AD643

Jim Cormier AD643 – Boston University

AD643

Project Communications Management

Class Five

Boston University - Metropolitan College


Leadership


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Leadership SearchThe PMBOK V4

BOSTON UNIVERSITY - METROPOLITAN COLLEGE


LeadLeadLeadLead

• Lead - The process of influencing others to achieve Lead - The process of influencing others to achieve individual, group or organizational goals.individual, group or organizational goals.

Leading involves getting others to perform the necessary tasks Leading involves getting others to perform the necessary tasks by motivating them to achieve the organizationby motivating them to achieve the organization’’s goals.s goals.

Motivation is a psychological state that exists whenever internal Motivation is a psychological state that exists whenever internal and/or external forces stimulate, direct, or maintain behaviors.and/or external forces stimulate, direct, or maintain behaviors.


LeadershipLeadershipLeadershipLeadership

• Leadership is influence held over a group or Leadership is influence held over a group or individual. This influence is used to move this individual. This influence is used to move this group or individual toward the attainment of a group or individual toward the attainment of a goal or objective..goal or objective..


Project LeadershipProject LeadershipProject LeadershipProject Leadership

• Project Leadership is influence held over a group Project Leadership is influence held over a group or individual Project Stakeholders. This influence or individual Project Stakeholders. This influence is used to move this group or individual toward is used to move this group or individual toward the attainment of the goals and/or objectives of the attainment of the goals and/or objectives of the project.the project.


Who Makes the Best LeaderWho Makes the Best LeaderWho Makes the Best LeaderWho Makes the Best Leader

• We must identify leadership potential:We must identify leadership potential: It is a required element in a managerSuccession Planning

• How do we identify LeadersHow do we identify LeadersThis question was one of the first put to the emerging

field of Management Science In order for us to see what the fruit of MS’s labor it will

be necessary for you to participate in a little exercise we have for you.

• Secure your area

• Have a pencil and paper handy


LeadershipPoints of Note

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Definition: Leadership is influence held over a group or individual. This influence is used to move this group or individual toward the attainment of a goal or objective.

Three Major Groupings of Research

Study of Traits: Research identified the following five traits as showing a consistent position correlation with Leadership:

IntelligenceDominance

Self-ConfidenceHigh Energy Level

Task Relevant Knowledge It should be noted that research may be interpreted to mean that these traits are not Definite Predictors of Leadership.


Trait ModelTrait ModelTrait ModelTrait Model

Identified personal characteristics that, when present in a leader Identified personal characteristics that, when present in a leader will cause effective leadership.will cause effective leadership.

Intelligence

Dominance

Self-Confidence

High Energy Level

Task Relevant Knowledge

* This list is in order of number of times that surveys reported this trait as required.

Research shows that certain personal Research shows that certain personal ““traitstraits”” do appear to be connected to effective do appear to be connected to effective leadership.leadership.

Many Many ““traitstraits”” are the result of skills and knowledge and effective leaders do not are the result of skills and knowledge and effective leaders do not necessarily possess all of these traits.necessarily possess all of these traits.



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Definition: Leadership is influence held over a group or individual. This influence is used toto move this group or individual toward the attainment of a goal or objective.


Behavioral Tendencies: Focused on the study of leadership behaviors. Ohio State Studies: Initiating Structure - (Setting & Meeting Deadlines, Employee Standards, etc.)Consideration - (Leader/Subordinate relationships, trust, respect) Univ. of Michigan:Grouped Leaders (Managers) into two Groups, Employee and Production Oriented

Blake & Mouton:Management Grid (Concern for People, Concern for Production)


Leadership ModelsLeadership ModelsLeadership ModelsLeadership Models

• Behavioral ModelBehavioral ModelIdentifies the two basic types of behavior Identifies the two basic types of behavior

that many leaders engaged in to influence that many leaders engaged in to influence their subordinates:their subordinates:

• Consideration: employee-centered leadership behavior Consideration: employee-centered leadership behavior indicating that a manager trusts, respects, and cares about indicating that a manager trusts, respects, and cares about subordinatessubordinates

• Initiating structure: job-oriented leadership behavior that Initiating structure: job-oriented leadership behavior that managers engage in to ensure that work gets done, managers engage in to ensure that work gets done, subordinates perform their jobs acceptably, and the subordinates perform their jobs acceptably, and the organization is efficient and effective.organization is efficient and effective.

