Action Research Project:

Integrating models into magnet lesson plans

James Rodriguez and Saadia Shatila

University of Michigan- Dearborn

November 30, 2012

Abstract:

The effect of integrating models into two inquiry lessons on magnets was the aim of our

research project. Focusing our research on a fourth-grade classroom we chose the subject based on the

planned curriculum. We conducted a preassessment to identify gaps in knowledge and misconceptions

about the properties of magnets. Analysis of the data allowed us to formulate lesson plans that targeted

specific issues. Notably many students had a misconception that all metals are attracted to magnets.

Additionally, the students had no knowledge of models, repel, magnetic poles or magnetic fields.

Building on prior research into the teaching of magnet concepts we integrated three simple but effective

models which led to the students more than doubling their knowledge in all concept areas.

Introduction:

Models are a unifying theme or big idea in the practice of science. They enhance understanding

and aid in the synthesis of new knowledge. The purpose of this action research was to study how clear

integration of models into lesson plans would increase knowledge. Specifically, “what is the impact of

our teaching on student knowledge about models and magnets?”

As early as the end of the first grade students are expected to know basic properties of magnets.

They should build on that knowledge in the fourth grade when they are expected to learn about

magnetic fields and the relationship between distance and the strength of a magnet. (Michigan

Department of Education, 2007) Unfortunately misconceptions concerning what objects are attracted to

magnets and lack of understanding magnetic fields persist beyond elementary grades into adulthood. In

introducing students to models our hope was that their understanding would improve.

This action research aims to introduce students to the big idea of scientific models while they

learn about magnets. Models are defined, “as a system of objects, symbols and relationships

representing another system (called a target) in a different medium” (Gilbert, 2011, p.3). Gilbert

recommends the introduction of models, both mental and physical, in the elementary grades, while

engaged in inquiry activities. Developing students' knowledge about the concept of models in early

elementary grades will give them a skill which can be used throughout their academic career. A useful

tool for science, models have applications in every school subject and many other contexts. Part of our

research was to put into practice Gilbert's recommendations. It is significant to integrate the idea of

models with magnets because a graphic representation with symbols will give the students a vivid,

clear, simple means of understanding magnetic attraction, strength, poles and fields.

Previous research of elementary methods textbooks revealed, “great variations in the magnet

concepts presented, general omission of ceramic magnets, frequent misconceptions about poles, and

limited investigations that address both attraction and repulsion” (Barrow, 2000, p.199). Furthermore,

Barrow discovered that most textbooks taught lessons in traditional prose format rather than the more

modern inquiry method and often failed to make use of models. Our research will expand on his

conclusions by examining the suitability of model inclusion in inquiry lessons.

Since Barrow's research was published in 2000 efforts have been made to improve lesson plans

designed for the elementary teaching of magnet concepts. Three notable positive examples designed for

first to fourth graders can be found in issues of the National Science Teachers Association journal,

Science & Children. An objective of the first lesson was to debunk the myth that all metals are attracted

to magnets. (Ashbrook, 2005). The benefit of using a graphic organizer within an inquiry lesson on

magnets was illustrated by Kur and Heitzmann (2008). Most recently, during the course of this research

project, Wilcox and Richey (2012) published an excellent introductory magnet inquiry lesson that used

at least two models. The lesson also addressed the common misconception that all metals are attracted

to magnets. They had students categorize objects into piles according to whether or not they were

attracted to magnets. As a class the students created a chart and common list of objects on the board. In

a second exploration they created a bar graph showing the strength of different magnets based on their

ability to hold paperclip chains. Each of these three examples can be recommended as sound magnet

inquiry lesson plans but none of them meet Gilbert's recommendation that lessons be predicated on

creating models. Although the latter two lessons did use models, no attention was given to the nature of

the charts and graphs as models. In addition to integrating models into lessons a key goal of our

research was to go one step further and find out the effects of deliberately introducing the students to

the nature of models during the lesson.

