctions and infrastructure. One of the key characteristics of the concept is the


flexibility,itispossibletoaddorexpandcertainfunctionsfollowingchangingsocietalrequirementsandboundaryconditions.

Figure 3.13:

RijnhavenparkinRotterdam,oneofthemanypossibleconfigurationsofthisflexiblefloatingurbangrowth

model(StichtingRijnhavenpark/DeltaSync,2011)

Figure 3.14:

OneofthemanypossiblepublicfunctionsintheRijnhavenpark(StichtingRijnhavenpark/DeltaSync,2011)

OtherdeltacitiesNexttoRotterdam,otherdevelopedportcitiessuchastheportofLondon,NewYork/NewJerseyandNewOrleansfacesimilarchallengeswithregardtotherevitalizationofoldportareas.Someoftheseports,suchasthecityofNewYorkhavealready


expressed interest in the floating urbanization strategy. It is therefore likely thatthe old port areas will be the first location of floating districts. In San Francisco,theSeasteadingInstituteisworkingonthedevelopmentoffloatingcitiesforanewgeneration of pioneers to test their ideas on government. In Japan, the Shimizucorporationhasdevelopedaconcept forselfsupportingfloating islandswithhighriseskyscrapers.The islandscouldtogetherformanationofamillion inhabitants.Delta cities that are rapidly expanding in vulnerable flood plains such as Jakarta,ManilaandHoChiMinhCitycouldalsobenefitfromfloatingcitiesasastrategytopreserveagriculturalland,provideaffordablehousingandreducefloodrisk.Agoodopportunityforcooperationandexchangingknowledgeonfloatingurbanization isConnectingDeltaCities (CDC).ThegoalofConnectingDeltaCities is todevelopanetworkofdeltacitiesthatareactiveinthefieldofclimatechangerelatedspatialdevelopment,watermanagement,andadaptation,inordertoexchangeknowledgeonclimateadaptationandsharebestpracticesthatcansupportcitiesindevelopingtheiradaptationstrategies.

Figure 3.15:

Floatingcitydesignwithskyscrapers,Japan(ShimizuCorporation)

3.8 Apeople’sperspectiveDopeoplewanttoliveonthewater?Evenifcreatingfloatingcitiesmightmakesensefromacity’sperspective,itstillwouldnotworkifpeoplewouldnotwanttolivethere.Itseemsthatpeoplearequiteinterestedtoliveonthewater.Historically,therearevariousexamplesoffloatinghousesincludingLakeTiticacainPeru,afloatingvillageinChinaandthetraditionalhouseboatsinAmsterdam.Morerecentlyamarketsurvey


byUSPmarketingconsultancyindicatedthatintheNetherlands30%ofthepeopleconsiderslivinginafloatinghousea‘seriousoption’.51

Even in thecurrenthousingcrisis in theNetherlands, thefloatinghousingmarkethas declined less than themarket for ordinaryhouses.Livingon thewateroffersalso many possibilities for water recreation and offers a sense of freedom to theinhabitants. More importantly, floating urbanization also creates the opportunityforcitizenstobeactivelyinvolvedinthewatersupply,energyproductionandfoodproductionof theircity.Thiswill increasetheir independency. In landbasedcities,citizensfacegreatdifficultytocontributetosustainabledevelopment.Itisobligatorytoconnecttofossilfuelnetworksandpeoplehavetogotothesupermarkettobuyfood.Currentcitiesarebuiltinsuchawaythatforasignificantpartofthepopulationthere isnootheroptionthantousethecartogotowork.Even ifpeoplewanttobehaveinasustainableway,ourcurrentparasiticcitiesdonotprovidetheenablingcontext todo this. Inafloatingcity,peoplecanbemuchmore involved inenergyproductionandwatersupply.Theycanusewaterbasedelectricalboatstogototheirwork.Theydonothavetofeelguiltythattheyliveinaparasiticcity.Onthecontrary,thefloatingcityhaspositiveimpactonthelandbasedcityandtheecosystems.

