ACI 547R-79 Refractory Concrete

$: ACI 547R-79 Refractory Concrete$
ACI 547R-79(Revised 1983)(Reapproved 1997)

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Refractory Concrete: Abstract of State-of-the-Art Report

Reported by ACI Committee 547

This abstract first appeared in Concrete International: Design & Construc-tion, V. 1, No. 5, May 1979, pp. 62-77. The full report is available as aseparate publication in 81/4 x 11 in., paper cover format, consisting of 224pages. Contents listed on this page represent only tbe sections of the reportcovered in this abstract.
Refractory concretes are cur-
rently used in a wide variety ofindustrial applications where py-reprocessing and/or thermal con-tainment is required. The servicedemands of these applications arebecoming increasingly severe andthis, combined with the constantdemand for refractories with en-hanced service life and more ef-ficient means of installation, hasresulted in an ever expanding re-fractory concrete technology. ACICommittee 547 has prepared thisstate-of-the-art report in order to meet the need for a better under-standing of this relatively newtechnology.

The report presents back-ground information and per-spective on the history and cur-rent status of the technology.Composition and proportioningmethods are discussed togetherwith a detailed review of the con-stituent ingredients. Emphasis isplaced on proper procedures forthe installation, curing, drying,and firing. The physical and engi-neering properties of both normalweight and light weight refractoryconcretes are reported, as arestate-of-the-art construction de-tails and repair/maintenance tech-niques. Also included is an in-depth review of a wide variety ofapplications together with thecommittee‘s assessment of futureneeds and developments.

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Keywords: abrasion; accelerating agents;admixtures; aggregates; aluminate cementand concretes; anchorage (structural); ce-ment-aggregate reactions; chemical analy-sis; construction; corrosion: curing; drying;failure mechanisms; formwork (construc-tion); hydration; insulating concretes; kilns;lightweight concreetes; mechanical proper-ties; mix proportioning; packaged concrete;physical properties; placing; pumped con-crete; quality control; refractories; refrac-tory concretes; reinforcing materials: re-pairs; research; shotcrete; spalling;structural analysis; temperature; thermalproperties; water; welded wire fabric.

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547R-5

Contents of summaryChapter 1 -Introduction, p.547R-21.1 - Objective of report1.2 - Scope of report1.3 - Nomenclature1.6 - Non-hydraulic setting refrac-

tories

Chapter 2 -Criteria for re-fractory concrete selection, p.

2.1 - Introduction2.2 - Castables and field mixes2.5 - Load bearing considerations2.7 - Corrosion influences2.10 - Abrasion and erosion resistance

Chapter 3 -Constituent in-gredients, p. 547R-63.2 - Binders3.3 - Aggregates3.4 -Effects of extraneous materials

Chapter 4 -Composition andproportioning, p. 547R-74.1 - Introduction4.3 - Field mixes4.4 - Water content

Chapter 5 -Installation, p.547R-85.1 - Introduction5.2 - Casting5.3 - Shotcreting5.4 - Pumping and extruding5.5 - Pneumatic gun casting5.8 - Finishing

Chapter 6 -Curing, drying,firing, p. 547R-96.1 - Introduction6.2 - Bond mechanisms6.3 - Curing6.4 - Drying6.5 - Firing

Copyright 0 1979, American Concrete InstituteAll rights reserved including rights of reproduc-tion and use in any form or by any means, in-cluding the making of copies by any photo pro-cess, or by any electronic or mechanical device,printed or written or oral, or recording for soundor visual reproduction or for use in any knowl-edge or retrieval system or device, unless per-

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9.4

Chapter 7 -Properties ofnormal weight refractoryconcretes, p. 547R-10

7.27.1 - Introduction

7.4- Maximum service temperature- Shrinkage and expansion

7.5 - Strength7.6 - Thermal conductivity7.10 - Specific heat

Chapter 8 -Properties oflightweight refractory con-cretes, p. 547R-118.1 - Introduction8.4 - Shrinkage and expansion8.5 - Strength8.6 - Thermal conductivity8.10 - Specific heat

Chapter 9 -Construction de-tails, p. 547R-129.1 - Introduction9.2 - Support structure9.3 - Forms

- Anchors9.5 - Reinforcement and metal embed-

ment9.6 - Joints

Chapter 10 -Repair, p. 547R-1310.1 - Introduction10.2 - Failure mechanisms10.3 - Surface preparation10.4 - Anchoring and bonding10.5 - Repair materials10.6 - Repair techniques

Chapter 11 -Applications, p.547R-1511.1 - Introduction

Chapter 12 - New devel-opments and future use of re-fractory concrete, p. 547R-1512.1 - Introduction12.2 - New developments12.3 - Research requirements

mission in writing is obtained from the copyrightproprietors.Discussion of this committee report may be sub-mitted in accordance with general requirementsof the ACI Publication Policy to ACI Headquar-ters, P.O. Box 19150. Detroit, Michigan 48219.Closing date for submission of discussion is No-vember 1, 1979.

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547R-2 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE

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Chapter 1 -Introduction1.1 Objective of reportThe objective of this report is to provide a source ofinformation on the many facets of refractory con-crete technology. The report is intended as a unifiedand objective source of information to aid the engi-neer or consumer in categorizing and evaluatingmonolithic refractory concrete technology and themany materials and processes available today. It isnot intended to be a specification or standard, andshould not be quoted or used for that purpose.

1.2 Scope of reportRefractory concrete is concrete suitable for use attemperatures up to about 3400 F (1870 C). It consiof a graded refractory aggregate bound by a suitablecementing medium. This report is concerned withrefractory concrete in which the binding agent is ahydraulic cement, and does not consider concreteswhich use waterglass (sodium silicate), phosphoricacid, or phosphates as a principal cementing agent.It covers all facets of refractory concrete installationand use, including the properties of individual in-gredients and concretes, placing techniques, methodsof curing and firing, repair procedures, constructiondetails, and current and future applications.

1.3 NomenclatureThe following definitions are used in this report:ACID REFRACTORIES - Refractories containing asubstantial amount of silica that may react chem-ically with basic refractories, basic slags, or basicfluxes at high temperatures.APPARENT POROSITY (ASTM C20) - The rela-tionship of the volume of the open pores in a refrac-tory specimen to its exterior volume, expressed as apercentage.BASIC REFRACTORIES - Refractories whose ma-jor constituent is lime, magnesia, or both, and whichmay react chemically with acid refractories, acidslags, or acid fluxes at high temperatures. (Com-mercial use of this term also includes refractoriesmade of chrome ore or combinations of chrome oreand dead burned magnesite).CALCIUM ALUMINATE CEMENT - The productobtained by pulverizing clinker which consists of hy-draulic calcium aluminates formed by fusing or sin-tering a suitably proportioned mixture of aluminousand calcareous materials.CASTABLE REFRACTORY - A proprietary pack-aged dry mixture of hydraulic cement and speciallyselected and proportioned refractory aggregateswhich, when mixed with water, will produce refrac-tory concrete or mortar.CERAMIC BOND - The high strength bond whichis developed between materials, such as calciumaluminate cement and refractory aggregates, as a re-sult of thermochemical reactions which occur whenthe materials are subjected to elevated temperature.EXPLOSIVE SPALLING - A sudden spallingwhich occurs as the result of a build-up of steampressure caused by too rapid heating on first firing.GROG - Burned refractory material, usually cal-cined clay or crushed brick bats.

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HEAT RESISTANT CONCRETE - Any concretewhich will not disintegrate when exposed to con-stant or cyclical heating at any temperature belowwhich a ceramic bond is formed.HIGH ALUMINA CEMENT - See calcium alumi-nate cement.NEUTRAL REFRACTORIES - Refractories thatare resistant to chemical attack by both acid and ba-sic slags, refractories, or fluxes at high temper-atures.REFRACTORY AGGREGATE - Materials havingrefractory properties which form a refractory bodywhen bound into a conglomerate mass by a matrix.REFRACTORY CONCRETE - Concrete which issuitable for use at high temperatures and containshydraulic cement as the binding agent.SOFTENING TEMPERATURE - The temperatureat which a refractory material begins to undergopermanent deformation under specified conditions.This term is more appropriately applied to glassesthan to refractory concretes.THERMAL SHOCK - The exposure of a materialor body to a rapid change in temperature which mayhave a deleterious effect.

1.6 Non-hydraulic setting reThe following discussion, while not pertinent to themain theme of the report, will be of some interestand use to the reader.1.6.1 Refractory brick - High quality brick, knownas firebrick, with unique chemical and physical prop-erties is obtained by blending different types of clayand other ingredients and by varying both themethod of processing and the burning temperatures.In addition to the many varieties of fireclay brick,high alumina, insulating, silica, fused aggregate, andbasic firebrick have been developed. Refractorybrick remains a major construction material for ap-plications in which heat containment and control isnecessary and in many instances, is the only satisfac-tory solution to a specific problem.

Brick has a number of disadvantages when com-pared to monolithic refractories. These dis-advantages include multiple joints, complicated an-choring, higher placement costs, more difficult repairprocedures, the need to maintain expensive invento-ries of special or scarce items, a certain inflexibilityin structural design, and higher fuel requirementsduring manufacture.