We identified three models most suitable for this project. One was a chart, commonly used to

categorize items, in this case whether or not they are attracted to a magnet. Another model is an

illustration of a bar magnet that shows the two poles and a surrounding magnetic field. (Bernstein,

2003). The entire process of scientific inquiry into the properties of magnets is actually a model of the

behavior of scientists (Ashbrook, 2005). In fact students modeling the behavior of scientists are a key

part of all inquiry lessons. “Student inquiry in science should mirror the active physical and mental

processes conducted by scientists themselves” (Moyer, 2007). The final model was more discreet yet it

is a standard for the fourth grade. Students should be able to, “Demonstrate scientific concepts through

various illustrations, performances, models, exhibits, and activities” (Michigan Department of

Education, 2007, p.43). That tenet was central to our research question. In our research we felt making

the students aware of this was an important aspect of learning the nature of and then creating models.

Methods:

The fourth-grade level content expectations (GLCEs) for properties of matter requires that

students should be able to “demonstrate magnetic field by observing the patterns formed with iron

filings using a variety of magnets; demonstrate that nonmagnetic objects are affected by the strength of

the magnet and the distance away from the magnet; know magnets can repel or attract other magnets;

magnets can also attract magnetic objects; and magnets can attract and repel at a distance” (Michigan

Department of Education, 2007, p.44). The objectives related to repel and attract are reiterations of

first-grade objectives.

The context of this action research project was a fourth-grade class in Gardner Elementary

School in Detroit. In preparation for our lessons we observed the class during a routine science period.

The classroom teacher had over 25 years’ experience. The class consisted of 26 students equally

divided between boys and girls. They were over 90 percent African-American and came from a

surrounding neighborhood of lower income homes. There were two special needs students who

received special attention as necessary. Science class was conducted twice-weekly and lasted

approximately 45 minutes. During our observations the teacher conducted an inquiry lesson with the

students working in groups. The class was configured into four groups of desks of six to eight students

each. The instruction complied with the district curriculum. Standardized reading assessments provided

at the conclusion of the research indicated a majority of the students were reading at second grade level

or below.

The students were studying a semester on properties of matter and the calendar had scheduled

magnetism as an upcoming topic which helped to narrow our research. Classroom resources available

to use during the lesson part of the project included a projector, magnets and iron filings.

The procedure of our research was to initially conduct a written preassessment survey of the

students' prior knowledge of magnets. During the survey the authors were available to the students to

clarify questions. The preassessment consisted of five questions designed to gauge the students'

knowledge of the basic concepts they should have learned in the first grade to the more advanced

fourth-grade concept of magnetic fields. Assistance in developing the questions was provided by

Professor Charlotte Otto of the University of Michigan-Dearborn science department.

The first two questions were related to student knowledge of models.

Question one asked the students to draw the magnetic field of a bar magnet and label the poles. A

sketch of a bar magnet was provided.

Question two asked if their drawing of a magnetic field is a scientific model and to explain their

answer.

The third and fourth questions were designed to check if the students had learned the basic properties

of magnets in previous grades. The third question was also specifically designed to address the

common misconception that all metals are attracted to magnets.

Question three asked for two examples of things that a magnet will attract.

Question four was what does it mean when magnets repel each other?

The last question was designed to check if the students already met the more advanced fourth-grade

expectation.

Question five was, “how does the strength of a magnet change with the distance from an object?”

Analysis of the pre-assessment allowed us to craft inquiry lesson plans to answer our research question

within the given context. A post-assessment survey using the same questions was administered to

determine the effectiveness of integrating models into the lesson plans.

Results:

Questions asked by the students during the survey and analysis of the answers revealed they did

not have the expected prior knowledge. Common questions asked included, “What is attract, repel, a

model, magnetic?” These are the results of the pre-assessment questions.

1. Two of the students drew a vague representation of a magnetic field. None of the students had

knowledge of magnetic poles.

2. Eight of the students drew objects attached to a magnet but none were able to explain why their

drawings represented a model.

3. Eleven of the students knew magnets attract objects but there were many misconceptions.

Answers included “metals,” paper, rocks and wood.

4. One of the students was able to answer the question about repel writing, “repel is to oppose”.

5. Two of the students vaguely knew of the relationship between distance and a magnet's strength.

“It pulls when it’s close”.

Analysis of the data for each question clearly indicated the students lacked basic knowledge of

magnets, models and had misconceptions about what magnets attract. We determined the action

research project should proceed with the focus concentrated on the introductory concepts of magnets

and models.

In order to rectify the misconceptions identified in question three the objective of the first lesson

plan was based on the first grade level content expectation, that students be able to, “identify materials

that are attracted by magnets” (Michigan Department of Education, 2007, p.15). We used kits we

constructed containing a magnet and various objects for the students to explore and categorize using

charts they created.