Alsolivingonthewateroffersmanypossibilitiesforaflexiblelivingstyle.Thelocationandthehousecanbesoldseparately.Inafloatingcity,itispossibleforcitizenstomovewiththeirhousetoanewcityornewlocationwithinthesamecity,forinstanceiftheyhavefoundanewjob.Alternatively,itispossibletostayatthesamelocation,sell theirhouseandbuya largerhouseforthesamelocation,for instance if theirfamilyexpands.Floatingurbanizationthereforeoffersamuchmoredynamiclifestylethatisprobablyattractivetomanycitizens.


Figure 3.16:

Infloatingcitiespeoplecanmovewiththeirhousetoanotherlocation.Utilitiescanbeintegratedin

infrastructure(DeltaSync/SEV,2008)


04. Conclusion

“If at first an idea isn't absurd, there's no hope for it.”

–AlbertEinstein

Itisexpectedthatuntil2100atotalof5billionpeoplewillmovetocities.Perdaythismeansa150,000peoplestarttoliveinacity.Inthesameperiod,resourcessuchasfossilfuels,freshwaterresources,phosphatesandfertiletopsoilarerunningout.Thisunprecedentedurbanizationprocesswillconvertalargepartofthefertilecroplandsinurbanareas.At thesametimethe fooddemand fromthisshrinkingproductivearea will double due to population increase and rising living standards. Most oftheurbanizationwilltakeplaceinvulnerabledeltaareas.Globalflooddamagewillincreasefromacurrent20billionUS$peryearto50billionUS$ayearonaveragein2100.Tocreateaperspectivetodealwiththishugechallengeinthe21stcentury,twothingsareneeded.First,thecurrentparasitecitiesneedtotransformfromparasiticandvulnerablecities intoproductiveandresilientcities.Transformingtheexistingcities,however,willnotbeenoughtodealwith thechallengestheworld is facing.Thesecondcomponentofthestrategythereforemeansthatapartofthecitiesandfoodproductionshouldbelocatedontheseatocreatemorespace.FloatingcitiesshouldbesurroundedwithfloatingfoodproductiontousethewastenutrientsandCO

2 from land based cities. The crops, fish and biofuels that are produced will be

partlysuppliedbacktothelandbasedcitiesandconsequentlyclosethenutrientandcarboncyclesatacitylevelallovertheworld.Thisadaptiveurbandevelopmentwillcreateasymbiosisbetweencitiesonlandandwaterinthe21stcentury.


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48Kleypas,J.A.,R.W.Buddemeier,D.A.,J.-P.Gattuso,C.Langdon,andB.N.Opdyke(1999)GeochemicalConsequencesofIncreasedAtmosphericCarbonDioxideonCoralReefs.Science284(5411),118-120

49Diamond,J.(1997)Guns,germsandsteel.Ashorthistoryofeverybodyforthelast13,000years.Vintage,LondonUK.

50Blueseed(2012)http://blueseed.co/

51 Stadshavens(2012)Doelstellingenhttp://www.stadshavensrotterdam.nl/doelstellingen

52USPMarketingConsultancy(2009)DrijvendewoningserieuzeoptievoorbijnaeenderdevandeNederlandershttp://www.usp-mc.nl/Userfiles/File/persberichten/nov09_01.pdf

64 Previouseditions

CreatingComfortableClimaticCitiesauthor DuzanDoepelISBN 9789051798005releasedate october2012numberofpages 67price €14,95

LogistiekDarwinisme?author MarcelLudemaISBN 9789051797954releasedate july2012numberofpages 37price €14,95

Werkmakenvanwijkzorgauthor HenkRosendalISBN 9789051799019releasedate april2012numberofpages 45price €14,95

Pedagogiekalstweedenatuurauthor PietBoekhoudISBN 9789051797633releasedate september2011numberofpages 57price €14,95

MaatschappijenvastgoedbevrijduitdeGordiaanseknoopauthor ArnoudVlakISBN 9789051797602releasedate september2011numberofpages 47price €14,95

Previouseditions RotterdamUniversityPress

Creating Comfortable Climatic CitiesComfort and Climate as Instruments for Healthy Interior, Architectural & Urban (Re)Design

Inaugural Lecture

Duzan Doepel

Logistiek Darwinisme?Naar betrouwbare, duurzame en slimme logistieke infrastructuren als antwoord op veranderend vraaggedrag van consumenten

openbare les

Marcel Ludema

Werk maken van wijkzorg

dr. Henk Rosendal

openbare les

Vrijheid en eigen keuzes maken is de huidige generatie met de paplepel ingegoten.

