RELIGION STUDY NOTES

Nature of Religion

Nature of Religion

Supernatural Dimension: Beyond the natural, measurable world. It acknowledges the existence of a deeper reality beyond surface appearances.

Transcendent: A spiritual presence that is not confined by time or space. Exists in a realm outside human understanding.

Immanent: Presence of a spiritual being within the individual and in every aspect of one’s life. Characteristics: Beliefs and believers

Sacred texts/ writings Ethics Rituals/ ceremonies

Contribution:o Individual- find true meaning/ place in life, discover fulfilment of life, source of

hope/comfort, explain key questions e.g. suffering and evil, provides an ethical systemo Society- sense of community and belonging from joint purpose, creation of relationships

Aboriginal Spirituality

Nature of the Dreamingo Background:

The Dreaming is the essence of Aboriginal spirituality. It encompasses the spiritual and physical reality, establishes a code of morals and rules, incorporates the spirit ancestors and their creative activity in forming the world, and is the continuing and sacred relationship with the land.

The Dreaming does not exist in the world of ordinary space and time; instead, it completely surrounds, contains and sustains the physical world, it is not the past, present or future, but transcends time.

The Dreaming integrates all these aspects into one idea; however, it is not vague or surreal as the name may suggest, it is a reality.

o Origins: Before time, the land was believed to be featureless, a mass of matter like a bare

plain. It was then that the Dreaming began; the spirit ancestors rose from their eternal sleep and assumed a variety of forms, both human and creature.

It was these spirit ancestors who created the earth through an intense burst of creative action. They shaped the physical features of the land, determined the design of nature and granted life with order. They are responsible for bringing all living things into existence and providing them with a system of law and morality.

Once their activity was complete, the spirit ancestors returned to their original slumber; however, they still experience a powerful and aware existence.

o Sacred Sites: Sacred sites are a result of important events which occurred during the Dreaming

creation period. Dreaming tracks are the trails of the lives and movements of ancestral spirits, they

connect sacred sites and contain the spirit children who are not yet born as plants, animals or humans.

Undergoing a pilgrimage along these ritual paths is called going ‘Walkabout’. It is similar to a moving meditation where body, life and mind are completely committed to aligning oneself with the powers of the Dreaming. Progressing

through the sacred sites in order of significance develops higher states of consciousness and experience.

o Stories of the Dreaming: Stories of the Dreaming are a vital tool in education particularly to children. The

stories assist in explaining how the universe was created, how to behave and how to survive. They recount events during the period of Dreaming creation and compose an integral aspect of life for Aboriginals.

Diversity of the Dreamingo Whilst all Aboriginal people have a core understanding of the Dreaming as a source of

spiritual and temporal identity, it is represented and celebrated differently between groups and peoples. (Over 900 aboriginal nations).

o The Dreaming is manifested in songs, sacred sites, traditional paintings and particularly rituals. The Dreaming is fully re-created in the present time and space

o Each area has a particular plant/ animal which is a totem for that group of Aboriginal people. Because of this, the people have a kinship with that spirit and are the spiritual 'owners' of that area of land. The people are responsible for that area of land and, along with their kinship with the ancestral spirit, their identity is formed.

o Therefore, diverse from geographical locations, differing dialects, interpretations in art, song, ritual, different totems and emphasis on different spirits or aspects of the Dreaming.

o Example: Kangal people have the barramundi as their totem whilst the Bangariny have the brown shark.

Importance of the Dreamingo In Aboriginal spirituality, the supernatural and the natural are not separate but integrated

in everyday existence. Therefore, the deepest and highest reality and meaning is already fulfilled in normal life through an affirmation of the dreaming. It is the dreaming that provides this value and purpose in life.

o Important in accepting the wholeness of life and creation. The Dreaming is vital to understanding creation, suffering and life and celebrating this reality e.g. allows reverence and respect for death. Leads to a reverence for life.

o The Dreaming is life, in all its aspects. Therefore, the Dreaming is not separate or distinct from daily living. Its importance lies in its nature in encompassing every part of reality. There is nothing more or beyond the Dreaming. Yarralin people of NT use the word yimaruk to describe this continuous interconnecting nature of life.

o Acknowledging and celebrating the Dreaming provides morals and laws. This in turn leads to the preservation and enhancement of life. Creates responsibility.

o Understanding of the Dreaming is vital so that the world/ universe can co-operate and work effectively together as a single unit.