The second lesson was designed to fill in the gaps identified in question one about poles and

question four concerning repel. It encompassed a first grade content level expectation, “observe that

like poles of magnets repel and unlike poles of a magnet attract” (Michigan Department of Education,

2007, p.15). In addition we incorporated the fourth grade level content expectation that students,

“Demonstrate scientific concepts through various illustrations, performances, models, exhibits, and

Q 1 Q 2 Q 3 Q 4 Q 503

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Pre-assessment data of 26 students' prior knowledge of magnets and models.

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activities” (Michigan Department of Education, 2007, p.43). Based on the students lack of prior

knowledge the more advanced concepts about magnetic fields and the role strength and distance have

on a magnet's attraction were only briefly covered during the explain and extend portions of the lesson.

Our learning objectives were:

Students will be able to create a model which represents magnetic poles.

Students will be able to define in their own words what it means when magnets repel each other.

We built on their knowledge gained during the first lesson of using the chart to categorize objects. Prof.

Otto was invaluable in recommending that after the discussion part of the engage phase we facilitate

the students' awareness simply by telling them prior to the explore phase of the lesson, “Today you will

be models of real scientists by investigating magnets.” The students investigated the properties using

two bar magnets. In the explain phase the third model, an image of two bar magnets interacting with

iron filings, was introduced.

Analysis of the post-assessment revealed 92 percent of the students were able to identify

materials that are attracted to magnets compared to 31 percent who originally answered partially

correct. Less than one third of the students in the postassesment listed the misconception of “metals.”

84 percent of the students were able to correctly draw a model of a magnet's poles compared to zero in

the preassesment. 72 percent of the students were able to explain why their drawings were a scientific

model compared to 31 percent previously. 60 percent of the students were able to describe repel

compared to one percent. Although it was not a learning objective 56 percent of the students developed

a good concept of the relationship between distance and a magnet's strength compared to eight percent

previously.

Q 1 Q 2 Q 3 Q 4 Q 50369

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Post-assessment data of 25 students' knowledge of magnets and models.

One student absent

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Q 1 Q 2 Q 3 Q 4 Q 50

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Comparison of Pre & Post-assessment data

PretestPosttest

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Conclusions:

The results of the post-assessment show a significant increase in student knowledge. Each of the

five questions show significant gains in the number of student responses that were at least partially

correct. We feel our project synthesized the disparate efforts of the previous researchers which focused

separately on magnet textbooks, lessons, misconceptions and models. We went one step further by

deliberately introducing models concepts which allowed the students to mentally frame the science

topic. This was especially important considering the low reading and writing levels of this particular set

of students. While they have not yet developed the skills necessary to gather higher-level information

via reading, the benefits of using analogous models is not lost on them. Learning about models was not

the primary objective but in the process of doing so they developed a strong foundation on which to

build knowledge. It gives a clear answer to our research question, “what is the impact of our teaching

on student knowledge about models and magnets?” The impact of integrating models is

resoundingly positive. In a broader sense it validates Gilbert's recommendation for models based

science teaching.

Reflections:

James Rodriguez reflection:

At first glance of the pre-and post-assessments I was startled by the students' lack of writing.

Once I became aware of the students’ academic levels I took a second look at the assessments and was

surprised by what they learned. What they lacked in writing skills they made up for with their drawings

of the poles, abbreviated descriptions of things that magnets attract, models, repel, and how the pull of

a magnet grows stronger as objects are nearer. I relearned the importance of using multiple means of

assessment. I also relearned how students learn in multiple ways. For example they can be more visual

or hands-on learners. This project has made an indelible mark on my future teaching about the

importance of using models. I will actively seek out ways to incorporate them and have the students

create them.

The school context caused us to alter the content specific objectives of our action research

lessons. We expected the magnet misconceptions but not the general lack of basic magnet knowledge.

The students' problems with writing forced us to take a more active role during the explore phase of the

first lesson when they were creating their charts. The most important factors I considered when

planning the lessons were staying within the scope of the action research project, making the lessons

engaging for the students, and tailoring the learning objectives to the state guidelines. I incorporated the

scientific theme of models by integrating one into the first lesson and making the students aware of it.

