Acute adverse reactions to transfusion: a symptoms-based approach
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Acute adverse reactions to transfusion: a symptoms-based approach
Kathryn E. Webert, MD, MSc, FRCPC
Assistant Professor, Departments of Medicine and Molecular Medicine and PathologyMcMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario
Associate Medical Director, Canadian Blood Services, Hamilton Centre
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Summary of presentation
• What is a transfusion reaction ?• Classification of transfusion reactions
• Approach to acute transfusion reactions based on common presenting symptom:• Fever• Dyspnea• Rash/allergic symptoms
**Detailed pathophysiology, management, and prevention was covered for most of these reactions in recent
presentation**
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What is a transfusion reaction?• Any untoward event that occurs as a result of infusion of a
blood component (immediate or delayed)
• When any unexpected or untoward sign or symptom occurs during or shortly after the transfusion of a blood component, a transfusion reaction must be considered as the precipitating event until proven otherwise
• Only a high index of suspicion will allow a transfusion reaction to be diagnosed
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Immediate Adverse Effects Associated with Transfusion
• Acute hemolytic transfusion reaction
• Febrile non-hemolytic transfusion reaction
• Allergic reactions• Urticarial• Anaphylactic
• Transfusion-associated circulatory overload (TACO)
• Transfusion-associated dyspnea (TAD)
• Transfusion-related acute lung injury (TRALI)
• Septic transfusion reaction (bacterial contamination)
• Hypotensive reactions• ACE Inhibitors
• Non-immune red cell hemolysis
• Metabolic disturbances• Hypothermia• Hyperkalemia• Acidosis
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Immediate Adverse Effects Associated with Transfusion: risks
Complication RiskAcute hemolytic transfusion reaction 1:25,000Febrile non-hemolytic transfusion reaction 1:10 (plts)Allergic reaction: Anaphylactic 1:40,000Allergic reaction: Minor 1:100TRALI 1:5,000Transfusion-associated circulatory overload (TACO) 1:700
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Delayed Adverse Effects Associated with Transfusion
• Delayed hemolytic transfusion reaction
• Alloimmunization• Red Cell Antigens• HLA• Leukocytes• Platelets
• Graft versus host disease (TA-GVHD)
• Post-transfusion purpura (PTP)
• Hemosiderosis
• Viral and parasitic infections
• Transfusion-related immunomodulation (TRIM)
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Signs and Symptoms of TR• Fever/chills/rigors• Pain• Dyspnea/respiratory distress
• Bleeding• Hypotension• Hypertension• Headache• Nausea and vomiting• Rash/Hives• Angioedema
• Anaphylaxis• Cyanosis• Bronchospasm• Tachycardia• Abdominal cramps• Diarrhea• Cough• Red eye• Anxiety• Jaundice
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Classification of reaction by predominant symptom/sign
• This presentation will focus on 3 common presenting symptoms and signs:
1. Fever2. Dyspnea3. Rash and other allergic reaction
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Disclaimer: This is not easy…
• Sometimes the patient has not read the text book…• More than one predominant presenting symptom• More than one reaction going on• Atypical presentation• Underlying comorbidities unrelated to transfusion
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Approach to Patients Approach to Patients with Transfusion with Transfusion
ReactionsReactions
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Approach to Patient with a Transfusion Reaction
• 65 year old man develops shortness of breath and hypoxia while receiving unit of PRBC.
• What is the differential diagnosis?