• Both behaviors are independent; managers can be high or Both behaviors are independent; managers can be high or low on both behaviors.low on both behaviors.


Leadership Behaviors (cont.)Leadership Behaviors (cont.)Leadership Behaviors (cont.)Leadership Behaviors (cont.)

• Robert Blake and Jane Mouton developed the Robert Blake and Jane Mouton developed the managerial gridmanagerial grid. The managerial grid is more . The managerial grid is more complex and identifies five leadership styles complex and identifies five leadership styles that combine different degrees of concern for that combine different degrees of concern for production and concern for people.production and concern for people.


The Managerial Grid ModelThe Managerial Grid ModelThe Managerial Grid ModelThe Managerial Grid Model

1, 1

5, 5

9, 9

9, 1

1, 9

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10Low

HighLow

HighC

once

rn f

or p

eop

le

Concern for production

Countryclub style

Impoverishedstyle

Produce orperish style

Teamstyle

Middle-of-the-

road style



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Definition: Leadership is influence held over a group or individual. This influence is used to move this group or individual toward the attainment of a goal or objective.


Contingency Theories: Overlays the Situation to Determination of Leadership Effectiveness

Autocratic - Democratic Continuum Model: Behaviors are viewed as extremes on a continuum with differing leadership styles in between. Styles are dependent on the leader's tendencies (traits), the operating group and the situation. Fielder Model: Effective group performance depends on the proper match between the leader's style of interacting with her/his subordinates and the degree to which the situation controls or influences the leader. Leader - Participation Model: Vroom and Yetton, subordinate participation in the decision making process enhances the degree of successful leadership.


Contingency Models of Leadership Contingency Models of Leadership Contingency Models of Leadership Contingency Models of Leadership

• FiedlerFiedler’’s Models ModelEffective leadership is contingent on both the Effective leadership is contingent on both the

characteristics of the leader and of the characteristics of the leader and of the situation. situation.

Leader style is the enduring, characteristic Leader style is the enduring, characteristic approach to leadership that a manager uses approach to leadership that a manager uses and does not readily change.and does not readily change.

• Relationship-oriented style: leaders concerned with Relationship-oriented style: leaders concerned with developing good relations with their subordinates and to be developing good relations with their subordinates and to be liked by them.liked by them.

• Task-oriented style: leaders whose primary concern is to Task-oriented style: leaders whose primary concern is to ensure that subordinates perform at a high level so the job ensure that subordinates perform at a high level so the job gets done.gets done.


FiedlerFiedler’’s Model s Model FiedlerFiedler’’s Model s Model

• Situation CharacteristicsSituation CharacteristicsHow favorable a situation is for leading to occur.How favorable a situation is for leading to occur.Leader-member relationsLeader-member relations—d—determines how etermines how

much workers like and trust their leader.much workers like and trust their leader.Task structureTask structure—the —the extent to which workers extent to which workers

tasks are clear-cut; clear issues make a situation tasks are clear-cut; clear issues make a situation favorable for leadership.favorable for leadership.

Position PowerPosition Power—the —the amount of legitimate, amount of legitimate, reward, and coercive power leaders have due to reward, and coercive power leaders have due to their position. When positional power is strong, their position. When positional power is strong, leadership opportunity becomes more favorable.leadership opportunity becomes more favorable.