That was followed by making the creation of a model a learning objective of the second lesson. In the

future I will select a teaching method for a particular science concept by remembering the precepts of a

5E lesson plan, models based science teaching, and recognizing the strengths and weaknesses of the

students, environment, and resources of a particular school setting.

Saadia Shatila reflection:

Considering the fact that the students showed very little if any knowledge about magnets and

models from the pre-assessment, I worried that designing a lesson for the 4th grade level will be too

challenging for the students. We simplified the way we delivered the ideas to them in our lessons, but

made sure to cover all that they needed to know in relation to their grade level content expectations.

Surprisingly, the students showed in the post-assessment that they learned a big deal about magnets in

relation to a distance between it and an object, about objects that are attracted by magnets, they learned

about the magnets repelling another magnets and their poles, and most importantly they learned about

models and gained an idea on how models are used in a science classroom. My learning during this

action research project included mainly the presentation of models in a science classroom. I also

learned that models could be used in different ways depending on the students’ level. For example,

since our students showed little knowledge about magnets, our model that we presented was simple and

designed to fit a hands-on experiment by the students to observe the characteristics of magnets around

objects that they would or/and wouldn’t attract. I learned that students at all levels should be exposed to

different models in a science classroom to be able to understand an abstract idea that normally would

be challenging for the teacher to explain. In my future teaching, I will make sure to include models in

my lesson planning and find ways to merge the use of models into any abstract idea to help the students

gain more information about the target. In the future, I will also keep in mind that any lesson could be

modified in a way that would fit the students’ level. For example, if the students have a good level of

knowledge about a specific topic, as a teacher I will modify my lesson in a way that would offer

challenge to my students, which will allow them to be more engaged in the lesson and in the learning

experience in general. This idea of modifying the lessons according to the students’ level was brought

to my attention because the school that we went to was located in a less fortunate area, it was obvious

that the students attending this school had limited help academically outside of the classroom. Looking

at the performance of the students, it was obvious that parents weren’t involved in the learning of the

students, therefore, as future teachers we had to make some changes to the lesson we originally planned

to teach. We also realized that the lessons we present need to have a conclusion that would wrap up the

main big idea because we assumed that the students will not be able to expand on the topic on their

own once we leave their classroom. Therefore, during the lesson planning, we considered bringing in to

the classroom an example for every idea we were going to talk about. For example, we had to show the

students and allow them to experiment with different aspects of magnets because we considered the

fact that they might not have the prior knowledge that is required at their level.

The science capstone course along with the readings assigned in this course was the source of

information and guidance that allowed me, as a student teacher, to have the confidence to teach a

science lesson using models. Since the course prepared me very well and filled me with information

about different models and different ways to use a model in a science lesson, I was ready to create a

lesson and teach it in any classroom. The pre-assessment that we did for the class prior to the lesson

helped me a great deal when writing the lesson because it gave me a starting base with what the

students knew, what they did not know, what they had misconceptions about, and what they needed to

know. This course also prepared me very well to be able to handle many misconceptions that the

students might have and what to focus on when correcting a misconception. The main focus when

correcting a misconception was not to accidentally create another misconception. In the future and

based on what I learned from this action research, I will always make sure to target the students

misconceptions, to present models to help the students better understand a general idea, to assess the

prior knowledge that the students have about a certain topic prior to presenting the lesson, to design

experiments that would fit the level of knowledge that the students have, to allow students to

experiment on their own and to generate explanations before giving them answers, and to make sure

they continue thinking about the topic even outside of the classroom by showing them the relation of

each topic to daily life experiences. I will also keep in mind that the level of the school and the students

should not be a reason for a teacher to set low expectations for the students because regardless of what

they know a teacher should be able to teach her students something they did not know and allow their

thinking to expand beyond what their school might be able to offer.

References:

Ashbrook, P. (2005). More than messing around with magnets. Science and Children, 43(2), 20-23.

Barrow, L. (2000). Do elementary science methods textbooks facilitate the understanding of magnet

concepts? Journal of science education and technology, 9(3), 199-205.

Bernstein, L., Wolfe, S., & Globe Fearon Educational Publisher. (2003). Physical science. Parsippany,

NJ: Globe Fearon.

Gilbert, S. (2011). Models based science teaching. (1st ed., p. 3). Arlington, VA: NSTA Press.

Kur, J, & Heitzmann, M. (2008). Attracting Student Wonderings, Science and Children, 45(5), 28-32.

