Action Research as a reflective training strategy for teachers · Web viewWhatever the word we...

European Conference on Educational Research - School of Psychology and Educational SciencesUniversity of Lisbon - 11-14 September 2002

Teaching, training and learning strategies in today’s school. Developing reflective practices

Ana Margarida Veiga Simão

School of Psychology and Educational Sciences

University Lisbon

Alameda da Universidade-1649-013 Lisboa PortugalTel: +351 217934554 Fax: +351 217933408

[email protected]

Introduction

One of fundamental tasks of schools is to endow students with strategies, which

enable them to re-elaborate, to transform, to contrast and critically rebuild knowledge,

that is develop strategic knowledge. That’s why one of today’s key lines in educational

research is help teachers develop structures to help students learn, and learn how to

learn. Helping the teacher with the structuring of his/her fundamental task – making

his/her student learn how to learn – is one of the key headlines of today’s educational

research.

Due to the importance of this issue, we decided to carryout a research project on

learning strategies. In this study we have emphasized both classroom practice with the

students and training of teachers, aiming at encouraging a reflective, active and

constructive attitude. During this in course research, the teachers and the researcher

collaborated in the classroom practice.

The main goal of this study was to organize and evaluate an educational project

on learning strategies, designed to be applied at the last compulsory school year. Not

only did we work with pupils, aiming to raise cognitive, metacognitive and motivational

strategies, but we also worked out a teacher training procedure in order to stimulate a

reflective, active and constructive attitude. A set of principles framed the leading

support of this training project: cooperation and participation, individual commitment to

it at one’s own cost, assuming the training as a constructive process, where needs are

detected and itineraries and projects are made up, so as to provide the teacher with

opportunities to further improve his/her professional skills and develop him/herself as

an educational expert and as a reflective individual. Within this process of education

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and training a permanent exercise of practice and reflection, involved different paths for

the trainees, intervention and reflection upon different classes and exchanges between

them. According to this concept, the teacher has to learn the contents of his/her subject

in a strategic and metacognitive way in order to teach his/her students how to learn,

using a teaching methodology, which will promote a reflective transfer of learning

procedures.

The scientific value of this educational project lays on the importance of

validating it in real contexts, which allows us to analyse the meaning of upcoming

changes and compare theme with the existing scientific knowledge on the subject.

The assessment device for this educational project was constructed on the basis

of the comparison of three “intact live groups” (groups already existing in a school),

adopting a quasi-experimental design.

The educational project also aimed at developing the pupils’ awareness and at

deliberating self-regulation of their action. Avoiding teaching study techniques in a

mechanical way, we taught learning strategies in contexts which make sense for the

pupils, encouraging a classroom atmosphere prompt to reflexion, where doubt and

inquiry place an important role. We also promoted situations, which helped transfer the

learning strategies. Therefore this teacher training approach aimed at raising teacher’

awareness on their teaching procedures and to understand their inherent effects, that is

at helping them to control their mental processes as well as increasing their knowledge

about their own cognitive processes.

The research showed the possibility of using learning strategies in classroom

within a regular curriculum. The variety of the results led us to a final reflexion

organized around two issues: the need to include this topic- learning strategies - in

teacher training activities and the importance of learning strategies in today’s school.

Educational Project

Teachers’ education and training

A set of principles framed the leading support of this teachers education and

training project: cooperation and participation, individual commitment to it at one’s

own cost, assuming the training as a constructive process, where needs are detected and

itineraries and projects are made up, so as to provide the teacher with opportunities to

further improve his/her professional skills and develop him/herself as an educational

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expert and as a reflective individual. The training allowed a permanent exercise of

practice and reflection, involving different paths for the trainees, intervention and

reflection upon different classes and exchanges between them.

There was permanent negotiation over an initial contract and flexibility of roles,

respecting the equality of forms of the research and training processes between the

trainer/research and the teachers as well as between these ones and the students.

Phases in the construction of the teacher/researcher peer collaboration

This teacher education and training approach was based on situations and

problems of the professional reality. It was a starting point of confrontation between

theory and practice, allowing knowledge advance and efficiency of action (Faber,

1994). Promoting knowledge was decisive, as it permitted groundwork and helped the

working-up of tools adequate to the analysis and understanding of practice.

