Adaptive Local Land Use Planning under Environmental Changes:...

Adaptive Local Land Use Planning under Environmental Changes (HEMWAN)

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Adaptive Local Land Use Planning under Environmental Changes: A Case of Pang Yang Community in a Protected Area of Thailand

Phonpat HEMWAN*

Abstract

This article analyzes the adaption of a local community to all affecting environmental changes. The vulnerability and adaptive capacity of local people are examined in order to understand the implications of environmental changes, especially the perceived impacts of possible climatic changes. Participatory GIS, which supports the process of local land use planning, will contribute to the framework of dialogue for the promotion of an adap-tive strategy to changing situations. Pang Yang is representative of successful communi-ties which continuously adapt themselves to the impacts of environmental changes and socio-economic situations. In conclusion, the people of Pang Yang could adapt the pro-duction system by themselves from unstable to more stable in order to secure the stability of livelihood of the local community. This represents an adaptation to changing situations based on development with a guideline of sustainability to keep the balance between lo-cal livelihood and biodiversity in a protected area through a joint management approach.

Keywords: Local land use planning, environmental changes, vulnerability, adaptive capacity

I. Introduction

The issues of environmental change are being observed in many areas of the world, and many environmental phenomena are in keeping with anticipated climatic trends. It is also clear that climatic change, biodiversity loss, land cover changes, water quality deg-radation and unavailability, and many other environmental problems are related to human activities at both regional and national scales. Adaptation to these impacts is increasingly ob-served in both physical and ecological systems as well as in human adjustment to resource availability and risk at different spatial and so-cietal scales. (Adger, W. N. et al, 2005).

As stated by Robert Chambers (CARE, 2009),

“Climate change has already impacted on innumerable communities, exposing them to increasing hazards and making them

more vulnerable; and we can expect this to become more marked, and for some communities catastrophic, in coming years. In order to plan effective adaptation actions, scientific climate change analysis is vital for broad context. However, at the local level, the most relevant information and knowledge often already exists or can be generated through local stakeholders’ own analysis. Local knowledge also has a credible authority for informing and influ-encing policy.”

Therefore, in order to study mitigation of environmental impacts, it is necessary to un-derstand the relationship among environmental changes, livelihood and food security, and hu-man dynamics at the local level. Especially, combining local knowledge with scientific data will be important to promote people’s un-derstanding of climatic hazard risks to devise adaptation strategies.

Accordingly, this study is focused on the

*Department of Geography, Faculty of Social Sciences, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai

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Regional Views No. 28 2015

case of a local community which has continu-ously been adapting itself to all affecting envi-ronmental changes. The author tries to identify the vulnerability and adaptive capacity of the community to understand the implications of environmental changes, especially of possible climatic changes. In addition, the function and effect of Participatory GIS, which has sup-ported the land use demarcation process of the community, will be examined in order to elab-orate the process of local land use planning.

II. Framework of Study

1. Conceptual FrameworkThe Intergovernmental Panel on Climate

Change (IPCC) has identified several changes in climatic patterns since the 1960s (IPCC, 2007). It has reported such climatic trends in Southeast Asia as increasing average tem-perature especially during the winter months, increasing frequency of heavy rainfall events, decreasing number of rainy days and precipi-tation, increasing frequency and intensity of extreme climatic events and so on. In Thailand, the annual rainfall appears to have declined although this is not sure because of variance, whereas the temperature has continuously increased (Promburom, P., and Sakdapolrak, P., 2012). Chotamonsak, C., (2012) indicated that Thailand will experience a rise of average

temperature by 1.41°C and a decline of aver-age of precipitation or rainfall by 0.31 mm/day in 2045–2064.

In northern Thailand, there seem to be trends of increasing average annual rainfall, heavy rainfall in a short time, more landslides espe-cially in crop land when there are heavy rains. Their causes are a complex mixture of land use changes, including deforestation and intensi-fied cultivation, and other changes of environ-mental potential as a result of climatic change. And the possible climate change is considered to affect the stability of livelihood of local communities directly.

The impacts of environmental changes are related to the vulnerability which is derived from negative conditions of natural systems (i.e. atmosphere, biosphere, and lithosphere). At the same time the vulnerability is also de-termined by human systems (i.e. society, econ-omy, culture, tradition, politics and policy) and increases the susceptibility of a local commu-nity to the impact of natural hazards (Venton, P. and Hansford, B., 2006). This means that if they have high human vulnerability, they will be at high risk from natural hazards (Fig. 1). Natural hazards develop to disasters when they affect the lives, livelihoods, and assets of the people. Disaster is a serious disruption of the functioning of society, causing widespread hu-man, material or environmental losses, which

Fig. 1 Concept of disasters


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exceed the ability of affected communities to cope with the situation depending on their own resources. Likewise, disasters occur when the negative effects of the hazards are not well managed (Abarquez, I, and Murshed, Z. (2004).