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Approach to acute transfusion
reactions commonly presenting with
shortness of breath
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Differential Diagnosis of TR with SOB
• Transfusion-related acute lung injury (TRALI)• Circulatory overload (TACO)• Transfusion associated dyspnea (TAD)• Anaphylaxis• Acute hemolytic transfusion reaction• Bacterial contamination
• Other etiology unrelated to transfusion
SOB is usually the predominant symptom
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Differential Diagnosis of TR with SOB: Background• Transfusion-related acute lung injury (TRALI)• Circulatory overload (TACO)• Transfusion associated dyspnea (TAD)
• Anaphylaxis• Acute hemolytic transfusion reaction• Bacterial contamination
• Other etiology unrelated to transfusion
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Canadian Consensus Conference Definition of TRALI• During or within 6 hrs of transfusion
• Acute lung injury• Acute onset• Hypoxemia
• PaO2/FIO2 300• SpO2 < 90% on room air
• Bilateral infiltrates on CXR• No evidence of circulatory
overload (PCWP18)
• No preexisting ALI or other RF for ALI
Kleinman et al. Transfusion 2004;44:1774-89Toy et al. Crit Care Med 2005;33:721-6
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TRALI: symptoms and signs
• Virtually all patients have:• Shortness of breath• Hypoxia• Bilateral lung infitrates on CXR
• May also have:• Hypotension• Fever• Transient leukopenia
• Other:• Chest findings on auscultation tend to be minimal• No evidence of circulatory overload
Bux and Sachs. Transfusion Medicine and Hemotherapy. 2008
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TRALI: Epidemiology
• 0.4 to 1.6 cases per 1,000 patients transfused• Likely under-reported and under-recognized
• Described with all blood products• Usually contain > 60 mL plasma
• US FDA observed TRALI to be the leading cause of transfusion related deaths 2003-2008.• Responsible for 16 to 65% of transfusion-related mortalities
• In Canadian TTISS Report (2004-2005):• 2nd highest cause of transfusion-related morbidity and
mortality
Fatalities reported to FDA following blood collection and transfusion. Annual Summary for Fiscal Year 2008.Transfusion Transmitted Injuries Surveillance System, Program Report 2004-2005, Public Health Agency of Canada, March 2008
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TRALI: Pathophysiology
Immune •Passive transfer of donor alloantibodies in plasma of transfused product
• Anti-HLA (Class I)• Anti-HLA (Class II)• Human neutrophil antigens
(HNA)
•Antibody binding to circulating WBC (and perhaps also pulmonary endothelium) causes cellular activation
Recipient WBC
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TRALI: Pathophysiology
Non-immune
• TRALI is also caused by the infusion of “biologic response modifiers” within the blood component
• Cytokines (IL-6, IL-8, IL-1, TNF-
• Lipids with neutrophil-priming activity
• CD40 ligand
• These substances accumulate in cellular blood products with prolonged storage
Silliman CC et al., Transfusion 1997Silliman CC et al., Blood 2003
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TRALI: Diagnosis
• No test with which to diagnose TRALI.
• TRALI should be suspected if a patient has appropriate clinical findings within six hours of a transfusion
• Exclude of other causes of pulmonary edema• Cardiac causes• Volume overload
• Clinical diagnosis
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TRALI: Treatment and Prognosis
• Ventilatory support as required
• Maintenance of hemodynamic status• Inotropes, vasopressors
• 80% of patients show clinical improvement within 48-96 hours
• In most patients, there are no long-term complications
• Fatal in 5-10% of cases
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Differential Diagnosis of TR with SOB: Background• Transfusion-related acute lung injury (TRALI)• Circulatory overload (TACO)• Transfusion associated dyspnea (TAD)
• Anaphylaxis• Acute hemolytic transfusion reaction• Bacterial contamination
• Other etiology unrelated to transfusion
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TACO
• Acute pulmonary edema secondary to congestive heart failure precipitated by transfusion of a volume of blood greater than what the recipient’s circulatory system can tolerate