Theory turned into practice, "theoretical practice". "Theoretical knowledge does

not teach us what to do, nor how to do it, but it leads us to act on reasonable judgement"

(Faber, 1994:87). Practice is ultimately a learning training source, allowing access to

multi-dimensional learning/knowledge, multi-sided natures and constant change. It

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concerns interweaving theory and practice, one becoming meaningful through the other,

as "the theoretical practice has a goal: getting to know reality, other practices and their

transformation" (idem: 86).

The reflection on the practices constitutes the agglutinative pole of the out-

breaking teachers educational and training, although it does not happen by chance. We

tried to mobilise the self-reflective skills, joining a specific training for learning

strategies with all the teacher’s activity. It would lead to the recognition of reasons,

assumptions, motivations and meaning of their options, their action and to the resulting

output, as it can be observed in the diagram of the process followed during the teachers

educational and training.

Diagram of teachers’ educational and training process

“The reflective practices” embody one of the training instruments capable of

favouring awareness and transforming practices (Schön, 1991). Whatever the word we

use (self-consciousness, metacognition, epistemology of action or simply sanity) the

important fact is that it means a reflective form: the subject takes his/her own action,

his/her own mental ground work operations, an object of analysis, (s)he tries to

understand and perceive his/her own way of thinking and acting (Perrenoud, 1996).

Two issues have driven us: one concerning what the teachers should learn about the

metacognitive use of the learning strategies; the other was linked with the necessary

prerequisites, so that the teacher could learn his/her own learning strategies in a

metacognitive way (Monereo and al., 1995). The teacher as an apprentice of strategies,

willing to teach his/her student, should know when preparing his/her classes, not only

how to learn or how (s)he learned but also when and what (s)he will use the learned

content for.

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According to this concept, the teacher has to learn the contents of his/her subject

in a strategic and metacognitive way in order to teach his/her students how to learn,

using a teaching methodology, which will promote a reflective transfer of learning

procedures.

The video as a stimulating medium of teacher’s reflective practice

One of the tools we used was the video training, applying the methodology of

stimulated recall in order to obtain the teachers’ reflection over their practice, as well as

their metacognitive exercise. This methodology consists of reproducing (re-

presentation), by means of an audio/ or video medium, an episode/class taped with the

purpose to grant the expectator or listener usually protoganised by a teacher or a

student) a chance to recall and retell his/her thoughts and decisions at the moment. Most

investigating work focuses on the role of metacognitive strategies during class

performance. Yet, metacognition is important for self-learning and self-regulation of

cognition, emotion or human behavioural performance in several areas.

At one of the moments of the teachers’ education and training process, the

stimulated recall fell upon a set of Portuguese language classes, which went through the

following stages:

a set of classes were video-taped. The direction criterium was designed

according to lessons planning of the teachers.

after the teaching period, on the day of the class recording, each teacher was

requested to watch his/her class and to make a free comment on it. They

were requested to stop the session at a decisive moment and invited to recall

a concrete thought, a worry, a decision, etc.

these comments were treated, through content analysis, and returned to the

teachers, to help to be aware of the processes.

The use of the video made possible a diversity of insights and an

approach/distance zoom-effect, which favoured a stimulating, reflective attitude and an

active and constructive one as well.

The objectives of the teachers educational and training project were: helping the

teachers develop awareness processes while teaching and realise their effects, thus

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fostering a means to control their own mental processes and increasing their learning

about their own cognitive performance.

Some reflections and proposals towards change - from thought to action

Reflection over one’s action is a process that intents to promote among the

teachers an analysis process upon their teaching. The teachers were handed out the

observation analysis as well as their own analysis over the classes. We consider that

"the training can not be built by a piling up process (courses, learning or techniques)

but, on the contrary, by working on critical reflection over practices and permanent

reconstruction of a personal identity. Therefore, it is our main point to invest on the

teachers skills and work them out from a theoretical and a conceptual perspective"

(Zeichner, 1990 in Nóvoa, 1990:70).

So, starting from the identified learning’s, we challenged them by expressing

doubts, laid out changes that were clearly necessary and meaningful, which made

possible the reframing of the teachers conceptual tables and their re-investment into

classroom practice. We will display, as an example, some critical points and the

proposals towards balanced changes.

Table 1

From problem-question to change

Category Indicators Critical point Proposals towards change

Speaking

skills

Verbal

interaction

Closed question/ immediate

answer dominance.

The student is not given

any time to construct.