Understanding the vulnerability to influen-tial factors, therefore, requires the analysis of adaptive capacity or adaptation strategy of a local community that can reduce the effects of a disaster. This capacity is the combination of all the strengths and resources available within a community and may include physical, institutional, social or economic means as well as skilled personal or collective attributes such as leadership and management. Furthermore, the livelihood of local people can be sustain-able only when it is possible to recover from external shocks and stresses as well as to maintain or enhance its capabilities and assets for the present and in the future. This aspect is considered through Sustainable Livelihoods Approach defined by CARE (ibid.).

In northern Thailand, recent situations in protected areas have become more complicated due to high population growth rates among hill tribe communities. The introduction of com-mercial agriculture, the preservation policy of government, more convenient infrastructure, poverty and poor health care: all these factors have brought about changes in the agricultural pattern of hill tribe communities.

In the past, the traditional land use of the hill tribe agrarian systems were nature-based subsistence agriculture, with long-fallow culti-vation, the use of household labor and low cost investment. At present, modernized land use emphasizes commercial and intensive land use with short-fallow cultivation or annual crop-ping, owing to the support of organizations, both government and non-government, and more convenient infrastructure.

In these changing situations, sustainable management is difficult to implement in high-land protected areas due to the more serious driving factors above-mentioned. These reflect critical social problems relating to land use conflicts between neighboring hill tribe com-munities and between farmers and forestry agencies. These suggest that there are compli-

cated issues, not only physical and ecological conditions but also socio-economic conditions, which should be considered together.

Understanding the agricultural land use pat-terns and changes which reflect cultural, tradi-tional, social, and economic situations of hill tribe communities is important in managing their adaptive capacity under the conditions of environmental and possible climatic changes, including the land use conflicts from land use planning, in order to conserve biodiversity and ecosystem functions of protected areas in a move to sustainable management. Likewise, it is the best guideline to encourage communities to conduct a stable livelihood on their cultiva-tion with more efficient land use management.

2. Study SitePang Yang, the study site, is located within

Doi Phu Kha National Park in Nan Province (Fig. 2). It consists of 47 households with 263 people. Almost all households are ethnic Lua except for 2 northern Thai households. This community has good accessibility because it is near the busy town of Pua and well connected through main roads to lowlands. Pang Yang, classified as a non-opium-cultivation village in the past and a semi-commercial cultivation community at present, is continuously adapt-ing itself to all charging environmental fac-tors. The villagers have analyzed and oriented themselves for alternative cultivation which is more stable and effective. They have made a good response to land use planning with suit-able practices (Hemwan, P., 2014).

The ethnic Lua settled in this area more than 100 years ago (Table 1). They cultivated land only for subsistence with upland rice as the main crop in rotational fields called “Rai Lao”. Pang Yang Village was officially established, or authorized by Thai government in 1982. In 1985, the government established a primary school in Pang Yang, which has been extended to a secondary school. The main access road was constructed from lowland in 1986, and the convenient transportation brought many changes into community, while electricity was installed in 1994. These developments in infrastructure were implemented as important policy by the Thai government.

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Later in 1999, Doi Phu Kha National Park was established, covering the territory of Pang Yang Village. In 2006, Joint Management of Protected Area (JoMPA) Project started in this community, as one of 28 target communities, and continued until 2011. This project aimed

at sustainable management in a protected area, as well as promoting sustainable livelihood of local community with effective land use plan-ning by all local stakeholders. Moreover, in 2008, a Royal Project was also started in this community. The Royal Project was another

Fig. 2 Location of Pang Yang Community

Table 1 Recent historical events in Pang Yang

Periods Events

Before 1900 Lau people have settled at Pang Yang community.

1982 Pang Yang was officially established as Pang Yang Village in Pue Sub-district.

1985 Thai government established a school in Pang Yang.

1986 The access main road was constructed.

1988 One farmer initially unsuccessfully built up terraced paddy.Fruit tree (Lychee) was introduced from another area.

1994 Electricity was installed in Pang Yang.

1999 Thai government established Doi Phu Kha National Park.Corn cultivation was introduced by merchants in lowland.

2002 3 farmers rebuilt terraced paddy.Pang Yang School made an experiment to promote efficient cultivation in terraced paddy.