1.6.2 Plastics and ramming mixes - Plastic refrac-tories and ramming mixes are refractories which aretamped or rammed in place and are used for mon-olithic construction, for repair purposes, and formolding special shapes. These materials find exten-sive use in industry. They usually employ a clay, alu-mina, magnesite, chrome, silicon carbide, or graphitebase, and are blended with a binder. Heat settingmixes are likely to contain fireclay or phosphoricacid as a binder. Air or cold-setting mixes generallycontain fireclay and sodium silicate as the binder.Compared to ramming mixes, plastic refractorieshave higher moisture contents and therefore, higherplasticity.

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TABLE 2.1a - Characteristics of normal weight refractory concretes

COARSE COARSEHIGH HIGH LOW IRON

STRENGTH STRENGTH HIGH2350 F 2600 F STR ENGTH

2350 2600 2600

B C c

HIGHSTRENGTH

2500

C

14.0-15.5 11-14 3.5-11 14-16

120-124 126-130 137-142 118-120

C C C-T-S-EC-T-S-E

126 133120 125120 122120 123

131 133 144 146 124 131126 129 122 124124 129 138 140 121 122124 128 140 141 120 121

133 138 121 123

-0.1 to -0.5-0.2 to -0.5-0.1 to -0.7-0.1 to -0.9

-0.1 to -0.5 0.0 to -0.3 -0.2 to -0.4-0.3 to -0.6 - -0.4 to -0.5-0.4 to -0.6 0.0 to -0.3 -0.4 to -0.5-0.3 to -0.5 -0.1 to -0.5 -0.5 to -0.7

-0.1 to +1.7 -0.1 to +0.5

975 - 1030 / 810 - 1015 1020 - 1250535 -- 710 395 - 440400 -- 560 300 415405 -- 465 310 395

’ 520 - 910i -

-385370 570

- 605370 - 2390

820 - 1170300 - 590300 - 560300 - 460

2410 - 3800470 - 2210530 - 2090450 - 2070

3450 - 3870 2150 -- 3580 3075 - 54701800 229 --- 29955- 37951775 2325 450 --- 1590 2425 - 28451480 2225 050 --- 1340 1500 - 2105

470 -- 2280 3735 - 6970-

4.48 7.25 4.604.85 7.40 5.005.30 7.65 5.405.73 7.85 5.80

4.104.484.855.19

44.35

38.68

4.78

11.31

0.74

0.11

34.64 4.18 46.08

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TABULAR A1203HIGH PURITY BINDER GENERAL HIGH EROSION/

HIGH PURPOSE STRENGTH ABRASIONSTRENGTH 3000E 2800F 2800 F GUN RESISTANT

2800 F STEEL MILL STANDARD

3400 3000 2800

-G E -

2800 B

2400

8-11 8-12 10-12 (3) 10-12.5 10-13 15-21

PRODUCTDESCRIPTION

Recommended ServiceTemperature max., Deg. F

ASTM Class (C-401)

Water Required for Mixinq,Percent by Weight

Material Required (1)lbs. per cu. ft., lbs. per bag

Method of Application _ (2)

160 - 16 5 140-145 129-133 129-133

C-T-S C_T_S_E C-T S

165 178 139 147 131 138 130 136159 169 138 146 128 134 127 133161 174 138 146 128 132 126 133161 174 137 146 130 135 127 133165 176 139 150 123 128 127 130160 169 138 146 123 127 128 135165 167 136 1490.0 to -0.5 -0.1 to -0.6 -0.l to -0.4 -0.2 to -0.6

-0.1 to -0.5 -0.1 to -0.6 -0.2 to -0.3 -0.2 to -0.5-0.1 to -0.5 -0.2 to -0.6 -0.1 to -0.5 -0.1 to -0.5-0.1 to -0.3 -0.2 to -0.7 -0.3 to -0.7 -0.1 to -0.9-0.4 to -1.3 -0.5 to -1.1 -0.8 to +1.3 -0.5-0.7 to -1.4 -0.2 to +0.3 -0.5 to +1.0 -0.8

to +0.2to +0.8

-0.6 to -1.1 +0.1 to +0.7

125-130 125-131 108-114

C-E C-T-E C-T-S

135 143129 134129 134127 135

0.2 to -0.70 2 to -0.60.2 to -0.60.1 to -0.6

134 136 112 121132 144 108 117130 133 108133130 133 108

114115

124 132 111 114128 138

-0.3 to -0.4 -0.1 to -0.5-0.3 to -0.4 -0.11 to -0.6-0.2 to -0.4 -0.2 to -0.5-0.2 to -0.5 -0.4 to -0.8+1.7 to +2.2 -1.2 to +0.3+1.3 to +2.4

Bulk Density, 220 FHeated to I 1000 Ftemperature of: 1500 Fthen cooled 2000 Fpcf 2550 F

2732 F3000 F

Total Linear Change % Heated 220 Fto temp. of: then cooled 1000 F(Note: Linear change 1500 Ffigures are "TOTAL" 2000 Fin all cases and include 2550 Fpercent of drying 2732 Fshrinkage occurring 3000 Fin conversion fromwet "as cast"to "as dried" state)

445 - 745 310 - 520175 - 310 200 - 270145 - 295 150 - 200145 - 270 130 - 2401245 - 2605 820 - 17802095

2930

i-

4280 - 3145 990 - 1570645 - 1400 685 - 1030540 - 1260 630

3200

- 840560 - 915 640 - 8503021 - 3765 - 5490

260 - 2000945 - 1240020 - 1865

- 1385

1600 - 2590 450 - 840 360 - 8 0 0 400 - 8401820 - 2320 350 - 570 370 - 650 320 - 6801450 - 2120 290 - 580 230 - 680 530 - 840930 - 1400 340 - 590 390 - 780 500 - 9701280 - 2615 820 - 2050 1000 - 2450 1300 - 30301290 - 2707 1260 - 2400 1110 - 2260 2290 - 3740750 - 1280 1685 - 4620

5180 - 10230 1030 - 2160 1420 - 3780 1190 - 26208170 - 9160 1070 - 2250 1490 - 2950 1400 - 30007280 - 9395 950 - 2250 1110 - 2770 1690 - 33403036 - 10000 980 - 2050 1330 - 2920 1 1 6 0 - 31056180 - 11000 3280 - 4640 3200 - 7930 4250 -113904330 - 10115 4280 - 5620 5280 -12100 7140 -131753320 - 5325 5870 -10000

9.87 6.47 5.35 4.609.46 6.15 5.35 5.009.36 5.80 5.40 5.409.57 5.72 5.65 5.80

0.03 29.73 47.58 47.31

93.65 65.16 48.31 46.73

0.27 1.15 1.47 1.37

5.52 2.48 1.47 3.25

0.11 0.39 0.82 0.84

0.30 0.66 0.15 0.47 -

510 - 7910810 - 6480410 - 7110620 - 5375

5.245.105.105.18

32.06

59.23

0.91

6.89

0.59

Cold Crushing Strength, 220 Fpsi 1000 FHeated to 1500 Ftemperature of: 2000 Fthen cooled 2550 F

2732 F3000 F

Thermal Conductivity 500 FBtu/in/hr-sq.ft.-Deq F 1000 Fat Mean 1500 FTemperature of: 2000 F

Chemical Analysis percentS102A1203, T10 2

Fe203, Fe0

Ca0, Mg0

46.70 40.03

3.05 4.22

6.09 9.03

0.69 1.22

Trace 1.14

Alkalies

Ignition Loss

All measurements except thermaltaken at room temperature.

conductivity

SI conversion factorsDeg F = 1.8 C + 321 pcf = 16. 02 kg/m3

1 lb = 0.4536 kg1 psi = 0.006895 MPa1 Btu-in./hr-sq ft - deg F

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TABLE 2.1b- Characteristics of lightweight insulating refractory concretes

COMMERCIALPRODUCT

DESCRIPTION

Recommended ServiceTemp. max., Deg. F

ASTM Class (C 401)

Water Required for Mixing,Percent by Weight

Materials Required,lbs. per cu. ft. - -Method of Application*

Bulk Density,lbs. per cu. ft., 220 FHeated to 1500 FTemp. of: 2000 Fthen cooled 2250 F

2550 F2910 F

Total Linear Change,Percent, 220 FHeated to 1500 FTemp. of: 2000 Fthen cooled 2250 F

2550 F2910 F

Modulus of Rupture,psi 220 FHeated to 1500 FTemp. of: 2000 Fthen cooled 2250 F

2550 F2910 F

Cold Crushing Strength,psi 220 FHeated to 1500 FTemp. of: 2000 Fthen cooled 2250 F

2550 F2910 F

Chemical Analysis, percent

Si02A1203, Ti02Fe203, Fe0

CaO, MgO

Alkalies

Ignition Loss

SO3

Thermal Conductivity (k),Btu/Hr./Sq. Ft./F./In,At MeanTemp. of: 500 F

1000 F1500 F2000 F

HIGHALUMINALOW IRON

3000

Q

LIGHT-GENERAL WEIGHTPURPOSE 2250 F

2500 2250-

Q P&O

38-47 40-47

80-85 48-50

LIGHT-WEIGHT1800 F

24-27.5

**1800

N

46-55

87-92

C-S-E

46-48

C-S-E

92-9690-9189-9290-9186-9288-93

C - T - S - E C-T-S-E

86-90 51-5380-83 47-4880-84 48-4980-82 47-49

-

48-5447-5446-52

-0.2 to -0.3-0.4 to -0.7-0.6 to -0.8-0.4 to -0.6-0.6 to +0.8-0.2 to +0.2

-0.2 to -0.6 -0.3 to -0.4-0.4 to -0.8 -0.3 to -0.9-0.3 to -0.8 -0.3 to -1.1-0.2 to -1.4 -0.4 to -1.4