• Respiratory distress and/or cyanosis associated with pulmonary edema within 6 hours of transfusion
• Associated with hypertension, tachycardia, positive fluid balance
• Many patients also complain of a dry cough, headache, chest tightness
Bux J, Transfus Med Hemother 2008
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TACO: Epidemiology
• Likely the most under-recognized and potentially serious transfusion complication
• Studies have demonstrated incidence in orthopedic surgery patients (hip or knee arthroplasty) to be 1-8%
Bux J, Transfus Med Hemother 2008Popovsky MA, Transfusion and Apheresis Science, 2006
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TACO: Risk Factors
• Too much blood transfused too rapidly• Can be precipitated by even a single RBC unit
• Age <3 or >60 years• Diminished cardiac reserve• Chronic anemia
Bux J, Transfus Med Hemother 2008
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TACO: Treatment and Prevention
Prevention• Transfuse only when indicated• Recognize patients at risk• If at risk, transfuse slowly• Consider diuretics (before and/or after)• Watch fluid balance, monitor patient closely
Treatment• Stop transfusion• Position patient in upright position• Supplementary oxygen• Diuretics• Cardiac and respiratory support as required
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Bux J, Transfus Med Hemother 2008
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Differential Diagnosis of TR with SOB: Background• Transfusion-related acute lung injury (TRALI)• Circulatory overload (TACO)• Transfusion associated dyspnea (TAD)
• Anaphylaxis• Acute hemolytic transfusion reaction• Bacterial contamination
• Other etiology unrelated to transfusion
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Transfusion associated dyspnea (TAD)
• European Haemovigilience Network (EHN) introduced term to allow for classification of respiratory distress temporally associated with transfusion which could not be assigned to known pulmonary reactions
www.ihn-org.net
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Differential Diagnosis of TR with SOB
• Transfusion-related acute lung injury (TRALI)• Circulatory overload (TACO)• Transfusion associated dyspnea (TAD)
• Anaphylaxis• Acute hemolytic transfusion reaction• Bacterial contamination
• Other etiology unrelated to transfusion
• Can you narrow the diagnosis down?
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Differential Diagnosis—TR with SOBOther Symptoms Timing of Symptoms
TACO Elevated JVP, hypertension, pulmonary edema (crackles, rales, S3 gallop)
Within several hours of transfusion
TRALI SOB, hypoxemia, hypotension, pulmonary edema (crackles, relatively quiet chest), fever
Within 6 hours of transfusion (usually during)
TAD All other pulmonary reactions ruled out
Within 6 hours of transfusion
Anaphylaxis Generalized rash, flushing, wheezing, angioedema
Usually early in transfusion
AHTR Flank pain, DIC, hypotension, fever
Usually within first 15 minutes
Bacterial sepsis
Fever, hypotension Usually within first 15 minutes
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Immediate Management: TR with SOB
• Stop transfusion immediately
• Notify hospital blood bank of transfusion reaction• Sample sent: screen for hemolysis, DAT
• Maintain IV access (0.9% saline)
• Monitor patient’s vital signs
• Recheck identification of patient (wrist band) and label of blood product for discrepancy
• CXR
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Serious Reaction
• What symptoms/signs would suggest a serious reaction?
• Hypotension/shock• Shortness of breath• Hypoxemia• Hemoglobinuria• Nausea and vomiting• Bleeding from IV sites• Back pain• Chest pain• Temperature >39oC
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Initial management of a serious reaction with SOB• Suspect TRALI, TACO• Do not restart transfusion• Notify blood bank and hematologist on call• Maintain IV access• CXR• Assess patient
• JVP, pulmonary edema: suspect TACO• Diuresis, supportive therapy
• Normal JVP, fever, CXR suspicious for ALI: suspect TRALI• Supportive therapy
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Approach to Patient with a Transfusion Reaction
• 65 year old man develops fever (temp 38oC) with rigors and chills while receiving unit of PRBC.
•What is the differential diagnosis?