2006 JoMPA Project started operation in this community (extended until 2011).

2008 The Royal Project started in this community.

2009 Terraced paddy field was adapted to diversified farming system.


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organization which emphasized and promoted occupation development of local people. Consequently, these two projects provided a solid foundation of adaption for sustainable livelihood.

III. Adaptive Land Use Planning in Pang Yang

1. Change of Land Use PatternIn the past, this Lua community cultivated

upland rice only for subsistence as the main crop in Rai Lao, while some vegetables were cultivated as secondary subsistence crops in addition to the rice field. In traditional land use, Rai Lao was cultivated with 8-years-rotation or longer. All households in the vil-lage shared the common property right to the common such as conservation forest, multi-purpose forest and cemetery. These areas were distinguished with boundaries perceived and accepted by all members in the village.

Recently, several factors influenced agri-cultural patterns, and Pang Yang is nowadays classified as a community with an agricul-tural pattern of semi-commercial cultivation (Hemwan, P., 2013). They still keep Rai Lao, but the rotation period has been reduced to 4 years. They cultivate the land for 1–4 years and leave it for 4–10 years (Photo 1–4). Some households do not practice rotational cultiva-tion because they do not have enough land. This was caused by high population growth, which is one of the important driving factors for adaptation.

On the other hand, owing to a good ac-cessibility with main roads, Pang Yang can easily accept technology and innovation from outside. In 1988, one farmer, who learned from outside, made an experiment to build up terraced paddy field although it was not suc-cessful at that time. Because terraced paddy required more water than upland rice, it should have been built close to main stream and not far from residence. Fruit tree of lychee was also introduced by government and merchants, but did not become so popular among the farmers because it was difficult to cultivate for sale. These were unsuccessful cases, but the villagers kept adapting themselves to outside

influences.In 1999, commercial corn was introduced by

merchants from lowland. Soon, corn became a popular cash crop among the villagers, who preferred to cultivate it because it generated more income. This represented the transition to an agrarian system with more intensive land use. Once cultivated land for cash crops was selected in a suitable site, it was not rotated. The farmers invested in corn production by borrowing money or contract farming.

In 2002, 3 members of Pang Yang decided to rebuild terraced paddy fields after they learned about it from another area. At around the same time, Pang Yang School made an experiment to promote efficient cultivation in terraced paddy field. More terraced paddy fields were built depending on the subsidies from local govern-ment, as well as from JoMPA project later, for alternative livelihoods, while upland rice fields were reduced because of low yield. Terraced paddy is more productive than upland rice as it usually gives double yield. Terraced fields were eventually accepted by other members of Pang Yang with the number of farmers increas-ing from 10 in 2007 to 39 in 2013 (Photo 5–6).

Furthermore, in 2009, some members who had cultivated terraced fields only for rice con-verted their field to diversified farming, which was composed of vegetables (such as banana, pumpkin, bean and pepper), livestock feed, bamboo and fish cultivation as well as chicken and duck raising. According to interviews with those farmers, they are happy about terraced paddy, compared with upland rice, and prefer the diversified farming system because they can obtain enough food to sustain their house-hold all the year round (Photo 13–16). In order to keep water source, some villagers decided to reforest their agricultural land used until now for upland rice. The area of this multipurpose forest has increased from 73 rai held by 9 farmers in 2009 to 96 rai held by 21 farmers in 2012. These recent changes of land use in Pang Yang are shown in Fig. 3, Fig. 4, Fig. 5 and Table 2.

2. Perceived Impacts of Climatic Changes in Pang Yang

The issues caused by climatic change have

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already appeared in Pang Yang. The change of rainfall patterns and increasing landslides are perceived by the villagers and may directly bring about the instability of livelihood of this community. PLA (participatory learning

and action) with Participatory GIS was set in operation to help an investigation of the vil-lagers’ experience of environmental changes for the last 5 years. As Table 3 shows, there was a plague of rats over the upland rice fields

Fig. 5 Distribution of terraced paddy fields


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in 2008, when Nan provincial office declared an alert of threat from rat damage. In the next year, many landslides occurred close to their residence and corn fields. In the year 2010, they had several abnormal weathers includ-ing extreme drought, extraordinary high tem-perature of 44.49°C in July, heavy rainfall of 228 mm per day in July, more landslides in corn fields and near residences, and damage to cultivated fish by cold temperature. Finally in

2011, they had earlier rainfall than usual and cold temperature (10–15°C) in March, or in summer season (Thawon, R., 2011).

Through PLA method, the comparison of seasonal change was made between 10 years ago and the present, based on the perception of Pang Yang villagers as shown in Fig. 6. It illustrates the shifting trend of seasons. Ten years ago, normal season period is described as summer season from March to June, rainy sea-son from July to October, and cool season from November to February. As regards the shifting seasons at present, the rainy season has longer period and heavier rainfall, starting in late April, while the cool season has a shorter pe-riod, with some hot days in January and rainy days in dry cool season.