Inextricable connection between Dreaming/ land/ identityo The formation of an Aboriginal person’s identity is composed of four fundamental

elements; their belief system, spirituality, family and the land. Without any of these elements, Aboriginal life ceases to exist.

o The dreaming is the central source of all understanding, it is believed to be the key link in forming an Aboriginal identity. The Dreaming is present in all aspects of life, and therefore, all living things are connected.

o The land is considered a living entity. It is the physical link between reality and the spiritual world. As Aboriginal people believe they form part of the land and the land forms part of them, the relationship between humans and the environment is inextricable.

o The identity of an Aboriginal person is formed through every aspect of the dreaming represented through the land.

o The Dreaming establishes the moral, social and psychological bond and interdependence between humans (identity), ancestral beings (spirituality) and the natural environment (the land).

o Example: The Kutjunka people see the land as a reflection of humans and vice versa. The land is described as the human skin; damage to the land is damage to the people.

o Inherent Issues: When European settlers came to Australia, they displaced the Aboriginal people,

separating them from their land, family, and therefore, spirituality. The effect of this was a complete loss of identity. This situation demonstrates the inextricable connection between the Dreaming, land and identity.

Depth Study: Christianity

Historical and cultural context of Christianity

A religion of Semitic origin. Jesus was a Jew and cannot be understood outside this context he took part in all the Jewish traditions and practices.

However, for centuries Jewish lands were dominated by foreign powers. During Jesus’ time Israel was under Roman occupation. They suffered social and religious deprivation, there was strong contempt for the roman rule.

The Jewish religious authority was fractured into a number of sects such as the zealots, the Pharisees and the Sadducees.

During such difficult times where the covenant was being broken, Jews expected God to once again intervene. The prophet Isaiah referred to a ‘messiah’ meaning anointed one.

There were many interpretations as to the role of the messiah e.g. zealots believed he would be a warrior and political liberator who would free them from roman rule whilst the Pharisees believed he would be the perfect Jew, upholding all 613 mitzvoh to the letter.

Jesus Christ as Model for Christian Life

Intro: Jesus acts as a role model for Christian life as he is the embodiment of his Christian teachings. Always practiced what he taught. As the ‘perfect human’ Christians model from his attitudes towards God and others, his actions in social justice and his admirable characteristics and personal qualities.

Servants of humanity: Treating all people equally despite race, gender or social standing. Revolutionary for a time when sexism and discrimination was rife within society, demonstrates its transcendent nature irrelevant of context, also raises its significance. E.g. broke social laws of time when he approached Samaritan woman at well, "How is it that you, a Jew, ask a drink of me, a woman of Samaria?" (Jn 4:5).

Faith and love in God: Jesus calls for humans to respond to God with faith and love, to treat him with reverence and respect. We see this in his teachings and his own attitudes. His parables often send the message of repenting and accepting God’s kingdom. E.g. In the parable of the generous vineyard owner he questions, “do you begrudge my generosity?” (Mt 20:15). Jesus asks for humans to joyfully and gratefully accept God’s love. This is also demonstrated through Jesus’ own reverence for God, he is often described praying.

A strong emphasis of Jesus’ life was his call for social justice. Jesus models being aware of and acting towards social justice and therefore, asks and encourages Christians to do the same. He models the teachings of the beatitudes which state "Blessed are those who hunger and thirst for righteousness, for they will be filled". Example of this in practice is his association and blessing of the poor, he eats with the tax collector Zacchaeus. Jesus acts as model by reinforcing the Christian teachings of helping “the least of Jesus’ brothers and sisters.”