De meeste jongeren zijn dan ook goed in staat hun eigen leven zo in te richten dat

het aangenaam is. Keuzes maken voor een beroepsopleiding, nadenken over de toe-

komst, de eigen schoolloopbaan en daarin weloverwogen stappen nemen, leveren

echter meer dan eens problemen op. De uitval in het beroepsonderwijs is dan ook

fors. Verloren talenten, die als je het hen zelf vraagt, roepen om structuur, sturing,

vertrouwen. Ze vragen om oprechte aandacht van de leraar en dosering van verant-

woordelijkheden als het gaat om hun leerproces.

Het beroepsonderwijs heeft maatregelen genomen om de uitval te bestrijden. Denk aan

verzuimprotocollen, strenger toezicht, meer begeleiding en zorg. Onmisbare maatrege-

len, die vruchten hebben afgeworpen, maar ze bewegen zich bijna alle in de periferie van

het onderwijs.

De kern is datgene wat er in de klas gebeurt: de pedagogische relatie tussen leraar en

leerling. Het pedagogische aspect van het leraarschap is de laatste jaren onderbelicht

gebleven. Er lijkt sprake van pedagogische verlegenheid.

Deze uitgave bevat een pleidooi voor een kwalitatief hoogwaardige pedagogische relatie

tussen leraren en leerlingen in het beroepsonderwijs. Indringende citaten en voorbeelden

uit de onderwijspraktijk onderstrepen dat een vitale pedagogische relatie onmisbaar is

voor de (talent)ontwikkeling en de vorming van jongeren tot (beginnend) beroepsbeoefe-

naar. Dit vraagt om leraren die het docentschap volledig beheersen: vakkennis, didactische

en pedagogische kwaliteiten, die drijven op persoonlijke eigenschappen zoals empathie,

bewogenheid, nieuwsgierigheid. Je kunt studeren voor het docentschap, maar pas met de

inzet van persoonlijke eigenschappen en de bereidheid hier steeds opnieuw naar te kijken

kun je een ‘excellente’ leraar zijn.

Lectoraat Maatschappelijk Vastgoed

In het lectoraat Pedagogiek van het Beroepsonderwijs werkt lector Piet Boekhoud samen

met zijn lectoraatpartner Marja Liefaard aan de ontwikkeling van een gedachtegoed over

de pedagogiek van het beroepsonderwijs. Met het gedachtegoed legt het lectoraat een ver-

binding tussen de onderwijspraktijk in het (V)MBO en vakscholen, de stage- en leerwerkbe-

drijven en de lerarenopleidingen. Het lectoraat legt zich toe op creëren van aandacht voor

de pedagogiek, het initiëren van het debat, het verzamelen en uitwisselen van illustratieve

praktijkvoorbeelden en de theoretische onderbouwing van het gedachtegoed.

Pedagogiek als tweede natuur

Pedagogiek als tweede natuur Over de noodzaak van een kwalitatief hoogwaardige pedagogische relatie tussen leraar en leerling in het beroepsonderwijs

ISBN 978 90 5179 760 2

Piet Boekhoud

Over de noodzaak van een kwalitatief hoogwaardige pedagogische relatie tussen leraar en leerling in het beroepsonderwijs

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InstituutvoorLerarenopleidingen

Instituutvoor

Lerarenopleidingen



Piet B

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edagogiek a

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Maatschappij en vastgoed bevrijd uit de Gordiaanse knoop

mr A.L.M. Vlak

een nieuwe logica voor de inzet van vastgoed ten behoeve van maatschappelijke doelstellingen

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65 Previouseditions

InternationalBusinessauthor AnnevanDelftISBN 9789051798104releasedate june2011numberofpages 35price €14,95

CultureleDiversiteitauthor HugoBongersISBN 9789051797565Verschijningsdatum june2011numberofpages 35price €14,95