As a result, the perceived climatic changes by Pang Yang villagers are summarized as fol-lows:

• Trend of drought for longer time• Trend of increasing average rainfall per

year• Heavy rainfall in short time (especially in

July and August)

Table 2 Change of land use area in Pang Yang

Land use types2007 2011

Rai Hectare % Rai Hectare %

1. Residence 36.83 5.89 0.81 29.21 4.67 0.64

2. Agricultural Area 3,320.37 531.26 72.94 3,293.09 526.89 72.69

2.1 Permanent Area 1,139.54 182.33 25.15 1,772.15 283.53 38.51

- Terrace paddy field 37.68 6.03 0.83 90.95 14.55 2.01

- Orchard (Fruit tree) 103.24 16.52 2.28 112.60 18.02 2.49

- Corn 998.62 159.78 22.04 1,557.28 249.15 33.76

- Cultivated demonstration field of the Royal Project – – – 11.32 1.81 0.25

2.2 Rotational Area (Rai Lao) 2,180.83 348.94 47.79 1,520.94 243.34 33.56

- Upland rice 518.85 83.02 11.45 370.96 59.35 8.18

- Rotated area 1,661.98 265.92 36.34 1,149.98 183.99 25.38

3. Forest area 1,173.56 187.77 26.25 1,208.46 193.35 26.67

3.1 Ceremonial forest or cemetery 36.31 5.81 0.80 36.31 5.81 0.80

3.2 Conservation forest 401.53 64.24 8.86 399.27 63.88 8.81

3.3 Multipurpose forest 735.72 117.71 16.59 772.88 123.66 17.05

- Revival by community 73.51 11.77 1.62 150.91 24.14 3.33

Total 4,530.76 724.92 100.00 4,530.76 724.92 100.00

Source: Author’s calculation from GIS database, surveyed by fieldwork (1 rai=0.16 ha).

Table 3 Perceived impacts of Environmental Changes in Pang Yang

Year Events

2008 Spread of rat damage in the upland rice field.

2009 Many landslides near residence and corn field

2010

Extreme drought in early rainy seasonHigh temperature of 44.49°C in JulyHeavy rainfall of 228 mm per day in JulyMore land slides in corn field and near residenceDamage to cultivation fish by cold temperature

2011 Earlier started rainfall in MarchCold temperature (10–15°C) in March

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• More landslides by heavy rainfall• Shifting of rainfall pattern unforeseen by

local knowledge• Summer season with extremely hot days

and cool season with extremely cold daysThe villagers of Pang Yang anticipate that there may be more plant diseases as a result of these climatic changes.

3. Function of Participatory GIS for Adaptive Land Use Planning

In Pang Yang, JoMPA project employed Participatory GIS for the demarcation of special use zones as a part of Participatory land-use Planning (JoMPA, 2009). It has suc-cessfully contributed to the joint management of forest and land resources by this commu-nity and the Park authority. Participatory GIS proved to be useful at every stage of spatial learning, information sharing, analysis and dis-cussion, negotiation, advocacy and collective decision-making.

This approach also strengthens the adaptive capacity of the local community to environ-mental changes. For example, it empowered local people to analyze the risk from natural hazards such as landslides (Fig. 7). As well, land use and other thematic maps generated by Participatory GIS supported the process of collective land use planning for a recently developed production system. Terraced paddy field required more labor force and closer location to residence in order to take more in-

tensive care. In addition, terraced paddy fields need water supply so farmers have to pay a large cost to support highland irrigation system such as pump, water pipe, pond and reservoir. Participatory GIS enabled the farmers to select suitable sites for terraced fields, saving the cost to install the irrigation system (Fig. 8).

The keys to a successful local land use plan-ning consist of overall participation, interactive communication and collective decision-mak-ing in the public meetings where agreements and regulations on land use are accepted by all stakeholders. In order to promote the adapta-tion to sustainable livelihood under environ-mental changes, Participatory GIS serves as a platform of collaboration among the com-munity members, supporting the participatory process of land use planning. Another impor-tant function of Participatory GIS is to arrange communication system by which all parties are allowed equal access to information for decision-making.

IV. Final Remarks

In this study, the author could identify the following factors as the vulnerabilities affect-ing Pang Yang’s adaption strategy.