-0.1 to -0.4-1.7 to -2.0-0.8 to -1.3

265-360205-225280-315625-640950-9551755-1835

190-350 100-150140-230 70-90120-250 75-115155-315 160-170

200-420105-140100-205

615-685550-610450-545800-880265-14153535-4100

560-1040 290-450830-710 160-290460-800 130-220500-810 270-330

390-750295-405200-285

- I

36.52 40.08 37.38 43.17

54.63 38.13 34.79 17.68

1.38 5.31 6.63 3.11

4.56 13.53 17.68 31.34

1.11 1.66 1.88 2.05

1.90 1.20 1.45 2.40

2.88 2.58 1.663.19 2.86 1.983.50 3.14 2.313.82 3.42 2.63

1.40 0.871.71 1.152.01 1.43

- -

VERMICULITEBASE VERY

LIGHT-WEIGHT

1600

Special

176

24

_ C-T-E

21-2520-25

30-7020-80

*C-Casting; T-Troweling; S-Shotcretinq; E-Extruding. All measurements except thermal conductivity taken

**2000 F (For back-up material)at room temperature.

SI conversion factorsDegF = 1.8 C + 321 pcf = 16.02 kg/m'1 lb = 0.4536 kg1 psi = 0.006895 MPa1 Btu-in./hr-sq ft - deg F

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REFRACTORY CONCRETE 547R-5

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Plastics are generally placed without use of forms.With the exception of some specialized tabular alu-mina castables, plastics have a somewhat higher ser-vice limit than castable refractories. Their main dis-advantages are greater shrinkage and crackdevelopment. Except for phosphate bonded mate-rials cured above 600 F (315 C), plastics generallyhave lower cold and hot strengths than refractoryconcretes. In addition, plastics tend to have a rela-tively low strength zone on the cool side of the lin-ing.

Ramming mixes usually have higher density andless shrinkage than plastic refractories. With theirlow water content, they must be forced into placeand require strong well-braced forms. Some of thedryer medium grind ramming mixes are suitable forgunning, and are used for patching and maintenancematerials.1.6.4 Gunning mixes other than refractory con-cretes12,13 - As used in this section, the term “gun-ning mixes” does not refer to refractory concreteand should not be confused with gunned refractorymaterials which produce refractory concrete. Gun-ning mixes are mixtures of non-hydraulic setting in-gredients which are installed hot or cold, usually bythe shotcrete method.

Gunning mixes generally have low rebound loss,are predominately used for patching or resurfacingbrick or other refractories, have a strong internalbond, and exhibit excellent adhesion or bond to theexisting refractory lining. They find extensive use inbasic oxygen, electric arc and open hearth furnaces,among other applications.

Chapter 2 - Criteria for refractory concreteselection2.1 Introduction Refractory concrete is usually made with high alu-mina cement. It is not generally used as a structuralmaterial and its primary purpose is as a protectivelining for steel, concrete or brick structures. It is

Some of the destructive forces that refractory con-cretes withstand are abrasion, erosion, physical

considered a consumable material requiring replace-

abuse, high temperatures, thermal shock, hot andmolten metals, clinker, slag, alkalies, mild acid or

ment after an appropriate service life.

acid fumes, expansion, contraction, carbon monoxide,and flame impingement.

Refractory concretes are categorized as either nor-mal weight or lightweight. The former are also re-ferred to as “heavy refractory concretes” and thelatter are often called “insulating refractory con-cretes.” Table 2.la shows the characteristics of atypical range of normal weight refractory concretes;Table 2.lb shows the characteristics of lightweightrefractory concretes.

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2.2 Castables and field mixesRefractory concretes are usually prepared at the jobsite from materials supplied to the user in either oftwo ways: (1) prepackaged so-called “refractory cast-ables;” (2) field mixes.

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Refractory castables are plant packaged mixescomposed of ingredients that are weighed, blendedand usually bagged in convenient sizes for shippingand handling. They require only mixing with wateron the job to produce refractory concrete. Fieldmixes are made from material components which areproportioned and mixed on the site just prior to theaddition of water.

2.5 Load bearing considerationsMost application designs of refractory concrete con-sider that there is a thermal gradient through thematerial with heat conducted from the hot face tothe cold face. A cross section of the refractory willusually have a layer at the hot face that has a ce-ramic bond, an intermediate section with a weakercombination of ceramic and a partial hydraulic bond,and a cold face section that retains most of its hy-draulic bond. Refractory concrete linings in this typeof situation are usually well anchored and self-sup-porting.

Castables containing high proportions of coarse ag-gregates produce refractory concrete with good loadbearing characteristics. Certain types of refractoryconcrete tend to have low strengths in the inter-mediate temperature zones [1500-2250 F (820-1230 C)]and should not be subjected to excessive mechanicalabuse or dead load. Generally, lightweight concretesdesigned for insulating purposes should not be sub-jected to impact, heavy loads, abrasion, erosion orother physical abuse. Normally, both the strengthand the resistance to destructive forces decline asthe bulk density of the refractory concrete de-creases.

There are a number of special refractory castablesavailable which have better than average load-bear-ing capabilities and withstand abrasionmuch better than the standard types.

or erosion

2.7 Corrosion influencesHigh temperature in combination with a corrosiveenvironment can have a serious deleterious effect onboth the concrete and the backup steel structure.

Alkalies can effect the service life of refractory

Generally, the higher density, higher purity refrac-

concretes. The furnace charge can give off both alka-lies (K2O) and the fuel sulfur compounds (SO 2) as va-

tory concretes have better corrosion resistance than

pors. These can penetrate into the pores of the re-fractory concrete and react; their reaction products

the lower density, lower purity types.

cool, solidify, and expand, sometimes causing the hotface of the refractory to peel or shear away.

In certain applications, the refractory concrete issubjected to highly reducing conditions. Low-ironrefractory concretes should be used for this type ofapplication.

2.10 Abrasion and erosion resistanceAbrasion and erosion begin with the wearing awayof the weakest matrix constituent, binder, leavingthe coarse or hard aggregate to eventually fall away.A hard aggregate, a high modulus of rupture, andhigh compressive strength at the hot face are neces-sary for good abrasion and erosion resistance in re-fractory concretes.

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547R-6 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTIICE

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Chapter 3 - Constituent ingredients3.2 Binders The binders principally used in refractory concretesare calcium aluminate cements. However, ASTM-type portland cements can be used in some refrac-tory applications up to an approximate maximum of2000 F (1090 C) with selected aggregates, if special

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precautions are taken to ensure a sound refractoryconcrete. Cyclic heating and cooling tends to disruptportland cement concretes and adding a fine si-liceous material to react with the calcium hydroxide,formed during hydration, is helpful in alleviating theproblem.

Calcium aluminate (high alumina) cements arecommercially available hydraulic binders. They are

TABLE 3.3a- Maximum service temperature of selected aggregates mixed with calcium aluminate cementsunder optimum conditions

Aggregate- - Remarks_

Maximumtemperature

Deg C Deg F

Alumina, tabular

Dolomitic limestone(gravel)

Fireclay, expanded

Fireclay brick,crushed

Flint fireclay,calcined

Kaolin, calcined

MullitePerliteSand

Slag, blast furnace(air cooled)

Slag, blast furnace(granulated)

Trap rock, diabase

Refractory, abrasionresistant

Abrasion and corrosionresistant

Insulating, abrasion andcorrosion resistant



Insulating(Silica content less

than 90 percent not recommended)Abrasion and corrosionresistant

Abrasion resistant

Insulating, abrasion andcorrosion resistant

(Basic Igneous Rock-Minimal Quartz) Abrasionand corrosion resistant

1870

500

1640

1600

1650

1650 3000

1650 30001340 2450300 570

540

1200

1000

3400

930

1000

2190

1830

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TABLE 3.3b- Aggregate grading

Maximum size aggregate (except for gun placement)Maximum size aggregate for normal gun placementMaximum size insulating crushed firebrickMaximum size expanded shales and claysMaximum size, with the above exceptions, should

not be greater than 20-25 percent of theconcrete minimum dimension.

1 l/z in. (3.81 cm)I/4 in.* (0.64 cm)1 in. (2.54 cm)‘12 in. (1.27 cm)

Aggregate of V2 in. (1.27 cm) or larger size:Retained on No. 8 Sieve = 50 percentPassing No. 100 Sieve = 10-15 percent

Aggregate of less than l/2 in. (1.27 cm) maximum size:Retained on No. 50 Sieve = 75 percentPassing No. 100 Sieve = 10-15 percent

*In special cases larger sizes have been used successfully.

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specifically designed for use in monolithic refractoryconcrete construction. They are generally classifiedunder three basic categories: Low Purity, Inter-mediate Purity, and High Purity. This is a relativeclassification scheme and is based primarily on thetotal iron content of the cement.