The task aim is to evaluate,

to prove whether the

students have understood or

still recall the text/theme.

Supplying the students with question

patterns, which they will use as

self--questioning.

Making questions of literal answer

type, of thought and research and

personal types.

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Table 1 (cont.)

From problem-question to change

Student’s

role

Autonomy There is an autonomy

"deficit" among the

students.

They do what they are told

to by the teachers.

Some students do not

realise the different

learning stages they go

through (exploration,

generalisation, synthetizing,

through note-taking etc.).

The transition generally

remains implicit.

Providing information about the

learning processes and progress.

Encouraging the students to lay out

learning goals.

Helping the student to identify task

requirements.

Acting as a strategic role model.

Appealing to the students planned

self-performance.

Writing

skills

Classroom

resources

The time estimated for

written tasks is short and

most of the times it is

limited to copying the

teacher’s blackboard

register or dictation.

Written communication is

the support students are

supposed to retain.

Using written communication as an

approach means towards learning.

Giving the students autonomous

register procedures (note-taking,

registering on book margins, diagram

building, key-word writing.

Reflecting over the useful techniques

and chances to apply to other

situations.

Reading

skills

Strategies When reading text students

do not often understand and

do not know how to act to

solve the problem.

Teaching the students self-regulation

processes.

Reflecting over effective reading

strategies.

Teaching the students how to

identify the source of difficulties and

find solutions.

Self-expressing their own strategies.

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The fact that the teachers could reflect about themselves, gave them the

opportunity to be aware of their processes and cognitive output, which stimulates an

active attitude on regulating those processes, according to their practice. One of the

teachers stated "there is no doubt that I was confronted with situations and tasks I had

never thought of, so to say, I had never questioned myself about it " and another one

said "watching my recorded class has given me a different perspective about me (...) it

has made me reflect on my teaching (...) and made me change some things (...).

That is why we should stress the training potential of this methodology.

Changing signs in the teachers

How far did the teachers feel that changes really took place during the

educational project? As far as the procedural aspects are concerned, seven areas were

reported: (a) in the sequence of teaching-learning activities, namely on trying to balance

the conceptual contents, procedure and behavioural aspects; (b) on trying to implement

the social organisation of the class, fostering a stimulating learning environment; (c) in

the role of teacher and student helping the latter towards his/her autonomy in a

responsible way; (d) when using space and time, being aware of the pressure they

exercise over the possibilities of action; (e) shaping the organisation of the contents,

balancing the need of a global logic; (f) in the conception and manipulation of

curriculum materials, facilitating the students’ reflection over their own learning

processes; (g) giving meaning and a role to evaluation and assuring the necessity to

evaluate in a diversified way according to the objects and subjects and aiming at

making decisions of different nature, leading to an attitude of observation, inquiry and

questioning.

The areas subject to changes are directly related to changes at the attitude level

(a more active role while teaching the students how to learn, critical view and reflective

process, systematic questioning…), and at the conceptual level (the importance of

reflection over action within the theoretic references; the importance of placing the

teacher in a “ learner“ position; the learning strategies as a content).

Actually, teachers have changed their beliefs, not only in what concerns the

theory as irrelevant but also as far as the lone efficiency of practice, as part of their

training process. Experiencing real problems and facing them as professionals led them

to reproduce the institutional culture they were inserted in, preventing them from

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acquiring enough reflective learning. Taking this into consideration, they have assumed

that practice in itself is not enough as institutional routines often "beat" the chances of

critical reflection. These conclusions gave birth to a new vision about theory, not as a

static but a dynamic issue, as a tool which explores reality and an alternative that will

enable them to implement intervening projects in that practice. According to the

teachers’ statements, this new training concept owes its shape to the training they were

involved in, "a theoretical-practical training, simultaneously supervised by the trainer".

Obviously, the theoretical-practical relationship of this concept implies changes, either

from a temporal perspective as far as the teachers educational and training, or the trainer

´s role which has to be more active, participating in the educational innovation of

schools. We all know these changes require some time and systematic follow-up.