Inspiratiebundel2–Gesprekkenmetdocent-onderzoekerseditedby SandraStorm-SpuijbroekandDaphneHijzenISBN 9789051797527releasedate march2011numberofpages 88price €12,50

Taalonderwijs;eenkwestievanontkavelenauthors AmosvanGelderenandErikvanSchootenISBN 9789051797527releasedate march2011numberofpages 66price €14,95

Inspiratiebundel–Achtgesprekkenmetlectorenoverkenniscreatieenkenniscirculatieeditedby JosephineLappiaandJittieBrandsmaISBN 9789051797152releasedate april2010numberofpages 44price €12,50

Exemplarenzijnbestelbaarviawww.hr.nl/onderzoek/publicatiesHierzijnookeerderverschenenuitgavenvanRotterdamUniversityPressbeschikbaar.

openbare les

Internationalisation is the expansion of a firms operations to foreign mar-

kets and includes not only import and export but also foreign direct in-

vestments and international cooperation. Today’s globalising economy has

resulted in a growing number of small and medium enterprises (SMEs) un-

dertaking international activities. Internationalisation has been shown to

be very beneficial for firms. Cross-border activities are an important means

through which SMEs are able to create value, generate growth and access

new knowledge and technologies. A strong relation has also been found

between innovation and internationalisation: innovation may both be ne-

cessary to enter foreign markets as well as be a consequence of a firm’s

foreign market activities. In addition to value creation at the firm-level,

crossborder entrepreneurship is assumed to create wealth at an economy

wide level. With so many evident benefits to internationalisation, what don’t

more SMEs internationalise?

In her inaugural lecture Anne van Delft will illustrate the importance of “coope-

ration within networks” in international business. In today’s “network economy”

it is important for firms to leverage their networks. Managing the interplay bet-

ween networks and knowledge will be one of the key challenges for the 21st

century. Cooperation with other firms is especially important for SMEs because

it allows firms to utilise their limited resources in the most efficient way. Some

of the sectors in the Rotterdam region are world leaders but nevertheless their

main competitor might soon come from an emerging market rather than form

within the regional cluster. The benefits of cooperation and knowledge sharing

should therefore be exploited fully by SMEs in the Rotterdam region as global

competition increases.

Cooperation within networks

International Business

International Business Cooperation within networks

ISBN 978 90 5179 810 4

Anne van Delft

An

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Delft In

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usin

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with

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Kunst, creativiteit en ondernemerschap in Rotterdam

Culturele diversiteit

Hugo Bongers

inspiratiebundel


Instituutvoor

Lerarenopleidingen



In deze tweede inspiratiebundel zijn onder redactie van Sandra Storm-Spuijbroek en Daphne Hijzen acht gesprekken met docent-onderzoekers gebundeld over professionalisering en curriculumvernieuwing. Professionalisering en curricu-lumvernieuwing vormen de belangrijkste redenen waarom lectoraten bijna tien jaar geleden in het hoger beroepsonderwijs zijn ingevoerd. Reden genoeg voor docent-onderzoekers om met elkaar in gesprek te gaan over de manier waarop het doen van onderzoek hun eigen onderwijs heeft versterkt. In de gesprekken wordt teruggeblikt op de succesfactoren waarmee docent-onderzoekers hun eigen en andermans professionalisering hebben bevorderd en hoe daarbij een curriculumonderdeel is vernieuwd. Er wordt ook vooruitgeblikt: Wat is er straks allemaal nog meer mogelijk als docent-onderzoekers in kenniscentra toegang krijgen tot veel meer gelijkgestemde collega’s? Welke professionaliseringsmo-gelijkheden zijn er wanneer ook docenten van andere onderwijsinstituten gaan meedoen?