Binder selection is primarily based on the servicetemperature desired for the refractory concrete.Maximum service temperatures are extended withincreasing Al2O3 and decreasing iron contents.Lower iron content binders are also beneficial in re-ducing carbon monoxide (CO) disintegration of con-crete (Section 2.7).

3.3 AggregatesThe maximum service temperatures of selected aggregates mixed with appropriate calcium aluminatecements are listed in Table 3.3a. These maximumtemperatures are based on optimum conditions ofbinder and aggregate. Thermal properties of aggre-gates, such as volume change (expansion, shrinkageor crystalline inversion) and decomposition, can af-fect these maximum temperatures, along with thechemical composition of both aggregate and binderand the reactivity between these mix constituents.

my IHcti

Temperature stability of the aggregate determinesthe maximum service conditions below approx-imately 2400 F (1320 C). Therefore, any type of cal-cium aluminate cement can be used at these temper-atures. For conditions above 2400 F (1320 C), binderpurity also becomes a design factor. Generally, thelow purity binder can be used with proper aggre-gates up to 2700 F (1480 C), intermediate purity to3000 F (1650 C) and high purity to 3400 F (1870 C).

Aggregate gradation is an important considerationin designing refractory concrete. Table 3.3b providessuggested guidelines for nominal maximum size andgrading of refractory aggregates.

For refractory mix designs a 1:3 or 1:4 by bulkvolume dry basis cement: aggregate mix is generallyused to satisfy typical applications. In certain casesthe ratio may change from as low as 1:2 to as highas 1:6, with the latter being used for lightweightconcretes. Within the range of normal usage, in-creasing the cement content will provide higherstrength development. However, increased cementcontent may also result in increased shrinkage. Ahigher aggregate content will increase insulating or

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refractory properties, depending on the type of ag-gregate selected for the mix. Combinations of vari-ous aggregates can be made to secure the desirableproperties of each.3.3.1 Lightweight aggregates - Perlite, expandedshale, expanded fireclay, and bubble alumina are themore commonly used lightweight aggregate for com-mercial insulating concretes.

3.4 Effects of extraneous materialsExtraneous materials commonly associated withportland cements, either as admixtures or as con-taminants from equipment or surrounding condi-tions, may behave differently when used with cal-cium aluminate cement mixes. Many castablescontain proprietary additions which may be ad-versely affected by field admixtures.

Chapter 4 - Composition and proportioning4.1 IntroductionIn designing mixes, refractory concretes are not onlydefined by density but also by operating temper-ature. Refractory concretes fall into three subclassesbased on service temperature ranges. The first subclass is “ceramically-bonded concrete,” defined asconcrete in which the cement binder and the fine ag-gregate particles react thermochemically to form abond. This bond is referred to as the ceramic bondand may occur at temperatures as low as 1650 F(900 C). The second subclass is “heat resistant con-crete,” defined as concrete in which the cement hasdehydrated but has not formed a ceramic bond. Thethird category is concrete which still has some hy-draulic bond when heated but performs satisfactorilyunder cyclic conditions.

4.3 Field mixes4.3.1 Ceramically bonded concrete - The ceramicbond can be formed at temperatures as low as1650 F (900 C). To aid formation of the ceramic bond,concretes operating above this temperature shouldhave 10-15 percent of the aggregate passing a No.100 sieve.

Most field insulating concretes are made with pre-soaked aggregate. Since the specified proportionsare based on dry materials, the actual batch mixesmay require correction.

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4.3.2 Heat resistant concrete - This concrete is gen-erally used in the range 930 F (500 C) to 1650 F (900C). Many coarse aggregates are unsuitable for use asrefractory aggregates because they contain quartz,which has a large volume change at 1065 F (575 C ) .

4.4 Water contentA majority of the aggregates used in refractory andheat resistant concretes have high water absorb-ency. For this reason specific water/cement ratiosare generally not used in developing mix designs. In-stead, water requirements are arrived at by period-ically conducting a “ball-in-hand” test (ASTM C860).This test is illustrated in Fig. 4.4. The correct watercontent is that which will provide a placeable, ratherthan a pourable, mix. When using well-soaked aggre-gates, it may be necessary to add little or no waterat the mixer. It is sometimes found that a mixturewhich appears fairly stiff when discharged from themixer will yield excess water as the concrete isplaced.

Chapter 5 - Installation

5.1 IntroductionRegardless of the quality of the refractory cement,aggregate, and/or castable, and regardless of the re-search devoted to the selection of correct materialsfor a specific application, maximum service life willnot be obtained unless the refractory concrete is in-stalled properly.

The most frequently used methods of installing re-fractory concretes are casting and shotcreting.

5.2 Casting5.2.1 Mixing - Proper mixing of castables is of pri-mary importance. Care should be taken to avoidmixing previously hydrated material into fresh re-fractory concrete. Mixers, tools and transportingequipment used previously with portland or othertype cement concretes must be cleaned prior to mix-

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ing. Remains of lime, plaster, or portland cementwill induce flash set and will lower refractoriness.

Generally, paddle mixers are used for small to me-dium size jobs involving calcium aluminate cementconcretes. In a paddle mixer, normal weight refrac-tory concretes should be mixed for about 2 to 4 min.Refractory concretes of less than 60 lbs/cu ft (960kg/m3) density should be mixed no longer than nec-essary to insure thorough wetting. This precautionis necessary because the lightweight aggregate maybreak-up during the mixing action and reduce the ef-fectiveness of the concrete as a heat insulator. Re-fractory concretes in the 75 to 90 lb/cu ft (1200-1400kg/m3) range should be mixed for approximately 2to 5 min. Because working time may be short, allcastables should be cast immediately after mixing.5.2.3 Mixing and curing temperature - Mixing andcuring temperature can affect the type of hydratesformed in set concrete. A castable develops its hy-draulic bond because of chemical reactions betweenthe calcium aluminate cement and water. To get themaximum benefits from these chemical reactions, itis preferable to form the stable C3AH6 during theinitial curing period. The relative amount of C3AH6

formed versus metastable CAH10 and C2AH8 can bedirectly related to the temperature at which thechemical reactions take place.

Recent work illustrates the significant impact ofmixing and curing temperatures on strength proper-ties. Fig. 5.2.334 shows the flexural strength of atabular alumina, high purity cement castable plottedas a function of mixing and curing temperatures. Itcan be seen that the strength developed after mix-ing and curing at 85 F (30 C) and drying at 230 F(110 C) is nearly twice that of the concrete mixedand cured at 60 F (15 C) and dried at 230 F.

D e g c

60 80

h0 Cured 24h0 Drled 230 F - 24h (110 C)0 Dried, Fast Fired 2012 F (11 00 C) (ASTM 268-70)

0 1 I 1 I I I I I 1

32 68 104 140 176Deg F

24h CURE Temperature>90% R.H.

DEG F

Fig. 5.2.3 - Flexural strength of tabular alumina,high purity cement castable (ASTM C268)

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Explosive spalling of high purity cement concretescan occur when casting and curing temperatures be-low 70 F (21 C) are used. Thus, a refractory concretecontaining a high purity cement should be cast orcured above 70 F (21 C). This spalling phenomenon isless likely to occur with low or intermediate puritycement binders.5.2.4 Transporting - Other than shotcreting andpumping, the techniques for transporting refractoryconcretes are similar to those used for portland ce-ment concrete. Some calcium aluminate cement bind-ers have a shorter placing time available.

5.3 ShotcretingShotcreting of refractory concrete is particularly ef-fective where, (1) forms are impractical, (2) access isdifficult, (3) thin layers and/or variable thicknessesare required, or (4) normal casting techniques cannotbe employed.5.3.1 Equipment - There are two basic types ofshotcrete methods: dry-mix and wet-mix. The dry-mix method conveys the aggregate and binder pneu-matically to the nozzle in an essentially dry statewhere water is added in a spray. The wet-mixmethod conveys the aggregate, binder and a pre-determined amount of water, either pneumatically orunder pressure, to the nozzle where compressed airis used to increase the velocity of impact. The drymethod, though it produces greater rebound, is theLicensee=Aramco HQ/9980755100

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REFRACTORY

CONCRETE 547R-9


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most suitable and recommended technique for shot-creting refractory concrete. An exception is the recommended use of a wet-mix gun for hot patching.5.3.2 Installation - To ensure a uniform coveringfree of laminations and with minimum rebound, thenozzleman should move the nozzle in a small circular orbit and where possible, maintain the flow from a 3-4 ft (0.9-1.2 m) distance at right angles to the receiv-ing surface.355 The shotcrete should be left in its as-placed state. If for some reason scraping or finishingis required, the absolute minimum should be done soas to avoid breaking the bond or creating surfacecracks. Shotcreting of refractory concretes can in-crease the in-place density and result in otherchanges in the physical properties. This effect ismore pronounced in lower density castables, andmust be taken into account when specifying thick-nesses and material quantities for insulating appli-cations. The user should be aware that certain as-pects of portland cement concrete shotcrete practicedo not apply to refractory shotcrete.

5.4 Pumping and extrudingCertain refractory concretes can be installed withpositive displacement pumps in conjunction withrigid or flexible pipelines. The design of the mix iscritical, and special attention must be given to theabsorptive characteristics and sizing of the aggre-gate.