Classroom practice

It was assumed, during the classroom practice, that learning strategies were part

of the curriculum and, thus, they were linked with the contents/procedures and attitudes,

values and programmatic patterns of the different objects. We opted for the modus that

Monereo, C., Castelló, M., Clariana, M., Palma, M. and Pérez, M. L. (1995:27) make of

the learning strategies, understood as “decision-making processes (conscious and

intentional) through which the student chooses and recovers in organized manner the

knowledge he needs to complete a request/question or an objective, under the

characteristics of an educational situation in which the action is taking place”. These

strategies take for granted the control of procedures and techniques the acquisition of

which should be obtained in a sequence order from the low schooling levels. As the

classroom practice occurred at the last compulsory school level (9th), we took care of

their initial evaluation and worked with them according to their individual skills. Due to

their lack of autonomous use of the learning strategies, we started by teaching how to

learn them in a systematic way.

We tried to develop the students´ thinking abilities/cognitive capacities

enhancing their metacognitive competences because we can not dissociate teaching

strategies from metacognitive activity whenever we want to promote changes which

may be transferred and fulfilled by students through autonomous patterns.

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We have followed the recommendations on pedagogic action towards teaching

students learning strategies by Monereo and others (1995:38) when making our

educational project proposal and requested the teachers to accomplish it.

As a result, the teachers reflected with their students, attempting to help them

visibly, and in connection with their learning of performances/ transversal and specific

contents of several curricular subjects, to:

reflect over their own way of learning , aiming at improving their processes;

get to know themselves as “learners”, identify their difficulties and

competences at the learning moment, in order to anticipate and fill in their

gaps and needs during their learning situation and ask for help;

dialogue with one another, to activate their previous knowledge on the

handling material and to relate them with each new piece of information;

be intentional as to the objectives of their own learning and understanding of

other people’s priorities and objectives, especially their teachers´, so as to

better adjust to their demands;

study to learn and not only to pass an examination in school subjects,

making it clear that we can only learn properly when it implies

comprehension effort and, above all, we should show them that this learning

is more profitable in the future because it is lasting and functional;

act in a scientific way in his/her learning, converting ideas into hypotheses,

giving evidence of the validity of those ideas through experimentation or

confronting them with other ideas, interpreting the obtained results and

reformulating them if necessary from the starting point.

In short, with the classroom practice we intended to foster among the students

awareness and determined/intentional regulation of their action. The mechanical

teaching of studying techniques was avoided; learning strategies were taught in

functional contexts; a reflective classroom atmosphere, favourable to doubts and

research was stimulated, and we questioned some situations which would help transfer

learning strategies.

As far as the assumption about metacognitive knowledge, we were, above all,

sensitive to the model developed by Borkowski and his colleagues. Its emphasis lies on

the connection between the metacognitive, motivational and attitude factors – including

success/failure attributions and the surge of self-esteem – and how these interactive

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components play determinant roles during the on-going and generalisation of the

successful use of learning strategies (Borkowski, Carr, Rellinger, Pressley, 1990:55).

Lopes da Silva (1996:122) stands out these components of the model due to their

decisive importance: “specific knowledge of strategies – through instruction and

practice, a school child starts learning specific attributes of the strategies, their

application scope and efficiency; the general knowledge of the strategies – a child

recognises and believes in the general usefulness of being strategically positioned, i.e.,

he knows he will be able to obtain better results in his task if he applies the strategies

adequately and he recognises he must commit himself to a correct application of the

strategies ( this knowledge is related to the attributable beliefs about the causes of

success/failure and self-esteem ); procedures of metacognitive acquisition – it is not

enough to know the strategies, it is necessary to know how to select them according to

the on-course task or solving a problem; to monitor their use and assess their efficiency

level.

Either acquainted with the learning strategies and with what they imply, or with the

demands laid down by the curricular objectives and contents, the teachers organised

(with the investigator’s support) their practice having in mind their students´ learning

success. This way, new materials were built, questions made, and plans of action

created and an intervention was planned all along the 2nd and early 3rd terms. Each

teacher, according to his/her practising style, transferred his training experience into his

class practice. There were no recipes as they disfigure any educational attitude. On the

contrary, we experimented concrete forms of action favouring learning how to learn.

Changing signs in the students

In general terms, we have had some expectations: to find meaningful differences

between the students under the educational project and the rest. We admit beforehand

that those differences concern the teachers´ practices, which has come to be true. The

statistic results show that, in general, the educational project group obtained a relatively

significant superior outcome and improved much better than the two other groups, in

several tasks (summary writing, outlining, task awareness, self-regulating activities,

strategy coherence, among others) (Veiga Simão, 2001).

It was also possible to identify, among the students of the educational project

group, behaviours and attitudes, which favour “learning how to learn” appetence.