Jesus also portrays the Christian demeanour through demonstration of his own qualities which he encourages Christians to adopt. Jesus is often tested throughout his life and in each situation he displays traits such as selflessness, forgiveness, mercy, compassion and humility. The ultimate

example of this is the love and selflessness he displays when he gave up his life for the benefit of humanity. “I am the resurrection and the life, he who believes in me will live.”

Christians who model from Jesus strive to live the Christian life and experience humanity, “to follow Christ, the perfect human, is to become more humans oneself.”

Development of the early Christian community

The development of Christianity can be identified in four main stages:o Jesus’ death and resurrection is announced at Pentecost. It is this core event upon which

much of the Christian doctrine and theology are based. The resurrection of Jesus was to reflect the divine nature of Jesus. It confirmed him as the “Messiah” and offered the early Christian community proof of his teachings. It also offered salvation, forgiveness of sins and entry into the Kingdom of God. It acknowledged that Jesus was both human and divine.

o The Church learns its first lesson about expansion, the gospel message is not tied to Jerusalem but begins to spread. “ye shall be witnesses unto me both in Jerusalem, and in all Judea, and in Samaria, and unto the uttermost part of the earth.” (Acts 1:8)

o Complications arose as to whether it was a requirement to be a Jew before you were a Christian. The Council of Jerusalem decided that this was not a prerequisite, however, gentiles adopting Christianity must be aware and respectful of Jewish traditions.

o The conversion of Paul has significant impact on the expansion of Christianity. Not only did it lead to him becoming one of the founding members of the Christian Church, it also confirmed Christ’s demonstration of Salvation and the absolution of sin. Paul’s journeys meant Christianity was spread across the world rather than being contained in a small, local sect of followers. Through his journeys and writings Paul was able to establish Christianity as a separate entity from Judaism and demonstrate Christ’s wish to preach to all people, not just the Jews. Through Paul, God had “opened the door of faith for all gentiles” (Acts 14:27).

Denominations

Anglicanism:o Emerged from the context of the Roman Catholic Church in the 16th century during the

reign of King Henry VIII. o Distinguishing features:

Authority- Declared independence from papal control, The English monarch became the supreme governor of the Church. However, no international, juridical authority.

Justification- salvation is attained by faith in Jesus and through the grace of God. Priesthood- Eliminates idea of hierarchy and gives equal power to all people of the

Church. Eucharist-

o Distinctive to Anglicanism is the ‘book of common prayer’, put together during the reformation.

Catholicism:o Developed after the great schism in 1054.o Distinguishing features:

Authority- The Bible, tradition/sacraments, Pope- “Feed My lambs … Tend My sheep … Feed My sheep.” (Jn 21:15) Jesus makes Peter his representative on Earth.

Justification- salvation from faith AND good works- need human cooperation. Stresses a sacramental view of human existence.

Eucharist- Jesus is literally present in the bread and wine. “By the consecration the transubstantiation of the bread and wine into the Body and Blood of Christ is brought about” (catechism of the Catholic Church).

More emphasis on Mary and the saints.

Orthodoxy:o Distinguishing Features:

Heart of Orthodox worship is the divine liturgy- celebration of the eucharist Use of icons in worship- highly ornamented imaged of Christ, Mary, saints etc.

Justify as God is clearly visible and accessible to humans. Masses- long (2hrs), incense, fully sung liturgies, rich in symbolism. Strong emphasis on sacraments

Pentecostalism:o Beliefs stem from Pentecost in 30CE. Broke away from Methodist sect in early 20 th century

in the USA.o Distinguishing Features:

Seeks to restore the gifts of the holy spirit. Sacraments- differentiate between baptism and conversion/ reception of

sacraments, signified by breaking into tongues Considered evangelical Salvation- brought about by gift of the Holy Spirit Strong emphasis on community involvement- involves spontaneity, singing