Some applicators use the term “extruding” to de-scribe the conveying and placing of refractory con-crete at velocities that are very low or close to zeroon exit from the pipeline. When extruding, mixing ofthe refractory castable and water can be done inter-nally or externally depending on type of extrudingdevice.

5.5 Pneumatic gun castingPneumatic gun casting, or gun casting, is a rela-tively new technique for casting concrete and is find-ing increased uses for refractory concrete. Con-ventional dry shotcrete equipment and proceduresare utilized with the exception that an energy reduc-ing device is attached to the nozzle body in place ofthe standard shotcrete nozzle tip.

5.8 FinishingSurface finishing or rubbing of refractory concretesshould be kept at a minimum. Use of a steel trowelshould be avoided, and the final surface can belightly screeded to grade but should not be workedin any manner.

Chapter 6 - Curing, drying, firing8,16,17,18

6.1 IntroductionRefractory concrete should be properly cured for atleast the first 24 hr. Following this curing it shouldbe dried at 220 F (105 C), and then heated slowly un-til the combined water has been removed beforeheating at a more rapid rate.

6.2 Bond mechanismsCalcium aluminate cements have anhydrous mineralphases which react with water to form alumina gel

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and crystalline compounds which function as abinder for the concrete.20,21 The hydration of thesecements (Fig. 6.2) is exothermic. The rate of thechemical reaction is relatively fast.22 For all practicalpurposes, calcium aluminate concretes will developfull strength within 24 hr of mixing.

+

)

CA

> 95 F (35 C)I\

a)

CA2

Reaction Products of CA

CA H10 + A H3

+ H

Reaction Products of CA2

The cement chemistry abbreviations:CA

= CaO= Al2O3

H = H2O

Fig. 6.2 - Hydration reaction products of calciumaluminates195

cet

The total drying shrinkage of calcium aluminatecement concretes in air, is comparable to that ofportland cement concrete. In order to provide forcomplete hydration, and to control drying shrinkage,special attention must be given to the curing of ref-ractory concretes.

6.3 CuringThe temperature of hardening calcium cement risesrapidly. If the exposed surfaces are not kept damp,the cement on the surface may dry out before it canbe properly hydrated. The application of curing wa-ter prevents the surface from becoming dry and fur-nishes water for hydration. In addition, the evapo-ration has a cooling effect which helps to dissipatethe heat of hydration.

Conversion of the high alumina cement hydrates,which occurs if the cement is allowed to develop ex-cessive heat, does not present the same problem inrefractory concretes that it does in high alumina ce-ment concretes used for structural purposes. It hasbeen shown that if refractory concrete is fully con-verted by allowing it to harden in hot water andthen heated to 2500 F (1370 C), the fired strength isequal to that obtained for well cured concrete. Whenpossible, however, refractory concrete should be

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kept cool by appropriate curing under 210 F (99 C)for two reasons:l The entire refractory concrete structure does notusually reach the maximum service temperature,and the higher cold strengths obtained by good cur-ing may be useful in the cooler portions of the re-fractory.l If the temperature within the concrete reaches ahigh level during hardening, the thermal stressesproduced during cooling may be sufficient to causecracking.

Curing should start as soon as the surface is firm.Under normal atmospheric temperatures, this willoccur within 4 to 10 hr after mixing the concrete.The concrete should be kept moist for 24 hr by cov-ering with wet burlap, by fine spraying or by usinga curing membrane. Alternate wetting and dryingcan be detrimental to the cure of the concrete.

When using a curing membrane, the compoundshould contain a resin and not a wax base, andshould be applied to the surface as soon as possibleafter placing and screeding. The reason for dis-couraging the use of wax is that a hot surface willmelt the wax, causing it to be absorbed into the con-crete, breaking the membrane.

6.4 DryingThe large amount of free water in the refractoryconcrete necessitates a drying period before expo-sure to operating temperatures. Otherwise, the for-mation of steam may lead to explosive spalling dur-ing firing.

6.5 FiringFollowing drying of the refractory concrete, the firstheat-up should be at a reasonably slow rate. A typi-cal firing schedule, for a 9 in. (22.9 cm) thick lining,consists of applying a slow heat by gradually bring-ing the temperature up to 220 F (105 C), and holdingfor at least 6 hr. The temperature is then raised at arate of 50-100 F (10-40 C) per hr up to 1000 F(540 C) and again held for at least 6 hr. The firsthold is to allow remaining free water to evaporate,and the second hold is to eliminate the combined wa-ter without danger of spalling.

Beyond 1900 F (540 C), the temperature of the re-fractory concrete can be raised more rapidly. Calcin-ing of the green concrete into a refractory structurewill take place between 1600 F (820 C) and 2500 F(1370 C). Wall thickness and mix variations may re-quire somewhat different rates of heating, but thehold temperatures should remain at least 6 hr.

If steam is observed during heat-up, the temper-ature should be held until steam is no longer visible.

Cbapter 7 - Properties of Normal WeightRefractory Concretes7.1 IntroductionThere are various physical properties and testswhich are standard in the refractory industry andthese are usually provided in the material specifica-tions. Table 2.la is an example of typical data fornormal weight refractory concrete.

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7.2 Maximum service temperatureThe recommended maximum service temperaturewill normally assume that the castable will be usedin a clean, oxidizing atmosphere, such as is presentwhen firing with natural gas. The maximum servicetemperature is usually determined as the pointabove which excessive shrinkage will take place. Itis about 150-200 F (70-90 C) below the actual soft-ening point of the concrete.

If a fuel has solid impurities, such as in coals orheavy fuel oils, or if the solids or dust in the processcontact the refractory, the maximum permissibleservice temperature will usually be considerably re-duced. Solid impurities can react with the concreteand produce compounds of lower melting pointwhich melt and run. This is generally referred to asslagging. The lower softening point thus representsa limit for the operating temperature. Slag formingreactions usually do not occur below about 2500 F(1320 C) except in the presence of alkalies where re-actions can occur in the 1900-2000 F (1040-1090 C)range.

A reducing atmosphere can lower the meltingpoint and hence the maximum operating temper-ature by 100-200 F (40-90 C) if sufficient quantities ofiron compounds are present in the refractory.3

7.4 Shrinkage and expansionIn discussing shrinkage and expansion of a refrac-tory concrete, it is important to define the dis-tinction between the independent effects of per-manent shrinkage or expansion and reversiblethermal expansion. Permanent change is determinedby measuring a specimen at room temperature, heat-ing it to a specified temperature, cooling to roomtemperature, and remeasuring it. The difference be-tween the two measurements is the permanentchange, which occurs during the first heating cycle.Subsequent heating to the same or lower temper-ature will have little or no additional effect on thepermanent change. Heating to a higher temperaturemay cause some additional permanent change.

Reversible thermal expansion of a specimen whichhas been previously stabilized against further per-manent change, is the dimensional change as a speci-men is heated. Upon cooling, the specimen contractsto its original size.

At any given temperature, the net dimensionalchange of a refractory concrete is the sum of the re-versible expansion and the permanent shrinkage cor-responding to the highest temperature to which thecastable has been heated.

7.4.1 Permanent shrinkage and expansion - The ini-tial heating of a refractory concrete usually causesshrinkage. At higher temperatures permanent ex-pansion can occur. This effect, which varies with themaximum temperature attained, must be consideredwith reversible thermal expansion when calculatingthe net expansion (or shrinkage) at service temper-ature. The ASTM rating of castables is based on nomore than 1.5 percent permanent linear shrinkageoccurring at prescribed temperatures (ASTM C64and C401). Most normal weight refractory concreteswill have less than 0.5 percent permanent linearshrinkage after firing at 2000 F (1090 C).

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REFRACTORY CONCRETE 547-11

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The permanent change appears as cracks after thefirst firing. These cracks will generally be about 2-3ft (0.6-0.9 m) on centers, and may vary, dependingon the concrete thickness and the anchor spacing.Usually, the width of the cracks at room temper-ature is partly dependent on the permanent shrink-age. Normally, the cracks will be tightly closed atoperating temperatures. Such cracking, which maystart during drying, is to be expected and will notadversely affect the service performance of the re-fractory.7.4.2 Reversible thermal expansion - The reversiblethermal expansion of most refractory concretes isapproximately 3 x 10-6 in./in./F (5 x 10-6 cm/cm/CLHowever, the expansion coefficient may be as highas 4 x 10-6 in./in./F (7 x 10-6 cm/cm/C) for high alu-mina concretes and to 5 x 10-6 in./in. /F (9 x 10-6

cm/cm/C) for chrome castables. Fig. 7.4.2 showstypical length changes due to permanent shrinkageand reversible expansion.

ht American Concrete Institute d by IHS under license with ACI oduction or networking permitted without license from IHS

Deg C4;. 260 540 820 1090_____ | | | |

-0.2

INITIAL COOLING ANDSUBSEQUENT CYCLING

00 500 1000 1500 2000

Temperature Deg F

Fig. 7.4.2 - Net thermal expansion of a typical re-fractory concrete

7.5 Strength7.5.1 Modulus of rupture - Modulus of rupture ismeasured by means of a flexure test and is consid-ered as a measure of tensile strength (ASTM C268).The extreme fiber tensile strength calculated fromthis test will be 50 to 100 percent higher than thetensile strength derived from a straight pull test.Typical modulus of rupture values are 300 to 1500psi (2.07-10.4 MPa). Shotcreting can increase modu-lus of rupture values by up to 50 percent.