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We have found in a greater number of students of the first group:

clues/references which mobilise their strategies to other situations, showing

awareness as to their possible transfer;

awareness about learning activities as self-managing, monitoring, taking

decisions about data and their mobilisation;

clarity about the connection between processing for task-solving and the

purpose of the procedure, when emerging references to task demands and

knowledge of cognitive and metacognitive strategies;

strategic employment of procedures, taking decisions over strategies towards

a certain situation and managing their accomplishment, assessing and

correcting them when needed be;

attitudes: positive ones before learning strategies, taking into account the

future benefits brought by their efforts, guiding to self-evaluation and self-

correction, pointing at itineraries, mobilising processes, increasing their self-

esteem/growing more self-confident, investing in time and effort;

Conclusion

The need of teachers educational and training on learning strategies

We feel that, whatever the selected training strategy, it will inevitably lead the

teachers to: a) take the control of the different syllabuses to handle the tools which will

be used in the analysis of the pedagogic reality they are going through; b) experiment

new alternatives, getting involved into them (such as, investigation - action ...); c) opt

for supervision by researchers/trainers who will support them in the analysis task and

understand the complexity of situations, cooperating in the alternative interventions.

We have come to the conclusion that, not until they became trainees, did the

teachers feel the need for training in learning strategies. The teacher should be able to

learn and teach the syllabuses strategically to provide the students with tools they will

apply to their own resources in a strategic way. That is why we applied the principles

underneath the concept of learning strategies (awareness, purpose, self-regulation) to

the teachers’ educational process.

The teachers´ participation in the educational project has made them aware of

their role as agents towards change and has convinced them of the relevance of those

changes when reflecting over them, through evaluation and making proposals for new

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changes. Some have faced the classroom practice/training route as "a philosophy, which

will allow us to change through permanent searching process". There will be, no doubt,

limitations and restrictions deriving from contexts and from the ethnic nature of the

education intervention itself.

The importance of learning strategies in today’s school

In short, our study has confirmed the research data on learning strategies and it

seems to us that it is innovative and brings something new in what concerns its

application, neither to individual groups nor to limited spans of time but adequately

inserted in the curricular subjects. It reinforces the importance of an ecological study

inside the classroom and the conditions to be respected to secure the educational project

efficiency. We also stand out the teachers´ engagement in the research, which allowed

them to take hold of the methodologies of action beyond the investigator’s educational

project.

The reflection around the teaching and learning strategies leads us to question

the importance of working them at institutional school level. Parents, teachers and

education responsible people have shown their dissatisfaction with a teaching

perspective turned into the almost exclusively accumulation of knowledge and they

consider as being decisive to supply the students with self-help tools to face knowledge

building. This dilemma should be incorporated by the different actors of the institutional

school, making part of its educational projects the need to transform school education

into a learning process which would give the future citizens adequate instruments for an

all-life apprenticeship.

There is no doubt that no matter how high the accumulation of knowledge may

be, at the beginning of one’s school life, it is not enough. It is necessary to design

curricula, which may foster not only the desire to learn but also to carry on learning.

This requires changes that include the curricular contents and the organising shape of

the school institutions, as well as the conceptions, attitudes and the strategies of the

agents of the educational activities - the teachers and students.

Abstract

One of fundamental tasks of schools is to endow students with strategies, which

enable them to re-elaborate, to transform, to contrast and critically rebuild knowledge,

13


that is develop strategic knowledge. That’s why one of today’s key lines in educational

research is help teachers develop structures to help students learn, and learn how to

learn.

Due to the importance of this issue, we decided to carryout a research project on

learning strategies. In this study we have emphasized both classroom practice with the

students and training of teachers, aiming at encouraging a reflective, active and

constructive attitude. During this in course research, the teachers and the researcher

collaborated in the classroom practice.

The main goal of this study was to organize and evaluate an educational project

on learning strategies, designed to be applied at the last compulsory school year. Not

only did we work with pupils, aiming to raise cognitive, metacognitive and motivational

strategies, but we also worked out a teacher training procedure in order to stimulate a

reflective, active and constructive attitude The scientific value of this educational

project lays on the importance of validating it in real contexts, which allows us to

analyse the meaning of upcoming changes and compare theme with the existing

scientific knowledge on the subject.

The research showed the possibility of using learning strategies in classroom

within a regular curriculum.

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