FiedlerFiedler’’s Contingency Theory of Leaderships Contingency Theory of LeadershipFiedlerFiedler’’s Contingency Theory of Leaderships Contingency Theory of Leadership

Figure 13.2


FiedlerFiedler’’s Model in Applications Model in ApplicationFiedlerFiedler’’s Model in Applications Model in Application

• Combines considerations of leader-member Combines considerations of leader-member relations, task structure, and position power to relations, task structure, and position power to identify leadership situations. identify leadership situations. Identifies situations where given types of Identifies situations where given types of

managers might perform best.managers might perform best.Leader style is a characteristic managers Leader style is a characteristic managers

cannot change; managers will be most cannot change; managers will be most effective when:effective when:

• they are placed in situations that suit their leader style.they are placed in situations that suit their leader style.

• the situation can be changed to fit the managerthe situation can be changed to fit the manager’’s leader s leader style.style.


Gender and LeadershipGender and LeadershipGender and LeadershipGender and Leadership

• The number of women managers is rising but The number of women managers is rising but is still relatively low in the top levels of is still relatively low in the top levels of management.management.Stereotypes suggest women are supportive Stereotypes suggest women are supportive

and concerned with interpersonal relations. and concerned with interpersonal relations. Similarly, men are seen as task-focused.Similarly, men are seen as task-focused.

• Research indicates that actually there is no gender-based Research indicates that actually there is no gender-based difference in leadership effectiveness.difference in leadership effectiveness.

• Women are seen to be more participative than men Women are seen to be more participative than men because they adopt the participative approach to because they adopt the participative approach to overcome subordinate resistance to them as managers overcome subordinate resistance to them as managers and they have better interpersonal skills.and they have better interpersonal skills.


Motivation


Understanding MotivationUnderstanding MotivationUnderstanding MotivationUnderstanding Motivation

• MotivationMotivation is a psychological state that exists is a psychological state that exists whenever internal and/or external forces whenever internal and/or external forces stimulate, direct, or maintain behaviors.stimulate, direct, or maintain behaviors.


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MotivationPoints of Note

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: A person's needs are arranged in order of priority. Once a need is met, the next higher on the list becomes the priority and motivation.Two bottom needs are considered lower-order needs and the three top needs constitute the higher order.Lower order needs are satisfied externally (Example: wages, union contracts, tenure) Higher order needs are satisfied internally (Affection, self respect, self-fulfillment)

SELF_ACTUALIZATION_

________ESTEEM________

_____________SOCIAL____________

________________________SAFETY_______________________

_____________________________PHYSIOLOGICAL_________________________

1. Physiological - Hunger, thirst, shelter, sex and other bodily needs. 2. Safety - Protection from emotional and physical harm. 3. Social - Affection, sense of belonging, acceptance and friendship. 4. Esteem - Self respect, autonomy, status, recognition and attention. 5. Self Actualization - Growth, achieving one's potential and self fulfillment.


“Old School” – But Important


Individual Differences ApproachIndividual Differences ApproachIndividual Differences ApproachIndividual Differences Approach

• A A needneed is a strong feeling of deficiency in is a strong feeling of deficiency in some aspect of a personsome aspect of a person’’s life that creates an s life that creates an uncomfortable tension.uncomfortable tension.

• Hierarchy of needsHierarchy of needs describes the order in describes the order in which people seek to satisfy their desires.which people seek to satisfy their desires.


Moving up and Down the Needs HierarchyMoving up and Down the Needs HierarchyMoving up and Down the Needs HierarchyMoving up and Down the Needs Hierarchy

Satis

fact

ion-

Prog

ress

ion Frustration-R

egression


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Theory X and Y: Douglas McGregor's work proposed that managers grouped employees based on two distinctly different sets of theories.They then molded their behaviors toward employees accordingly.

Theory X 1. Employees inherently dislike work and will attempt to avoid it. 2. Employees must be forced, coerced and controlled in order to achieve goals. 3. Employees dislike responsibility and will avoid it. 4. Employees place security above all other factors and will display little ambition.These are lower order needs and satisfied accordingly (Contracts, tenure and wages)

Theory Y 1. Employees see work as being as natural as rest or play. 2. Self direction and self control are exercised by employees who feel committed to objectives. 3. Average employees can learn to accept (or seek) responsibility. 4. The ability to make good decisions is distributed throughout the population and not just within managementAdoption leads to programs such as shared decision making, more responsible & challenging jobs, etc.No hard evidence that either are correct.Assumptions can be correct in particular situations.