Docent-onderzoekers zijn benieuwd hoe docent-onderzoekers bij andere instituten bezig zijn met het actief en gericht ontwikkelen van zichzelf en collega’s en hoe het doen van onderzoek zijn weerslag krijgt in het onderwijs. De docent-onderzoekers hebben elkaars verhalen uitgewisseld over iets waar zij met trots op terugkijken, en (her)kennen ook de grote moeite die zij daar doorgaans voor hebben moeten doen om dat te bereiken. Doel van de bundel is om nog meer docenten te inspireren zich in de toekomst aan te sluiten bij een kenniscentrum. Zodat docenten niet alleen in-spirerend onderwijs rondom regionale speerpunten ontwikkelen, maar ook zichzelf, hun studenten, hun collega’s en het werkveld. Het onderzoeksartikel waarmee deze bundel besluit biedt inzicht in de sleutelfactoren waarmee docent-onderzoekers zijn gekomen tot professionalisering en curriculumvernieuwing. Het onderzoek biedt tevens aanknopingspunten waarmee onderwijsmanagers en instituutsdirecties on-derzoek en onderwijs steviger met elkaar kunnen verbinden.

In deze bundel staan de verhalen van acht docent-onderzoekers: Ada ter Maten-Speksnijder, Arie de Wild, Arthur van der Molen, Hannah Frederiks, Hanny Groene-woud, Margriet Clement, Netta van ’t Leven en Nico van Hal. Verder werkten aan deze bundel mee: Ilse van den Donker, Josephine Lappia, Karen Smits en Willemijn Lofvers.Digitaal verschijnen de verhalen van: Anita Feleus, Anne Kooiman, Annemieke van Lieshout, Marina Meeuwisse, Susan Jedeloo, Remco de Vries, Rob Arnoldus en Wil-lemijn Lofvers.

Gesprekken met docent-onderzoekersover professionalisering en curriculumvernieuwing

Gesprekken met docent-onderzoekers over professionalisering en curriculumvernieuwing

ISBN 978 90 5179 7527

Sandra Storm-Spuijbroek en Daphne Hijzen (red.)

San

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Instituutvoor

Lerarenopleidingen



De taalverwerving op scholen is in verregaande mate verkaveld over verschil-lende vakgebieden, (deel)vakken, doeltalen en deelcursussen. Bovendien is deze verkaveling verschillend per schoolsoort. Zo is er in het basisonderwijs sprake van allerlei verschillende meer of minder cursorische aspecten van het taalonderwijs Nederlands (naast een beetje Engels). Om de belangrijkste te noemen: beginnende geletterdheid, aanvankelijk lezen, voortgezet technisch lezen, leesbevordering, begrijpend lezen, spreken, luisteren, schrijven (ook wel stellen genoemd), handschrift, grammatica (ook wel taalbeschouwing genoemd), spelling en woordenschat.

In datzelfde basisonderwijs is het Nederlands tegelijkertijd ook de voertaal en de instructietaal voor alle overige vakken. Taalverwerving stopt niet bij de taalles, maar vindt gelukkig ook plaats tijdens het gebruik van de taal in de alledaagse communicatie en bij het leren van vakinhouden.Taalverwerving en conceptuele ontwikkeling gaan hand in hand. Maar bij die vak-lessen, zoals aardrijkskunde, natuurkennis, geschiedenis en wiskunde heeft de leerkracht geen aandacht voor de wijze waarop leerlingen hun teksten lezen, hoe ze in de klas een vraag formuleren en hoe ze hun verworven kennis op schrift for-muleren. De boodschap voor de leerling is: het gaat hier niet om taalverwerving, maar alleen om je vakkennis. Moeten we dan verbaasd zijn als leerlingen hun ver-worven taalkennis bij de taalles niet gebruiken in andere contexten?

In deze uitgave schetsen twee lectoren, elk vanuit hun eigen invalshoek, hoe zij zich een vruchtbare ontkaveling van het taalonderwijs voorstellen, waardoor taal-verwerving en taalonderwijs -als de belangrijkste doelgerichte vorm van taalont-wikkelingbeter samengaan dan momenteel op Nederlandse scholen het geval is.

Lectoraat Taalverwerving en TaalontwikkelingHet lectoraat heeft als voornaamste missie bij te dragen aan de verbetering van de voorwaarden voor taalverwerving en taalontwikkeling op scholen voor basison-derwijs, voortgezet onderwijs en middelbaar beroepsonderwijs. Het betreft hier-bij zowel het expliciete onderwijs in de Nederlandse taal en vreemde talen als de voorwaarden voor taalontwikkeling die zich voordoen bij andere vakken.