• PovertyAccording to the questionnaire survey in

2009, mostly Pang Yang would be considered rather poor. More than 55% of all households

Fig. 6 Comparison of seasonal change between 10 years ago and the present


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have an income of 10,000–30,000 baht per year. The household incomes are mainly from the sales of cash crop products. Moreover, 55%

are indebted primarily for agricultural costs and household expenses. Indebtedness is one of the main burdens in the lives of villagers.

Fig. 8 Planning map of highland irrigation system


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This poverty in turn affects the instability of livelihood which is reflected in the change of production system from subsistence cultivation to commercial one. When the villagers try to earn more income, they simply extend the cash crop area.

• Food InsecurityPang Yang still keeps subsistence cultivation

of upland rice in Rai Lao. Rai Lao is a type of swidden cultivation classified as a simple agricultural pattern. This agricultural pattern is observed where the production system is char-acterized by smaller yields with lower quality, using much labor and area, located far from residence. It is unstable against climatic varia-tion because it is not equipped with productive potential. Since the introduction of commercial crops, corn cultivation has been preferred by villagers. They have to reduce upland rice, which is the area for their stable food, in order to cultivate cash crops for household income. The increasing population and limitation of land are important factors which drive them to find alternative means of livelihood.

• Market InstabilityAt present, corn is the main cash crop of

Pang Yang, introduced in order to adapt to eco-

nomic influence. It is now the main source of cash income, and its production and marketing system are heavily dependent on the outside market with fluctuating prices. They have to invest substantial capital for seeds, chemical fertilizer, herbicide and pesticide. Most farm-ers deal with this need of investment by bor-rowing money or contracted farming with the merchants. In some cases, they lose money due to low market price of product. Moreover, this cultivation is repeated every year on the same land and results in landslides and soil erosion (photo 11–12).

• Land Use Pattern ChangePang Yang is facing many influential fac-

tors from outside world. Therefore, they have adapted themselves from subsistence or nature-based to semi-commercial cultivation with more intensive farming. The main subsis-tence cultivation of upland rice does not need investment and advanced managing system. On the other hand, the cash crop cultivation of corn brings main income to household but forces them to spend more for planting. This reflects more intensified production systems and is having more effect on the highland ecosystem, related to unsuitability of land use systems. It is important to change direction of

Fig. 9 Adaptation of land use patterns

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land use pattern which has affected ecosystem in a negative way.

Fig. 9 illustrates the changes of land use patterns in Pang Yang on which the adapta-tion strategies of livelihood in the community are reflected. It also comprises the assessment of vulnerability and adaptive capacity to the changing situation. The introduction of corn led the villagers to more intensive cultiva-tion though it is easily affected by the outside market with fluctuating prices. Environmental factors are also influential on this agricultural pattern, with more landslides and soil erosion in corn fields. To cope with this uncertainty, the farmers accepted terraced paddy as an al-ternative and more stable system. Later, diver-sified farming developed from mono-cultural terraced paddy cultivation to a mixed produc-tion system.

Through this process of adaptation, Participatory Land-use Planning supported by Participatory GIS has contributed to capacity building in Pang Yang to elaborate adaptation strategies. It has also facilitated discussions on adaptation to changing situations within Pang Yang community as well as between Pang Yang and other local stakeholders. Since the adaptive capacity to such environmental changes as shift of seasonal change, plant dis-eases, or threats of landslides is enhanced by the combination of all strengths and resources available within the community, a participa-tory approach will be more helpful to develop guidelines for sustainability balancing both livelihoods and ecosystems.

Meanwhile, because Pang Yang is located in the buffer zone of the Park close to the low-land, they are facing conflicts with neighbor-ing lowland communities of northern Thais, who are claiming the negative effect of Pang Yang’s agricultural activities, especially of corn cultivation, in causing soil erosion. In order to solve this problem between high- and low-lands, it is necessary to create a framework of conflict management based on a dialogue with each other and sharing information efficiently. Therefore, further study is necessary to promote the operations of joint management within a framework of watershed-based management, making the best use of Participatory GIS.

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Photo 5 Terraced paddy fieldPhoto 6 Terraced paddy field

Photo 1 Upland rice field (Rai Rao) Photo 2 Upland rice field left for 1 year

Photo 3 Upland rice field left for 2 year Photo 4 Upland rice field left for 3 year

Photo 7 Corn field Photo 8 Landslide in a corn field


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Photo 9 Land slide near residence Photo 10 Survey on perceive seasonal change

Photo 11 Meeting on adaptation to climatic changes Photo 12 Group discussion

Photo 13 Diversified farming (banana and pond)

Photo 14 Diversified farming (fishpond)

Photo 15 Diversified farming (vegetable field)

Photo 16 Diversified farming (duck raising)

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