Leadership BehaviorsLeadership BehaviorsLeadership BehaviorsLeadership Behaviors

• Douglas McGregor coined the labels Douglas McGregor coined the labels Theory X Theory X and Theory Yand Theory Y to contrast the beliefs of leaders to contrast the beliefs of leaders as to what motivates their subordinates.as to what motivates their subordinates.


Assumptions Associated with Assumptions Associated with Theory X and Theory YTheory X and Theory Y

Assumptions Associated with Assumptions Associated with Theory X and Theory YTheory X and Theory Y

Theory X Theory X

• Employees dislike work and will Employees dislike work and will try to avoid it if possible.try to avoid it if possible.

• Employees want and need Employees want and need direction.direction.

• Employees do not want to Employees do not want to participate in setting/achieving participate in setting/achieving goals goals

Theory Y Theory Y

• Employees like to work and Employees like to work and achieve something.achieve something.

• Employees want self-direction Employees want self-direction and work toward the companyand work toward the company’’s s objectives.objectives.

• Employees are eager to take on Employees are eager to take on responsibilities at work.responsibilities at work.


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Hygiene Theory: Frederick Herzberg proposed that the factors leading to job satisfaction are separate and distinct from those that lead to job dissatisfaction. Managers who remove factors that create job dissatisfaction are causing peace not motivation.

Hygiene factors - Dissatisfiers

Company Policy & Administration

SupervisionInterpersonal Relationships

Working ConditionsSalary (in this order).

When employees believe these are adequate, people will not be dissatisfied, neither will they be motivated.

Motivators - Satisfiers

AchievementRecognitionWork Itself

ResponsibilityAdvancement

Growth (in this order)Detractors claim: Ignores situation variables, does not show any relationship between satisfaction and production, and other questioned the methodology used to rate satisfaction levels.




Organizational ApproachOrganizational ApproachOrganizational ApproachOrganizational Approach

• HerzbergHerzberg’’s hygiene theorys hygiene theory states that two states that two separate and distinct aspects or the work separate and distinct aspects or the work context are responsible for motivation and context are responsible for motivation and satisfying employees.satisfying employees.


Two–Factor TheoryTwo–Factor TheoryTwo–Factor TheoryTwo–Factor Theory


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Three Needs Theory: David McClelland (1974) Three major needs or motivators exhibited by employees: 1. The need for Achievement. 2. The need for Power. 3. The need for Affiliation.

Goal Setting Theory: Mark E. Tubbs (1986) - Goals can be a major source of work motivation. - Specific goals lead to increase performance - Difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher performance than easy goals - Mixed results regarding the participation in the goal setting process, but participation does increase the acceptance/action in difficult goals Reinforcement Theory: Luthans and Kreitner (1984) - Argues that Reinforcement conditions behavior. Behaviors are "Reinforced" by consequences immediately following an action and increase the potential of a similar future result. - A counterpoint to Goal Setting Theory, because Reinforcement is carried out by external force and Goal setting is internal - Ignores the inner state of the individual and concentrates solely on result of people taking action Equity Theory: Robert P. Vecchio (1984) - Employees see what they get from a job as "Outcomes" and what they but into a job as "Inputs". They then compare these to others. When they sense inequity with others they will be motivated either constructively or destructively to correct these inequities. Expectancy Theory: Victor H. Vroom (1964) - Theory argues that an employee will act in a certain way depending on the strength of an expectation of a certain reward coupled with the attractiveness of that reward.