Fig. 7.5 shows typical trends of modulus of rup-ture strength versus temperature.

LiN

Deg C

100 260 540 820 1090 1370-1” ---I----w

212 500 1000 1500 2000 2500

Temperature Deg F

Fig. 7.5 - Effect of temperature on modulus of rup-ture

7.5.2 Cold compressive strength (crushing) - Thetest is ordinarily run on 9 x 41/2 x 21/2 in. (22.9 x 11.4x 6.4 cm) specimens 9 in. (22.9 cm) straights in brickterminology with pressure applied to the smallest.surface (ASTM C133). Failure in this test is gener-ally due to shear.

Crushing strengths vary from 1000 to 8000 psi (6.9to 55.2 MPa). Typically, compressive strengths arethree to four times greater than modulus of rupturevalues.

7.6 Thermal conductivityFor normal weight refractory concretes, thermalconductivity tends to vary with density. Typical val-ues (k factors) range from about 5 Btu-in./sq ft -hr-F(72 W -cm/m2-C) for 120 pcf (1920 kg/m3) material toabout 10 Btu-in./sq ft -hr -F (144 W-cm/m2-C) for160 pcf (2560 kg/m3) material. There is usually an in-crease in thermal conductivity with temperature.

7.10 Specific beatThe specific heat of a refractory concrete increaseswith temperature from about 0.20 Btu/lb/F (837 J/kg-C) at 100 F (40 C) to about 0.29 Btu/lb/F (1210 J/kg-C) at 2500 F (1370 C). This can vary plus or minus0.025 units, depending on the aggregate.

Chapter 8 - Properties of lightweightrefractory concretes8.1 IntroductionRefractory concretes are widely used as insulatingmaterials. They have a wide range of densities (20 to

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100 pcf (320 to 1600 kg/m3) and can be formulated tohave high maximum service temperatures and rela-tively high strengths. This often allows the use ofthese materials as single component, exposed servicelinings.

Table 2.lb shows physical property values for typ-ical lightweight refractory concretes.

8.4 Shrinkage and expansionThe reversible thermal expansion of lightweight con-cretes will vary from 2.5 x 10-6 to 3.5 x 1 O - 6 in./in./F(4.5 x l0-6cm/cm/C) Because of compensating per-manent shrinkage, the thermal expansion of light-weight refractory concrete is normally insignificantand is usually ignored in the design of lightweightrefractory concrete systems.

8.5 StrengthStrengths of lightweight refractory concrete aremeasured by both a modulus of rupture and a crush-ing test.8.5.1 Modulus of rupture - Typical values rangefrom approximately 50 (0.3 MPa) to 400 psi (2.8MPa).

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Table 8.5.1 shows the difference between the coldand hot modulus of rupture for a typical 2800 F(1540 C) lightweight refractory concrete.

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TABLE 8.5.1 - Hot and cold modulus of rupture of a 2800F (1538C) lightweight refractoryconcrete containing expanded fireclay aggregate

230F (110C)1 0 0 0 F (538C)1 5 0 0 F (816C)2000F (1093C)2500F (1371C)2700F (1482C)

Modulus of rupture, psi (MPa)(Hot tested (Cold tested after

at temperature) firing and cooling)-___-----350 (2.4) 350 (2.4)300 (2.1) N.D.*250 (1.7) 250 (1.7)210 (1.4) 225 (1.6)240 (1.7) 470 (3.2)90 (0.6) 800 (5.5)

*N.D. = Not Determined

`,

8.6.2 Cold compressive strength (crushing) - Coldcrushing strengths vary from 200-500 psi (1.4-3.5MPa) for lightweight refractory concretes with den-sities up to 50 pcf (800 kg/m3). For materials havingdensities in the 75-100 pcf (1200-1600 kg/m3) range,the cold crushing strength varies from 1000-2500 psi(6.9-17-3 MPa).

8.6 Thermal conductivityThermal conductivity is one of the most importantphysical properties of a lightweight refractory con-crete and is controlled primarily by the density ofthe concrete. For hydraulically bonded, alumina-si-lica concretes, a usable correlation exists betweenconcrete density [after drying at 230 F (110 C)] andthe thermal conductivity (k factor). Typically, thethermal conductivity for insulating concretes rangesfrom 1 to 4 Btu-in./sq ft-hr-F (0.1 to 0.6 W/M2-C).

8.10 Specific HeatThe specific heat of a lightweight refractory con-crete is approximately the same as that of normalweight concrete. The range is from 0.2 Btu/lb/F(837 J/kg-Cl at 100 F (40 C) to approximately 0.3Btu/lb/F (1255 J/kg-C) at 2500 F (1370 C).

Chapter 9 - Construction details

8.1 IntroductionConstruction details are an important ingredient inthe successful application of refractory concrete.Proper design details and careful implementation areessential, and parameters such as support structureintegrity, forms, anchors, and construction jointshave a major influence on the overall quality andperformance of refractory concrete installations.

8.2 Support structureNormally, refractory concrete is permanently sup-ported by a back-up structure. The support materialis usually bolted or welded steel which, prior to in-stallation of the refractory concrete, should bechecked to ensure that there is no warpage and thatall joints are structurally sound and tight.

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8.3 FormsBoth metal and wood forms are used for refractoryconcrete.

9.4 Anchors41,44,45,46

An anchor is a device used to hold refractory con-crete in a stable position while counteracting the ef-fects of dead loads, thermal stressing and cycling,and mechanical vibration. Anchors and anchoringsystems are not designed to function as reinforce-ment.

Anchors are produced as alloy steel rods or cast-ings, and prefired refractory ceramic shapes. The re-quirements of a particular installation will determinethe type and positioning of anchors. Typical factorsto be considered are: unit size, wall thickness, num-ber of refractory concrete components, area of appli-cation, and service temperature.9.4.1 Metal anchors - The most frequently usedmetal anchors are V-clips, studs, and castings. How-ever, in special applications, welded wire fabric, hexsteel and chain link fencing are used. Generally,metal anchors are extended from the cold face for2/3 to 3/4 of the lining thickness and are staggeredto avoid formation of planes of weakness.

Metal V-clips, stud anchors and castings are avail-able in carbon steel, Type 304 stainless alloy, Type310 stainless alloy, and other suitable alloys. Thechoice of material depends on the temperature towhich the anchors will be exposed. Carbon steel canbe used for anchor temperatures of up to 1000 F(540 C). Type 304 stainless is suitable for anchortemperatures of up to 1800 F (980 C) and Type 310stainless is adequate up to 2000 F (1095 C). Depend-ing on the grade of alloy, alloy steel castings cansustain a maximum temperature of between 1500 F(815 C) and 2000 F (1095 C).9.4.2 Pre-fired refractory anchors (ceramic anchors)- The principal use of ceramic anchors is to anchorrefractory plastic, rather than refractory concrete.However, ceramic anchors are used in areas whererefractory concrete is subjected to high service tem-perature. In addition, they are sometimes used as asubstitute for metal anchors where concrete thick-nesses are 9 in. (230 mm), or greater.

Ceramic anchors usually are composed of refrac-tory aggregates, clays, and binders. They are me-

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REFRACTORY CONCRETE 547R-13

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chanically pressed into shapes which provide for at-tachment to either the wall or roof and are ribbed toaid in securing the refractory concrete. Ceramic an-chors are pre-fired at elevated temperature to pro-vide a strong, dense structure. Depending on thecomposition, service conditions, and other factors,ceramic anchors are available with maximum servicetemperature ratings of up to 3200 F (1760 C).

Ceramic anchors are attached to structural wall orroof supports by bolts and/or metal support cast-ings. In order to minimize the tendency of the re-fractory concrete to sheet spall, the hot face of theceramic anchor should extend to the hot face of therefractory concrete.9.4.6.1 Thin single component linings. Plain metalchain link fencing is often used to anchor single com-ponent linings, less than 2 in. (50 mm) thick, com-posed of lightweight or medium weight refractoryconcrete and exposed to low to moderate mechanicalstresses and/or service temperatures.9.4.5.2 Single component linings up to 9 in. (230 mm)thick. Normally, single component linings 2 in.(50 mm) to 9 in. (230 mm) thick, composed entirely oflightweight, medium weight or normal weight re-fractory concrete, and exposed to moderate stressesand service temperatures use metal anchors.9.4.5.3 Single component linings greater than 9 in.(230 mm) thick. Normal weight refractory concretelinings, greater than 9 in. (230 mm) thick, utilize ei-ther ceramic or metal anchors. The type of anchorchosen will depend on the operating parameters.9.4.5.4 Roofs. Two types of anchor systems, internaland external, are used for single component roofs.The choice depends on roof thickness and on con-struction and design preferences.9.4.5.5 Multicomponent linings. Multicomponent lin-ings of 9 in. (230 mm) or less in thickness which aresubjected to moderate service temperatures and me-chanical stresses should employ metal anchors.

Multicomponent linings of 9 in. (230 mm) orgreater thickness, composed of a combination oflightweight or medium weight refractory concrete asback-up in conjunction with a normal weight refrac-tory concrete, can use a combination of ceramic andmetal anchors.