Protestantism:o Reformation of 16th century- key leaders were Martin Luther and John Calvin, formed eight

religious sectso Distinguishing features

Authority- Bible is only source of revealed truth, do not acknowledge Pope Justification- salvation by faith alone More emphasis on preaching word of God and less on sacraments Universal priesthood of all believers

Principle Beliefs

Divinity/Humanity: o Jesus is both fully human and fully divine- he is the second person of the trinity, God the

son who took upon himself a complete human nature. “The Word became flesh and made his dwelling amongst us” (John 1:14). The Christian belief in the incarnation leads us to a better understanding of the nature of God.

o His humanity meant he had the same human limitations- slept, ate, had normal emotions. Helps Christians appreciate the pain and suffering that he endured for humanity and gives greater significance to his ultimate sacrifice

o His divinity shows us the close, unique relationship which exists between himself and God. “If you know me, you will know my Father also” (John 16:6-7).

o Jesus’ humanity is supported by fact, his divinity calls for Christians to have faith. Humanity from gospels, bible and other sources of the time. Divinity understood through the gospels.

Death, Resurrection and Ascension:o Jesus’ death and resurrection confirms his divinity and nature as the son of God. Therefore,

his teachings are reinforced as credible and true. His key message to love God and love others is given divine significance. “Love the Lord your God with all your heart” (Mark 12:30)

o Belief and faith in the resurrection of Jesus is the basis of our understanding that even after his physical death, Jesus is alive and present with us today and continues to preach to us the same message he did during his days on earth. “If Christ has not been raised, then empty… is our preaching; empty, too, your faith” (1 Corinthians 15:14).

o Resurrection and ascension provides Christians with hope that they will achieve salvation- that each believer will one day be completely human but transformed- body and soul- for all eternity with God.

o Obedience, death and resurrection attains atonement for Christians- restoring humankind to the right relationship with God. Only Jesus’ death can repair the alienation from God.

o Sends the vital message that God loves humanity and will forgive human failings. Actively demonstrates his love and care for humans.

Nature of God and the Trinity:o God exists as three persons, father, son and holy spirit, all act in relationship of intimate

self surrender- when one acts they all act. Evidenced in Bible, “baptising them in the name of the father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit” (Mt 28:19)

o The trinity is a mystery in the sense it is the deepest reality which is beyond human understanding or experience.

o Three key functions: creating (bringing God’s new life to creation), sanctifying (blessing creation) and redeeming (turning creation from sin and darkness)

o Concept of trinity helps understand nature of God. Father is transcendent (not confined to the material world), son is immanent (God is involved in the world), the spirit unites and contains these two concepts.

o Western church emphasises full equality, Eastern church emphasises monarchy of the father.

Revelation:o Disclosure by God of what was previously unknown.o Not just communication but invitation to join in a relationship with Godo Primary source of revelation is given, interpreted and applied in the Bibleo However, not the only source, God continues to speak through human history, historical

events, Christianity, world religions, joys hope and frustrations, through life itself.o The climax of revelation occurs in the words, deeds and actions of Christ. “In the past God

spoke to our forefathers through the prophets… but in these late days he has spoken to us by his Son” (Hebrews 1:1-2).

o Catholics place emphasis on Bible and Papacy as key source of revelation, Orthodoxy believes the Bible does not wholly contain revelation.

Salvation:o Issue of contention, all Christians believe in life after death, that salvation is received

through the grace of God. All humankind is born with original sin and that God’s grace sent his son Jesus Christ to atone for the sins of mankind through his crucifixion and resurrection. Forgiveness of sin is granted, on the condition that the individual puts their faith in Jesus Christ as the Lord and Saviour. "We have peace with God through our Lord Jesus Christ." (Romans 5:1)

o Differ on justification, sanctification and idea of grace. Catholic justification- faith and good works, protestant- faith alone. “You see that a

man is justified by works but not by instantaneous faith.”(James 2:24) “One is justified by faith apart from works of law” (Romans 3:28).

Catholic- need cooperation with God, Protestant- can’t earn your way into heaven- Jesus made up for our sins.