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Approach to acute transfusion
reactions commonly presenting with
fever
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Differential diagnosis: TR with Fever
• Acute hemolytic transfusion reactions (AHTR)
• Febrile non-hemolytic transfusion reactions (FNHTR)
• Bacterial sepsis or contamination
• Transfusion-related acute lung injury
• Etiology unrelated to transfusion
Fever is usually the predominant symptom
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Differential diagnosis: TR with Fever
• Acute hemolytic transfusion reactions (AHTR)
• Febrile non-hemolytic transfusion reactions (FNHTR)
• Bacterial sepsis or contamination
• Transfusion-related acute lung injury
• Etiology unrelated to transfusion
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AHTR• Lysis or accelerated clearance of red cells in a transfusion
recipient due to immunologic incompatibility between the blood donor and the recipient
• Antigen-positive red cells are transfused to a recipient who has incompatible alloantibodies
• Results in intravascular hemolysis
Epidemiology• Generally within the top 3 causes of transfusion-related
mortality• 10.8% of all fatalities reported to the US FDA in 2005-2008
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AHTR—Etiology
• Often due to the administration of ABO incompatible blood• Cross-match error• wrong identification of blood specimen• blood administered to wrong patient
• May rarely be due to recipient allo-antibodies to other red cell antigens
• Other causes of hemolysis include:• Overheating of RBC• Freezing of RBC• Outdated RBC• Transfusion under pressure with small bore needle• Transfusion with hypotonic solution• Causes unrelated to transfusion
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AHTR-- Pathophysiology • Red cell alloantibody (IgM) in recipient
binds to antigen on transfused red cell membrane
• Development of immune complexes and activation of complement
• Results in formation of membrane attack complex (C5b-9) on the red cell surface which leads to lysis of cells
• Release of C3a and C5a• Hypotension
• Production of IL-1 from macrophages• Fever
• Activation of coagulation cascade• Disseminated intravascular coagulation
(DIC)
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AHTR--Clinical Presentation
• Acute onset, often within first 15 minutes of starting transfusion• Transfusion of as little as 20-30 mL of red cells may result in an
acute hemolytic transfusion reaction
• Initial clinical presentation:• Fever and/or chills, anxiety, nausea or vomiting, pain (flank, back,
abdomen, chest, head, infusion site), dyspnea, hypotension, brown urine, bleeding
• Complications: • Renal failure, disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC), death
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AHTR—Treatment
• STOP the transfusion immediately
• Begin infusion with normal saline
• Alert the blood bank, check for clerical error, send entire transfusion set-up to blood bank for testing
• Supportive care• Monitor vital signs closely• Maintain blood pressure and urine output• Monitor for hyperkalemia• Administer FFP, cryoprecipitate and platelets as required for
coagulopathy
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AHTR—Investigation
• Clerical check (labels, records in blood bank, review of blood typing results, antibody tests)
• Repeat ABO type
• Post-reaction blood specimen• Visual check for free hemoglobin• DAT• ABO type• Antibody screen
• Evidence of hemolysis• free serum hemoglobin, haptoglobin, LDH, urine free
hemoglobin
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Transfusion Reactions with Fever: Background
• Acute hemolytic transfusion reactions (AHTR)
• Febrile non-hemolytic transfusion reactions (FNHTR)
• Bacterial sepsis or contamination
• Transfusion-related acute lung injury
• Etiology unrelated to transfusion
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FNHTR—Epidemiology
• Common adverse event• 1 in 10 transfusions of pooled random donor platelets• 1 in 3000 units of RBC
• Frequency varies with:• Type of blood product• Age of blood product• WBC content of blood product• Recipient characteristics• Use of pre-medications• Variability in recording of symptoms
Callum J, Pinkerton P. Bloody Easy, 2nd edition, 2005
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FNHTR—Etiology
Reactions mediated by antibodies•Recipient alloantibody reactive to antigens expressed on WBCs in component•Antigen-antibody interaction causes the release of endotoxins•1o mechanism causing FNHTR after transfusion of RBC
Reactions mediated by biologic response molecules•Accumulation of leukocyte and/or platelet-derived cytokines in the bag during storage•IL-1, IL-6, IL-8, TNF-•Accounts for >90% of reactions to platelet transfusions
Heddle et al., 1994; Brittingham and Chaplin, 1957; deRie et al., 1985; Perkins et al., 1966; Heddle et al., 1994; Muylle and Peeterman, 1994; Stack and Snyder, 1994; Aye et al.,1995; Kluter et al., 1995; Flegel et al., 1995 .