Moyer, R. H., Hackett, J. K., & Everett, S. A. (2007). Teaching science as investigations. Upper Saddle

River, NJ: Pearson Education Inc.

Michigan Department of Education, (2007). Science v.1.09:grade level content expectations. Retrieved

from website: http://www.michigan.gov/mde/0,1607,7-140-28753_33232---,00.html

Otto, C. (2012, November 09). Comments [Electronic message].

Wilcox, J., & Richey, L. (2012). May the magnetic force be with you. Science and children, 50(2), 62-

67.

Appendix I: Action Research Project time schedule

All items performed jointly by James Rodriguez and Saadia Shatila

1. September 11 – 27. Meet and plan with partner.

2. September 27. First classroom visit for initial observations.

3. October 18. Administer the preassessment.

4. October 18 – 30. Analyze results of the preassessment.

5. October 31 – November 14. Prepare action inquiry lessons.

6. November 15 – 22. Conduct action inquiry lessons.

7. November 26 – 28. Administer and analyze post-assessment.

8. November 28 – December 3. Evaluate lessons and draft conclusions.

Appendix II: Preassessment survey

Name____________________________________

Magnets

1. Draw the magnetic field of this magnet and label the poles.

2. Is your drawing of a magnetic field a scientific model? Yes No

Explain your answer.

3. Give two examples of things that a magnet will attract.

4. What does it mean when magnets repel each other?

5. How does the strength of a magnet change with the distance from an

object?

Appendix III: Lesson plans

Models and Magnets: lesson one

Grade Level: 4th Grade

Concepts and objectives:

Students will be able to identify materials that are attracted by magnets.

GLCEs:

P.PM.01.31 Identify materials that are attracted by magnets.P.PM.E.3 Magnets can repel or attract other magnets. Magnets can also attract magnetic objects. Magnets can attract and repel at a distance. S.IP.E.1 Inquiry involves generating questions, conducting investigations, and developing solutions to problems through reasoning and observation.S.IP.04.11 Make purposeful observation of the natural world using the appropriate senses.S.IP.04.12 Generate questions based on observations.S.IP.04.13 Plan and conduct simple and fair investigations.S.IA.E.1 Inquiry includes an analysis and presentation of findings that lead to future questions, research, and investigations.S.IA.04.11 Summarize information from charts and graphs to answer scientific questions.S.IA.04.12 Share ideas about science through purposeful conversation in collaborative groups.S.IA.04.13 Communicate and present findings of observations and investigations.

Resources Per Group:

Set one: Nail, Paper clip, Keys, Wood, Magnet, Quarter, Nickel.

Set two: Penny, Aluminum, Screw, Paper, Plastic straw.

One whiteboard and dry erase marker per group. Pencil and paper for each student.

Safety Issues:

The students need to be careful handling the pointy objects. Avoid using the magnets near sensitive

items.

Engage:

As you know we are going to explore magnets. How many of you have magnets on your refrigerators

at home? Here are some examples of those. What other objects do you think magnets stick to? The ones

we are going to use are magnets without special designs or colors. One of the ways scientists learn

about things is to group them by the way they behave. Today you will be models of real scientists by

investigating magnets. Your job is to sort the objects into two groups. Have the recorder in your group

make a chart on your group's whiteboard of what objects you discover that stick to the magnet. (Pass

out a magnet and set of objects to each group).

Explore:

Circulate and assist as needed. They should be sorting into objects that stick and do not stick. Make

sure the students are recording their data.

Explain:

Tell the students, “we use the term attract to describe objects that stick to magnets.” Write attracted and

not attracted on the board. Tell the students, “this is like the model chart you created.” Have the speaker

from each group report what they discovered. What objects were in each sorted group? Why did they

sort them that way? They should now recognize that only some metals are attracted to magnets.

Extend and Apply:

Have the students select a 10 objects from the room. Each student should then create a model chart and

predict for each object if it will be attracted to the magnet.

Evaluate:

Pass out another set of objects and have the students sort them into two groups using the magnet. Did

they sort them appropriately?

References:

Goldberg, F., Robinson, S., & Otero, V. (2008). Physics & everyday thinking. Armonk, NY: Herff Jones

Education Division.