Catholic grace- a gift from God received through the sacraments, protestant grace- an attribute of God, sacraments are a symbol of grace.

Catholic- can lose salvation but regain it through repentance, protestant- eternal security.

o Can experience salvation in present life- triumph over sin, but full realisation is delayed until actual presence with God.

o Salvation cannot be achieved by yourselfo Jesus Christ provides humanity with salvation.

The Bible

Role in everyday life:o Basic rituals and sacramentso Prayer/ Reflectiono Domestic rituals e.g. grace before meals

Aids in the physical practice, enactment and celebration of Christianity in life. Bible guides Christians in rituals and procedures in order to practice their faith. E.g. Jesus prays at decisive moments in his life- “One of those days Jesus went out to a mountainside to pray, and spent the night praying to God.” (Lk 6:12).

Develops Ethical guidelineso See ethical teachings

Helps develop guidelines on how to act in certain situations, how to make decisions, promotes questioning of moral boundaries and therefore, better understanding of self, goals etc. E.g. difficult ethical teaching “Love your enemies and pray for those who persecute you” (Mt 5:44)

Communicates key teachings of Christianityo Nature of Godo Ministry and life of Christ – parables

Key source of revelation- basis of understanding of the Christian faith- explains and teaches beliefs. E.g. “The Word became flesh and made his dwelling amongst us” (John 1:14).

Ethical Teachings

These teachings are founded upon and shaped by a faith in Jesus Christ. They also centre upon the belief that human beings are made in the image of God with intellect, free will and self determination, therefore, enabling them to act with morality.

The Ten Commandments o The Ten Commandments are a set of rules or guidelines that ultimately separate order

from chaos and provide boundaries for Christians in which to live their lives. They are motivated by God’s love for humanity and, therefore, act as a more important source than just a list of rules or restrictions.

o They cannot be approached in this way, instead, what they articulate is how a person acts who follows Jesus’ example and lives by love. They do not attempt to seek perfection but rather seek to imitate Christ.

o Each commandment highlights key ethical values which should be applied in Christian life, for instance, “Though shall not kill” communicates the values of honesty, trust and justice.

o Whilst the Ten Commandments explicitly state these ethical values which underpin Christian morality, in our modern society they are producers of discussion and debate. Their ‘black and white’ nature highlights the grey areas of morality in society such as, when does birth and death occur? When does life become human? This particularly pertains to issues that are recent in nature.

o This, therefore, assists Christians in questioning and understanding their moral boundaries and helps in forming and developing their ethical code.

Jesus’ commandment of loveo The ethical paradigm which underlies Christianity is the message of love. This is most

strongly communicated in Jesus’ love ethic which follows “Love one another as I have loved

you” (Jn 13:34). This message compels believers to follow Jesus in modelling his actions and attitudes.

o This modelling, however, is not confined to the love ethic but to all of Jesus’ actions in the Bible. The inherent values of equality, respect and selflessness are demonstrated in Jesus’ actions such as when he dined with the tax collector, Zacchaeus or women like Mary and Martha.

o The love ethic, also known as the ‘Golden Rule’ implies that Christians are social human beings. It highlights the nature of Christian ethical guidelines in showing how people relate to one another and that the focus is on relationships. This social emphasis of Christianity works on the belief that when everyone follows this principle we will live in a society of love and peace.

o However, like with all ethical teachings, these practices become difficult to enact in a contemporary context. In a society still consumed by racism, sexism and discrimination, equality is not a current reality. Even in the Catholic Church homosexual marriage is still banned as is the ordination of women. Acceptance, tolerance and unconditional love are goals for which adherents continue to strive.