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Slide 48
FNHTR—Clinical Presentation
• Fever (>1oC rise) during or soon after transfusion
• Usually associated with chills and rigors
• May be associated with nausea and vomiting
• Symptoms typically appear toward the end of the transfusion• 5-10% of reactions present 1-2 hours after the
transfusion
AABB Technical Manual, 14th Edition, 2002; Heddle et al., 2002; Heddle et al., 1993.
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FNHTR—Treatment
• Stop the transfusion while assessing patient
• Determine that an acute hemolytic transfusion reaction or reaction secondary to bacterial contamination is not occurring
• Acetaminophen +/- merperidine may help patients with severe chills and rigors
• Continue transfusion cautiously
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Transfusion Reactions with Fever: Background
• Acute hemolytic transfusion reactions (AHTR)
• Febrile non-hemolytic transfusion reactions (FNHTR)
• Bacterial sepsis or contamination
• Transfusion-related acute lung injury
• Etiology unrelated to transfusion
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Bacterial Contamination—Epidemiology
• Most frequent infectious risk associated with transfusion• Accounts for ~11% of deaths due to blood components
• Occurs most frequently with platelets• Stored at 20-24oC• Excellent growth medium for bacteria
Component Bacterial Contamination
Symptomatic Septic Reactions
Fatal Bacterial Sepsis
Platelet pool 1 in 1,000 1 in 10,000 1 in 40,000
RBC (1 unit)
1 in 50,000 1 in 100,000 1 in 500,000
Callum and Pinkerton, Bloody Easy 2, 2005 Slide 51
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Bacterial Contamination: Etiology
• Blood components may be contaminated by• Unrecognized bacteremia in the donor
• e.g., Yersinia enterocolitica
• Skin organisms from the donor• Difficult to totally decontaminate surface of human skin• Small core of skin may enter phlebotomy needle at time of donation
(~65% of donations)• Bacterial present in deep layers of skin
• e.g., Staphylococcus epidermidis
• Contamination from the environment or handling of the product• Leaky seals, damaged tubing, etc.• e.g., Serratia marcescens
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Bacterial Contamination—Commonly implicated bacteria
Gram-negative
• Klebsiella pneumoniae• Serratia marcescens• Pseudomonas species• Yersinia enterocolitica
Gram-positive
• Staphylococcus aureus• Staphylococcus epidermidis• Bacillus cereus
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Clinical Presentation
• Depends on bacterial load of product, species of implicated bacteria
• Rigours, fever, chills• Hypotension• Tachycardia• Nausea and vomiting• Dyspnea• Disseminated intravascular coagulation
• Usually occurs during transfusion of implicated product
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Management and Investigation
• Stop the transfusion immediately
• Notify the hospital blood bank
• Return residual product and tubing to blood bank
• Collect peripheral blood samples for culture
• Aggressive supportive therapy
• Broad-spectrum antibiotic therapy
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Differential Diagnosis: TR with fever
• Febrile non-hemolytic transfusion reaction
• Bacterial contamination
• Acute hemolytic transfusion reaction
• TRALI
• Can you narrow down the diagnoses further?
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Differential Diagnosis: TR with Fever
Other Symptoms
Timing of Symptoms
Febrile non-hemolytic transfusion reaction
Usually temp < 39oC
During transfusion; usually towards the end
Bacterial contamination
Hypotension, shock, DIC
Usually within first 15 minutes
Acute hemolytic transfusion reaction
Flank pain, DIC, hypotension
Usually within first 15 minutes
TRALI SOB, hypoxemia, hypotension
Within 6 hours of transfusion (usually during)
57
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Immediate Management
• Stop transfusion immediately
• Notify hospital blood bank of transfusion reaction
• Maintain IV access (0.9% saline)
• Monitor patient’s vital signs
• Recheck identification of patient (wrist band) and label of blood product for discrepancy
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Serious Reaction
• What symptoms/signs would suggest a serious reaction?