With multicomponent shotcrete linings, the back-up component is applied directly to the shell andprovisions must be made either to protect the an-chor (metal or ceramic) from rebound build-up, or toclean the anchor after placing of the back-up layer.Rebound build-up can destroy the grip between theheavy weight refractory concrete and the ceramicanchor.

9.5 Reinforcement and metal embedmentThe use of steel as a reinforcement should beavoided. In general, the metal will cause crackingdue to the differential expansion, caused by temper-ature or oxidation, between the metal and concrete.For the same reason heavy metal objects such asbolts, pipes, etc. should never be embedded in re-fractory concrete.

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8.6 Joints37,48

In cast installations, construction joints occur at thejunction of walls and roofs or where large place-ments are broken into separate sections. Cold jointsof this type will not bond and should be avoidedwhere it is necessary to contain liquid or gases.

It is often necessary to include a provision for ex-pansion. Expansion joints can be formed by insertingmaterials such as wood, cardboard, expanded poly-styrene or ceramic fiber in the appropriate location.

Shotcrete installations require construction jointsat transitions between materials, or when appli-cation must be curtailed due to shift changes or ma-terial supply. In these cases, the in situ refractoryconcrete should be trimmed back to produce a cleanedge perpendicular to the shell. Expansion com-pensating materials are not generally inserted intothis type of joint. If a joint edge is allowed to standfor a prolonged period of time (more than 4 hr), itshould be thoroughly moistened before any new ma-terial is applied.

Chapter 10 - Repair

10.1 IntroductionRepair of refractory concrete should be consideredonly when economics dictate that cost and downtimedo not justify complete replacement. Before under-taking a repair, an effort should be made to deter-mine the cause of the previous failure. If possible,the design and/or construction details should bemodified to reduce the possibility of a recurrence offailure and to prolong service life between repairs.

Hot repair techniques are valuable for minimizingdowntime and for extending an operating run until ascheduled shutdown. Hot repairs are especially suit-able for temporary repairs of localized failures andhot spots.

10.2 Failure mechanismsSome of the phenomena that can cause failure are:(1) Thermal stress and thermal shock; (2) Exposureto excessive temperatures; (3) Mechanical loading;(4) Erosion and abrasion: (5) Corrosive environments;(6) Anchorage failures and (7) Operational problemsor upsets.

10.3 Surface preparationWhen the installation to be repaired is made of mor-tar or concrete, it is important to prepare the sur-face of the old material so that a mechanical bondwill be formed between it and the new refractoryconcrete. No significant chemical bond will beformed, and adhesion of the repair material must de-pend primarily on the mechanical bond. Preparationof the surface requires removal of all deteriorated orspalled materials and roughening of the exposedsound surface of the old concrete. In all cases, thechipping of old material must leave a flat base, andsquare shoulders approximately perpendicular to thehot face, completely around the perimeter of the re-pair section. If this is done properly, there is noneed to chamfer the edges or provide fillets to wallsand floors. Once initial removal of loose concrete has

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been completed, the old refractory should besounded with bars or hammers to make certain onlysound material remains.

Areas that were not chipped should be thoroughlysandblasted to remove any traces of soot, grease, oilor other substances that could interfere with thebond. Excess sand and loose debris must then beblown from the surface with compressed air. Par-ticular care must be taken to remove any debrisfrom around the anchors.

10.4 Anchoring and bondingIf possible, patches should be anchored with a min-imum of two anchors which should be solidly at-tached to the shell. In cases where this is impossible,anchors should be solidly embedded in the old re-fractory. Ceramic anchors should extend to the hotface of the new refractory concrete. Otherwise,sheet spalling may occur. If metal anchors are used,they should be brought as close as possible to thehot face. The distance will depend on the metal-lurgy of the anchors and the thermal conductivity ofthe concrete.

Where anchors are not practical, or repairs areshallow, mechanical bonding will be aided by cuttingchases or keyways in a waffle pattern across the en-tire surface of the repair section and by slightly un-dercutting the existing refractory.

In certain limited applications, where other meansare not available, the bond may be improved by pre-coating the surface to be repaired with a bondingagent. When repairing refractory concrete with asimilar cast-in-place material pre-wetting is required,and use of a neat calcium aluminate cement slurrymay improve bonding.

10.5 Repair materialsA wide range of repair products is available for re-pairing refractory concrete. However, it is usuallybest to use a material similar to that being repaired.

Refractory concrete is frequently used as a repairmaterial and performs satisfactorily in many situa-tions. Among the other available repair materialsare the following:

1. Air setting mortars;2. Phosphate-bonded and clay-based heat-setting

mortars;3. Steel-fiber reinforced refractory concrete;

(Steel-fiber reinforced refractory concrete will gener-ally exhibit superior resistance to cracking and abra-sion. However, the fibers will not perform well if thetemperatures to which they are exposed induce oxi-dation. If the conditions are such that the fiber-rein-forced system is above the oxidizing, but below themelting temperature of the particular fibers beingused, it is possible that they may still be utilized, de-pending on the temperature gradient through theconcrete, the furnace atmosphere, the permeabilityof the concrete, the severity and frequency of tem-perature cycles, the exposure time at maximum tem-perature, and the mechanical loading.)

4. Plastic refractories and ramming mixes; and5. Hot repair materials. Some of the repair mate-

rials used for hot patching contain calcium aluminatecement as the principal binder, however, most do

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not. The latter utilize non-hydraulic and chemicalbinders (see Section 1.6.4). Since these materials areintended for temporary repairs, they may not haveservice life or properties equivalent to those in theoriginal lining.

While field mixes can be used for hot gunning,most applications use proprietary (prepackaged) ma-terials which are specially designed for specific con-ditions of installation. Some manufacturers have de-signed special spray or gunning equipment andmaintenance programs to install their hot repair ma-terials on a planned basis.

10.6 Repair techniques10.6.2 Refractory concrete - When a refractory con-crete is selected to effect repairs, the type of place-ment procedure must insure that the full thicknessof the repair section is installed in as short a time aspossible, preferably in a single lift.

When refractory concrete is placed by the shot-crete method, certain precautions must be fol-lowed.35 The area being repaired must be delineatedin advance so that the concrete can be shot to thefull section depth or thickness before any layer de-velops an initial set.

It is important that the refractory concrete becured properly during the 24-hr period followingplacement (see Section 6.3). After the concrete hasbeen moist-cured for 24 hr, drying and firing can beinitiated (see Sections 6.4 and 6.5). Speeding up themoist-curing, drying and firing can result in amarked reduction in the physical properties and lifeof the repair.10.6.3 Plastic and ramming mixes - A refractorymortar coating may be used to improve bondingwhen repairing refractory concrete with a plastic orramming mix. In order to achieve high density andprevent laminations, it is recommended that plasticrefractories be installed by the pneumatic rammingmethod using a steel wedge-type head. The basicpattern of ramming should be to build up layers ofplastic on top of the backing wall. The plastic isplaced in strips and laid at right angles to the forms.It is important to angle the pneumatic rammer sothat the strips are driven against the form, and side-ways against the previously installed material. Therepaired area should be trimmed to a rough surfacefor more uniform drying.

Moisture escape holes should be made by insertinga 1/8 in. (3 mm) diameter pointed rod, approx-imately two-thirds of the depth of the material, onapproximately 6 in. (150 mm) centers. In order toprevent formation of an outer skin, which can seal inmoisture, a short period of forced drying of air-set-ting plastic refractories is desirable. Excessive tem-perature or direct flame impingement, which willseal the surface and prevent escape of moisture,must be avoided.

The following heat-curing procedure has beenfound to give good results with plastic and rammingmixes: Remove all free moisture at a temperature ofnot over 250 F (120 C). Following removal of freeand absorbed moisture, raise the temperature at arate of 75-100 F (42-56 C) /hr until the desired oper-

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ating temperature is reached. If steam is observedduring heat-up, hold the present temperature until itstops.

Whenever possible, repairs using plastic mixesshould be carried out immediately prior to heat-up.A properly burned-in plastic will exhibit less crack-ing than a plastic exposed to lengthy air drying.10.6.4 Steel-fiber reinforced refractory concrete10.6.4.1 Cast-in-place mixes. A problem with steel fi-bers is their tendency to “ball-up”. Clusters of fiberscan be broken up by hand feeding or shaking of thesieve before addition to the concrete mix. In somecases, vibration will tighten up the fiber clusters andit is not a recommended method of fiber dispersal.

The addition of steel fibers tends to reduce theworkability of the mix. Normally, this can be over-come by internal or external vibration. Use of addi-tional water is not recommended since this will de-grade cured strength and increase the porosity.10.6.4.2 Shotcrete mixes. Steel fiber reinforced re-fractory concretes can be shot into place by eitherthe wet or dry process. Fiber lengths approachingthe internal diameter of the material hose or nozzlecan be shot successfully. Because rebound of the fi-bers can be dangerous, the nozzleman and supportcrew should wear protective clothing when dryshooting with steel fibers.10.6.5 Hot repair procedures - Hot repair pro-cedures are based on standard shotcreting tech-nology. However, because of the high temperatures,certain differences are necessary. Compared to nor-mal shotcreting, the high temperatures require aspecially designed nozzle and an excessive amount ofwater in the mix in order to insure proper delivery,impingement, compaction, and material retention.