The Beatitudeso The Beatitudes are the declarations of praise made by Jesus to those who exercise

particular virtues such as humility, meekness, hunger for righteousness and poverty of spirit.

o The Beatitudes guide, point and teach by demonstrating the values that Christ cares about and, therefore, values which Christians must be conscious of and work towards. The emphasis of the Beatitudes is on suffering and a compulsion to act in order to stop this suffering. This is particularly evident in statements such as “Happy are those who work for peace; God will call them his children” (Mt 5:9).

o The social justice message communicated in the Beatitudes is present in many Bible stories including the Good Samaritan which involves helping the weak and suffering despite barriers of social class or particular laws.

o This fundamental teaching assists in Christian life as it provides an impetus to achieve social justice and a greater goal to work towards in terms of reducing suffering and improving the lives of the weak.

o This is still relevant in today’s society as can be seen through Christian organisations such as St Vincent de Paul or The Salvation Army who deal with issues of injustice.

Personal Devotion

Prayer is a way of acknowledging a close relationship with God. It identifies that God relates to humans with compassion. Prayer is a reflection where communication with God occurs. Who Christians pray to depends on the denomination. E.g. Catholics may pray to Jesus through Mary and the saints whilst protestants pray directly to God.

Different types of prayer:o Vocal- words that are recited, spoken or sung. May be structured e.g. Lord’s Prayer, Hail

Mary, liturgical texts or may be original and spontaneous based on personal experience.o Mental- process of reflection involving mind, imagination and will. Asks God to still the

mind and move the heart. E.g. affections and resolutions, creative visualisation, meditationo Contemplative- Understood as the gift of God- grace. Focused on a perception of God’s

presence, an experience of inner simplicity and joy. o Purposes for prayer

During suffering- personal or family/friends gives hope During times of decision making asking for advice/ guidance When grateful give thanks and appreciation When one has sinned asks for forgiveness

Effect: Provides tangible ways in which to come into contact with the mysteries of the Christian faith. Provides direction, sense of community or a sense of joy. Creates ability to act in a more

Christ-like way and experiences life with the living God. Holds transformative power- alters their life.

Depth Study: Buddhism

Historical Context

Buddhism began during the life of Buddha around 6th – 5th century BCE. Dated from approx. 6 weeks after enlightenment, at the sermon at sarnath, deer park where there

was a formal process of ordination to convert 5 monks to Buddha’s path. Buddha set up the Sangha, it developed a separate identity from Hinduism and was distinctive

through physical appearance and garment as well as institutional support/ economic income. Environment Economic stability and wealth

Creation of large-scale communities Strong evidence of Hindu social class i.e. 4 classes Brahmins were highest

Religion Large scale offerings and rituals which focused on acquiring wealth Groups who focused on searching within for absolute truth through bodily austerity e.g. shramanas – ascetics, yogins Budda originated as one of these but was able to attract a following and institutionalise so that it flourished after his death.

Buddha

Acts as a model of Buddhist life through guiding buddhists on beliefs, actions and attitudes. The key events in his life explain and demonstrate vital teachings and reveal the Buddhist outlook and approach to life.

Most obvious function of Buddha’s life story is the demonstration of key beliefs. The actions and experiences of Buddha help explain through practical examples and events the principal beliefs and therefore, lead Buddhists to a better understanding of their faith. As the Buddhist beliefs are understood and appreciated, adherents are able to adopt the correct attitudes and actions in their everyday life.

o When buddha first ventured from his palace home and experienced suffering (old, sick, dead, poverty) he came to the realisation that nothing was permanent. This communicated the idea of instability in the world and the human condition- part of the noble truths. Acknowledgement of suffering is the first step in understanding the noble truths which underpin Buddhist understanding. Furthermore, an understanding of impermanency (dukkha) is vital in comprehending the cycle of samsara and karma- the wheel of life where beings are in a constantly transient state (live, die, reborn)

o This turning point in Buddha’s life is central in recognising the ignorance of the world and the necessity to seek the truth and be awakened through enlightenment. The ignorance of Siddartha prior to his exposure to suffering is reflective of humanity’s ignorance to the true nature of suffering. He actively sought to remove this suffering and did so through discovering nirvana.