• Hypotension/shock• Shortness of breath with hypoxemia• Hemoglobinuria• Nausea and vomiting• Bleeding from IV sites• Back pain• Chest pain• Temperature >39oC
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Initial management of non-serious reaction with fever• No serious symptoms
• Possible FNHTR• Treat with acetaminophen (+/- Demerol)• Restart transfusion with caution• Observe patient closely
• Stop transfusion immediately if patient develops any serious signs or symptoms
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Initial management of serious reaction with fever
• Suspect: hemolytic transfusion reaction or bacterial sepsis
• Do not restart transfusion
• Notify blood bank and hematologist on call
• Continue IV fluids
• Send blood product and set-up (IV tubing) to blood bank
• Arrange for unit to be cultured and a gram stain performed
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Initial management of serious reaction with fever• Order “transfusion reaction” investigations, post-
transfusion sample for• Group and screen• Direct antiglobulin test (DAT)• Antibody screen• Blood culture of product
• Check for hemolysis: free hemoglobin, decreased haptoglobin, hyperbilirubinemia
• Blood culture of patient
• Urinalysis (free hemoglobin)
• +/- CXR
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Approach to Patient with a Transfusion Reaction
• 65 year old man develops diffuse, pruretic body rash with throat tightness and wheezing while receiving unit of plasma.
•What is the differential diagnosis?
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Approach to transfusion
reactions commonly presenting with rash
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Differential diagnosis: rash• Mild allergic reactions• Serious allergic reactions
• Anaphylaxis• Anaphylactoid reactions
• Reactions unrelated to transfusion
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Allergic Transfusion Allergic Transfusion ReactionsReactions
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Allergic Reactions
• Usually due to soluble allergenic substances in the plasma of donated blood • React with pre-existing IgE antibodies in the recipient• Causes release of histamine from mast cells and basophils
Possible mechanisms• Pre-existing anti-IgA in IgA-deficient patient
• Pre-existing antibodies to other serum protein that patient is lacking (IgG, Albumin, haptoglobin, a1-antitrypsin, transferrin, C3, C4, etc.)
• Passive transfer of IgE antibodies
• Transfusion of allergen to which patient is sensitized (e.g. drugs, chemicals)
Vamvakas and Pineda, Transfusion Reactions, AABB Press 2001
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Allergic reactions
Incidence: •Mild: 1:33-100 (1% - 3%)•Severe: 1:20,000-47,000
Timing•During transfusion; up to 3 hours from the start of transfusion
Vamvakas and Pineda, Transfusion Reactions, AABB Press 2001
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Allergic Reactions—Clinical Presentation Signs and Symptoms
• Skin lesions (hives)
• May also have • Pruritis• angioedema• Cough and wheezing• Nausea and vomiting• Abdominal pain• Diarrhea• Hypotension• Cyanosis• Tachycardia
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Allergic reactions: Serious
• What symptoms/signs would suggest a serious reaction?
• Hypotension/shock• Shortness of breath, hypoxemia• Cough• Tachycardia• Nausea and vomiting• Generalized flushing or anxiety• Widespread rash (covering more than 2/3 of body)
Callum and Pinkerton, Bloody Easy 2, 2005
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Management of non-serious reaction with rash• Antihistamine
• Diphenhydramine 25-50 mg IV/PO
• Continue transfusion with caution
• Stop transfusion if any “serious” symptoms
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Management of serious reaction with rash• Stop the transfusion and do not restart
• Notify hospital transfusion service
• Epinephrine
• Antihistamine
• Corticosteroids
• Supportive therapy as required
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Summary
• Initial management of transfusion reaction• Stop transfusion immediately• Notify blood bank• Maintain IV access• Monitor patient’s vital signs• Recheck identification of patient
• Assess for symptoms of “serious” reaction
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Summary
• May be able to classify reaction by predominant presenting symptom
• Shortness of breath• TRALI, TACO, TAD• AHTR, allergic reaction, bacterial contamination
• Fever• FNHTR, bacterial contamination, AHTR, TRALI
• Rash• Mild allergic reaction, anaphylaxis
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The End!!!