Hot shotcreting requires that the nozzleman and ahelper stand outside the furnace and manually ormechanically manipulate an extended nozzle or“lance” within the furnace. Special ports or openingsmust be provided in the furnace for proper access.The length, size, and design of the nozzle depends onthe furnace configuration, temperature, and type ofapplication.

In general, the best bonds are achieved when thevessel interior is a red or orange color (1500-1700 F(815-925 C)]. The refractory concrete repair must beallowed to heat-cure prior to placing the unit back inservice. The length of time to accomplish this, al-though usually brief, will depend on the temperatureat the time of repair, the type of material used forthe repair, and the thickness of the installed mate-rial.

Chapter 11- Applications11.1 IntroductionRefractory concretes are currently used in a widevariety of industrial applications where pyroprocess-ing or thermal containment is required. Becausethere are literally hundreds of refractory concretesavailable, it is impossible to discuss every composi-tion and its application. Accordingly, only the moreimportant applications, where refractory concreteshave been used successfully, are reviewed. Includedin the review are the following industries:

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(a) Iron and steel(b)lNon-ferrous metal(c)lPetrochemical(d)lCeramic processing(e)lGlass(f) Steam power generation(g) Aerospace(h)lNuclear(i) Gas production(j) MHD power generation(k) Lightweight aggregate(l) Incinerator(m) Cement and lime

Chapter 12 -New development and future useof refractory concrete12.1 IntroductionTraditionally, developments in the refractories in-dustry have been closely related to the process in-dustries, the primary customers for the product.

In recent years, there have been marked changesin the production and use of refractories. A numberof factors have contributed to these changes includ-ing:

(a) development of new and improved industrialprocesses,

(b) demand for higher temperatures and increasedproduction rates associated with the above devel-opments,

(c) improvement in the quality of refractory prod-ucts and increased use of different types of refrac-tories, especially the monolithic castables and,

(d) increased technical knowledge of the servicebehavior of refractory materials.

With these technological advancements, in-vestigations into the use of refractory concretes forspecial applications is increasing. Typical of thesenew and proposed applications are incinerators, coalgasification plants, chemical process plants, steelplants, and foundries.

12.2 New developments12.2.1 Steel fibers187,188,189,191 - The following poten-tial advantages are offered by the use of steel-fiberreinforcement in monolithic construction:

(a) improved flexural strength at ambient and ele-vated temperatures,

(b) improved thermal and mechanical stress resis-tance,

(c) improved thermal shock resistance,(d) improved spall resistance, and(e) improved load-carrying ability.However, degradation of the steel fibers at high

temperature can occur under service conditions and,therefore, limit the full potential of these materials.Note: See References 197 through 205.12.2.2 Shotcrete - The use of shotcrete for new re-fractory construction and for repairs is a rapidlygrowing field and successful results have beenachieved in many applications.12.2.3 Precast shapes - Increasingly, precast shapesare being used for special conditions and this trendwill continue.

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12.3 Research requirementsUnfortunately, selection and use of refractory con-cretes is still considered an art and, with a few ex-ceptions, the properties of refractory concretes arenot utilized in rational design schemes. In many in-stances, the wrong properties are being measured orthe available data are not being used correctly.

Future research efforts should be directed to-wards obtaining a better understanding of the be-havior of refractory concretes under service condi-tions. Increased emphasis will be placed on elevatedtemperature properties and how they are influencedby such factors as proportioning, grading and composition.

Areas of needed research include the following:(a) Dimensional stability(b) Chemical attack(c) Mechanical properties(d) Property measurements and tests(e) Process conditions(f) Rational design procedures

References1. ACI Committee 116, Cement and Concrete Terminol-

ogy, SP-19, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1967,146 pp.

2. Van Schoeck, Emily C., Editor, Ceramic Glossary,American Ceramic Society, Columbus, 1963.

3. Norton, F. H., Refractories, 4th Edition, McGraw-HillBook Company, New York, 1968, 782 pp.

5. Robson, T. D., High Alumina Cements and Concretes,John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1962, 263 pp.

20. Chatterji, S., and Jeffry, J. W., “Microstructure ofSet High-Alumina Cement Pastes,” Transactions, BritishCeramic Society (London), V. 67, May 1968, pp. 171-183.

21. Midgley, H. G., “The Mineralogy of Set High-Alu-mina Cement,” Transactions, British Ceramic Society (Lon-don), 1966, pp. 161-187.

22. Wygant, J. F., “Cementitious Bonding in CeramicFabrication,” Ceramic Fabrication Processes, W. D. Kingery, Editor, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1958, pp.171-198.

34. Givan, G. V.; Hart, L. D.; Heilich, R. P.; and Mac-Zura, G., “Curing and Firing High Purity Calcium Alumi-nate Bonded Tabular Alumina Castables,” American Ce-ramic Society Bulletin, V. 54, No. 8, 1975, pp. 710-713.

35. Shotcreting, SP-14, American Concrete Institute, De-troit, 1966, 223 pp.

41. Wygant, J. F., and Crowley, M. S., “Designing Mon-olithic Refractory Vessel Linings,” American Ceramic So-ciety Bulletin, V. 3, No. 3, 1964, pp. 173-182.

44. Crowley, M. S., “Failure Mechanism of Two-Com-ponent Lining for Flue-Gas Dust,” American Ceramic So-ciety Bulletin, V. 47, No. 5, 1968, pp. 481-483.

45. Crowley, M. S., “Metal Anchors for Refractory Con-cretes,” American Ceramic Society Bulletin, V. 45, No. 7,1966, pp. 650-652.

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46. Vaughn, S. H., Jr., “Guidelines for Selection of Mon-olithic Refractory Anchoring Systems,” Iron and Steel En-gineer, May 1972, p. 64.

187. Lankard, D. R., and Sheets, H. D., “Use of SteelWire Fibers in Refractory Castables,” American CeramicSociety Bulletin, V. 50, No. 5, 1971, pp. 497500.

188. Lankard, D. R.; Bundy, G. B.; and Sheets, H. D.,“Strengthening Refractory Concrete,” Industrial ProcessHeating (London), V. 13, No. 3, Mar. 1973. pp. 34-47.

189. Lankard, D. R., “Steel Fiber Reinforced RefractoryConcrete,” Refractory Concrete, SP-57, American ConcreteInstitute, Detroit, 1978, pp. 241-263.

191. Fowler, T. J., “Lessons Learned from RefractoryConcrete Failures,” Refractory Concrete, SP-57, AmericanConcrete Institute, Detroit, 1978, pp. 283-303.

195. Tseung, A. L. L., and Carruthers, T. G., ‘Refrac-tory Concretes Based on Pure Calcium Aluminate Ce-ments,” Transactions, British Ceramic Society (London), V.62, 1963, pp. 305-321.

197. Peterson, J. R., and Vaughan, F. H., “Metal FiberReinforced Refractory for Petroleum Refinery Applica-tions,” Paper No. 51, Presented at Corrosion/80, NationalAssociation of Corrosion Engineers, Pittsburgh, 1980.

198. Crowley, M. S., “Steel Fiber in Refractory Applica-tions,” Paper No. MC-81-5. National Petroleum RefinersAssociation Refinery and Petrochemical Maintenance Con-ference, Pittsburgh, 1981.

199. Venable, C. R., Jr., “Refractory Requirements forAmmonia Plants,” American Ceramic Society Bulletin, V.48, No. 12, 1969, pp 1114-1117.

200. Farris, R. E., “Refractory Concrete: InstallationProblems and Their Identification,” 18th Annual Sympo-sium on Refractories-Changes in Refractory Technol-ogy-In Place Forming, American Ceramic Society, St.Louis Section, The Engineers Club, Mar. 12, 1982.

201. MacZura, G.; Hart, L. D.; Heilich, R. P.; and Ko-panda, J. E., “Refractory Cements,” Ceramic Engineersand Science Proc.-Raw Materials for Refractories Con-ference, (4) 1-2, 1983, pp. 46-67.

202. “Standard Recommended Practices for Determin-ing Consistency of Refractory Concretes,” (ASTM C 860-77), 1982 Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Part 17.American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia,pp. 932-937.

203. “Standard Recommended Practice for PreparingRefractory Concrete Specimens by Casting, (ASTM C 862-77), 1982 Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Part 17,American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia,pp. 940-946.

204. “Standard Recommended Practice for Firing Re-fractory Concrete Specimens,” (ASTM C 865-77) 1982 An-nual Book of ASTM Standards, Part 17, American Societyfor Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, pp. 949-951.

205. “Standard Practice for Preparing Refractory Con-crete Specimens by Cold Gunning,” (ASTM C 903-79) 1982Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Part 17, American So-ciety for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, pp. 978-979.

The complete report was submitted to letter ballot of the com-mittee which consisted of 16 members; 16 members returned af-firmative ballots.The preceding report was a summary. The complete report willbe available in May as a separate publication.

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REFRACTORY CONCRETE

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I. Leon GlassgoldChairman

Henry E. AnthonisSeymour A. BortzWilliam E. BoydKhushi R. Chugh

ACI Committee 547

Refractory Concrete

Timothy J. FowlerEditor

Sidney DiamondWilliam A. DrudyJoseph E. KopandaSvein KopfeltDavid R. Lankard

Joseph HeneghanSecretary

William S. NetterRichard C. OlsonWilliam C. RaisbeckRichard L. Shultz

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ACI 547R-79 Refractory Concrete

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