Michigan Department of Education, (2007). Grade level content expectations. Retrieved from website:

http://mi.gov/documents/mde/Complete_Science_GLCE_12-12-07_218314_7.pdf

Moyer, R. H., Hackett, J. K., & Everett, S. A. (2007). Teaching science as investigations. Upper Saddle

River, NJ: Pearson Education Inc.

Otto, C. (2012, November 09). Comments [Electronic message].

Models and Magnets: Lesson two

Grade Level: 4th Grade

Objectives and Concepts:

Students will be able to create a model which represents magnetic poles.

Students will be able to define in their own words what it means when magnets repel each other.

GLCEs:

P.PM.E.3 Magnets- Magnets can repel or attract other magnets. Magnets can also attract magnetic objects. Magnets can attract and repel at a distance. S.IP.E.1 Inquiry involves generating questions, conducting investigations, and developing solutions to problems through reasoning and observation.S.IP.04.11 Make purposeful observation of the natural world using the appropriate senses.S.IP.04.12 Generate questions based on observations.S.IP.04.13 Plan and conduct simple and fair investigations.S.IP.04.14 Manipulate simple tools that aid observation and data collection (for example: ruler.S.IA.E.1 Inquiry includes an analysis and presentation of findings that lead to future questions, research, and investigations.S.IA.04.12 Share ideas about science through purposeful conversation in collaborative groups.S.IA.04.13 Communicate and present findings of observations and investigations.S.RS.04.11 Demonstrate scientific concepts through various illustrations, performances, models, exhibits, and activities.

Materials:

Two bar magnets per group, rulers, steel washers, projector, magnet transparency model (see

Appendix), iron filings, pencil and paper.

Safety issues:

Avoid using the magnets near sensitive items.

Engage:

Today we are going to learn more about magnets and models. “In the first lesson when you investigated

magnets you were a model of a scientist. What other model did you create and use to help you

understand magnets.” They should give the example of the charts they created. Elaborate on the

description of a model. Give a few more examples such as a globe, toy car, or statue. Ask the students,

“Can anyone give me another example of a different model? What did you learn in the first lesson on

magnets? (They should respond that magnets can attract other objects.) Has anyone had experience

using two magnets that they can explain to the class? When two magnets come near each other

sometimes something special happens.” You are going to explore more properties of magnets then

create a model to show what you learned.

Explore:

Tell the students each group will get two magnets. There is a letter N on one end of each magnet. Each

student is to explore the magnets by playing with them. Remind them to record their observations.

Circulate and assist as needed.

Explain:

Have the speaker from each group communicate the results of their exploration. They should have

learned that the opposite poles attract and similar poles repel. Tell the students the letter N stands for

the North Pole. Magnets have two poles, North and South, opposite each other. Illustrate it on the

board. Write attract on the board and explain this is the word that explains what happens when

opposite poles of a magnet are close to each other. Write repel on the board and explain this is the word

that explains what happens when like poles of a magnet are close to each other. Explain magnets have a

magnetic field (write it on the board) around them. Demonstrate magnetic field by showing patterns

formed with iron fillings. Display the model using the projector and have the students copy the

illustration. Call on students to explain the model based on their exploration.

Extend and Apply:

Ask the students to discuss how far apart the magnets were from each other when they felt the effects.

Based on their exploration ask them to predict how the strength of the magnet is affected by the

distance of a paperclip from the magnet. They should predict the magnet's strength is stronger closer to

the magnet. Then using a ruler measure the distance a paper clip is from one of the magnets when it is

attracted to it. Show them a map of the U.S. or world. Ask the students to discuss how the map is a

model.

Evaluate:

Have the students draw a model of a magnet with magnetic fields and label the poles. Ask the students

to define repel in their own words. Ask the students to explain how a magnet's strength relates to the

distance from an object.

References:

Bernstein, L., & Wolfe, S. (2003). Physical science. Parsippany, NJ: Globe Fearon.

Gilbert, S. (2011). Models based science teaching. (1st ed., p. 3). Arlington, VA: NSTA Press.

Goldberg, F., Robinson, S., & Otero, V. (2008). Physics & everyday thinking. Armonk, NY: Herff Jones Education Division.

Michigan Department of Education, (2007). Grade level content expectations. Retrieved from website: http://mi.gov/documents/mde/Complete_Science_GLCE_12-12-07_218314_7.pdf

Moyer, R. H., Hackett, J. K., & Everett, S. A. (2007). Teaching science as investigations. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education Inc.

Appendix IV: Model transparency