Current Accepted Theory


Goal Setting TheoryGoal Setting TheoryGoal Setting TheoryGoal Setting Theory

• Goal-setting theoryGoal-setting theory states that managers can states that managers can direct the performance of their employees by direct the performance of their employees by assigning specific, difficult goals that assigning specific, difficult goals that employees accept and are will to commit to.employees accept and are will to commit to.

Management by objectives (MBO)Management by objectives (MBO) is a participative goal- is a participative goal-setting technique used in many U.S. organizations.setting technique used in many U.S. organizations.


How Goal Setting WorksHow Goal Setting WorksHow Goal Setting WorksHow Goal Setting Works

Goals-Specific-Difficult-Accepted

Goals-Specific-Difficult-Accepted

Effects on Employee-Directs attention-Energizes-Encourages persistency-New strategies developed

Effects on Employee-Directs attention-Energizes-Encourages persistency-New strategies developed

PerformancePerformance

FeedbackFeedback


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Process of Reinforcement and Behavior Process of Reinforcement and Behavior ChangeChange

Process of Reinforcement and Behavior Process of Reinforcement and Behavior ChangeChange

Employee Avoids aNegative Consequence(Negative Reinforcement)

Employee Avoids aNegative Consequence(Negative Reinforcement)

or

or

or

Employee Experiences aReward(Positive Reinforcement)

Employee Experiences aReward(Positive Reinforcement)

Employee Experiences No Consequences(Extinction)

Employee Experiences No Consequences(Extinction)

Employee Experiences aNegative Consequence(Punishment)

Employee Experiences aNegative Consequence(Punishment)

A SituationExperiencedBy Employee

A SituationExperiencedBy Employee

Employee ReactsBy Exhibiting

Behavior X

Employee ReactsBy Exhibiting

Behavior X

StimulusStimulusResponse ofEmployee

(Behavior X)

Response ofEmployee

(Behavior X)

Consequences forEmployee

Consequences forEmployee

Likelihood of BehaviorX in a Similar Future

Situation

Likelihood of BehaviorX in a Similar Future

Situation


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Organizational Approach (cont.)Organizational Approach (cont.)Organizational Approach (cont.)Organizational Approach (cont.)

• Equity theoryEquity theory states that employees judge whether states that employees judge whether theythey’’ve been treated fairly by comparing the ratio of ve been treated fairly by comparing the ratio of their outcomes and inputs to the ratios of others doing their outcomes and inputs to the ratios of others doing similar work.similar work.

• Reactions to perceived inequityReactions to perceived inequity Increase their outputsIncrease their outputsDecrease their outputsDecrease their outputsChange their compensation through legal or other Change their compensation through legal or other

actionsactionsModify their comparison by choosing another person Modify their comparison by choosing another person

for comparisonfor comparisonDistort reality by rationalizing that the inequities are Distort reality by rationalizing that the inequities are

justifiedjustifiedLeave the situationLeave the situation


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Expectancy TheoryExpectancy TheoryExpectancy TheoryExpectancy Theory

• Expectancy theoryExpectancy theory states that people tend to states that people tend to choose behaviors that they believe will help choose behaviors that they believe will help them achieve their personal goals (e.g., a them achieve their personal goals (e.g., a promotion or job security) and avoid behaviors promotion or job security) and avoid behaviors that they believe will lead to undesirable that they believe will lead to undesirable personal consequences (e.g., a demotion or personal consequences (e.g., a demotion or criticism).criticism).


Expectancy TheoryExpectancy TheoryExpectancy TheoryExpectancy Theory

?

??

InstrumentalityQuestion:If I perform thebehavior, whatwill be theconsequences?

Valence Question:How much do I valuethe consequencesassociated with thebehavior?

Expectancy Question:If I make an effort, willI be able to performthe behavior?

EffortEffort PerformancePerformance

Obtain desired outcomes(e.g., rewards,

recognition, pride)

Obtain desired outcomes(e.g., rewards,

recognition, pride)

Receive undesirable outcomes(e.g., punishment, ridicule

shame)

Receive undesirable outcomes(e.g., punishment, ridicule

shame)

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