Taalonderwijs; een kwestie van ontkavelen

Taalonderwijs; een kwestie van ontkavelen

ISBN 978 90 5179 7626

Amos van Gelderen en Erik van Schooten

inspiratiebundel


Instituutvoor

Lerarenopleidingen



In deze Inspiratiebundel zijn onder redactie van Josephine Lappia en Jittie

Brandsma acht gesprekken met lectoren over kenniscreatie en kenniscir-

culatie bij elkaar gebracht. Kenniscreatie en kenniscirculatie vormen twee

belangrijke doelstellingen van lectoraten. In de gesprekken wordt terugge-

blikt op de succesfactoren waarmee lectoren kenniscreatie en kenniscircula-

tie tot nu toe hebben gestimuleerd. En er wordt vooruitgeblikt: Hoe kunnen

kenniskringen in gebundelde vorm als kenniscentra nog beter inspelen op de

kansen die voor de Hogeschool Rotterdam voor het oprapen liggen?

De auteurs zijn benieuwd hoe lectoren bezig zijn met het verspreiden en toetsen

van innoverende methoden en praktijken die voortvloeien uit kennisontwikkeling

en hoe zij aandacht besteden aan de exploitatie en ontwikkeling van kennis zodat

deze in het onderwijs en uiteenlopende beroepscontexten kan worden toegepast

en ingevoerd. Aan de vooravond van de bundeling van kenniskringen in kennis-

centra om voldoende focus en massa aan te brengen in onderzoeksverrichtingen,

is de balans opgemaakt. Waar kunnen de lectoren van de Hogeschool Rotterdam

trots op zijn en welke ambities hopen lectoren in de nabije toekomst waar te

maken? De bundel heeft tot doel anderen te inspireren een steentje bij te dragen

aan kenniscreatie en kenniscirculatie tussen hogeschool en samenleving.

De lectoren die meewerkten aan deze inspiratiebundel zijn: Frits Blessing,

Sunil Choenni, Florian Cramer, Chris Kuiper, Kees Machielse, Frank Rieck, Frans

Spierings en AnneLoes van Staa.

Auteurs die aan deze inspiratiebundel meewerkten zijn: Cobi van Beek, Jittie

Brandsma, Carolien Dieleman, Josephine Lappia, Marjon Molenkamp, Johan

Sevenhuijsen, Sandra Storm-Spuijbroek, Paulette Verbist en Wietske Willemse.

Acht gesprekken met lectoren over kenniscreatie en kenniscirculatie

Acht gesprekken met lectoren over kenniscreatie en kenniscirculatie

ISBN 978 90 5179 715 2

Lappia en Brandsma (red.)

Adaptive urban development is the design, construction and continuing evolution of urban areas to anticipate and react to changes in the envi-ronment and society. These changes include both processes within the city itself and external developments.

It is expected that until 2100 a total of 5 billion people will move to cities. Per day this means a 150,000 people start to live in a city. In the same period resources such as fossil fuels, fresh water resources, phosphates and fertile topsoil are running out. This unprecedented urbanization process will con-vert a large part of the fertile croplands in urban areas. At the same time the food demand from this shrinking productive area will double due to popula-tion increase and rising living standards. Most of the urbanization will take place in vulnerable delta areas.

To create a perspective to deal with this huge challenge in the 21st century, two things are needed. First, the current parasite cities need to transform into flood proof ecocities. Transforming the existing cities, however, will not be enough to deal with the challenges the world is facing. The second com-ponent of the strategy therefore means that a part of the cities and food production should be located on the water to create more space.

Rutger de Graaf is civil engineer, entrepreneur and researcher. At the Rot-terdam University of Applied Sciences he works as professor Adaptive Ur-ban Development. He is also director and founding partner of DeltaSync, a leading international floating urbanization specialist, and editor of the Jour-nal of Water and Climate Change at the International Water Association .

Adaptive urban development A symbiosis between cities on land and water in the 21st century

ISBN 978 90 5179 799 2

Adaptive Urban Development Rutger de Graaf

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Transcript of Adaptive Urban Development Rutger de Graaf