o His decision to leave home and forfeit his worldly pleasures including his riches and comforts demonstrate the ability and need to prevent attachment. Attachment and dependence on objects or things only leads to desire and therefore, suffering. Buddha’s example teaches adherents the importance of leaving behind such attachments and effect in creating suffering.

o After leaving home at 29, he spends 6 years leading the life of an ascetic and undergoing self mortification, he realises this is futile and does not lead to enlightenment. Through the juxtaposition of Buddha’s extravagant and lavish lifestyle with one of deprivation and torment, it is demonstrated that neither path is beneficial but teaches the importance of moderation. This underlies the principle of the ‘middle path’.

o Buddha’s enlightenment is the most significant event in Buddha’s life and underpins the Buddhist understanding and faith. Aiding in understanding the third noble truth, Buddha’s experience of enlightenment affirms the ability to stop suffering and break free of the cycle of samsara.

Buddha acts as role model to all Buddhists regardless of their level of severity. The teachings he demonstrates are universal and may simply be adopted to varying degrees. E.g. giving up attachments, whilst members of the Sangha take this to its furthest interpretation through living in monasteries, giving up all personal possessions and only taking food that is offered by the community, everyday Buddhists can also adopt these values, they avoid obsession and dependence on material objects like wealth. In this way, Buddha acts as a model for all Buddhists.

Formation of the Sangha

Conversion of the 5 monks at Deer park, followed by conversion of prominent lay figures e.g. Yasa. These conversions were used as a basis for preserving and sustaining sangha. Their role was to

teach the dhamma, also had a strong converting emphasis. Began through word of mouth Initially only men were allowed to become monks. Budda was approached by his aunt

Mahapajapati and asked three times for the ordination of women. He allowed on third attempt but predicted they would weaken the sangha.

Strong caste system which buddha rejected, any class were allowed to become a monk Sangha was in a constant state of increase that was sustained by the increasing lay

support/community. Early Councils:

o Council at Rajgir (486/483 BCE) Immediately after the death of Buddha Full recitation of discources of Buddha Importance: clarified and established teachings, determined which teachings were

authentic. This is significant as it is often disputed between schools who has the ‘true essence’ of Buddhism

o Council at Vaishali (386 BCE) Schisms were highly evident (come together in common belief begin to split) Disputed interpretation of monk’s normative conduct and the laxity of adherence Focused upon gluttony, ostentatious behaviour and possession of wealth. E.g.

carrying salt in an animal horn would preserve food – could eat later Importance: suggested a possible divide in Buddhism, may have lead to the

Theravada and Mahayana schools. “That which I have proclaimed and made known as the dharma and the vinaya, that shall be your

master when I am gone.”

Schools of Buddhism

Theravada:o Belief in the arhant – Focuses upon individual attainment of enlightenment. Buddha is a

model for what can be achieved it is largely done through individual effort.o Buddha is not a god but a great teacher – human who attained enlightenmento Sharp division between sangha and the lay person ‘sangha’ only used to describe

monk/nun community Mahayana:

o Belief in the bodhisattva – Renounces individual nirvana to return to the world and help others achieve enlightenment.

o Emphasis on selfless compassion – seen in Buddha staying on earth after enlightenmento Buddha is an eternal transcendent being who is embodied in the historical Buddhao Easier for lay community to follow – sangha refers to entire Buddhist community – focus on

potentiality for buddhahood in all humans. Vajrayana:

o Mystically inclined – secrets passed down orallyo Accelerated path of enlightenment- can occur in one lifetime- spontaneously attainedo Strong emphasis on visulalisation and recitation of secret verses e.g. mantraso Dalai lama is the spiritual leader who stands as the incarnation of the great bodhisattva of

compassion.

Principal Beliefs

Buddhists don’t agree with ‘beliefs’ as it implies a dependence upon certain principles which undermines their teachings, instead they are ‘views’.

Three Jewels: can be seen as the teacher, the teachings and the taught – the buddha, the dhamma and the sangha.

o Buddha- The historical buddha and the ideal of buddhahoodo Dhamma- the totality of buddhas teachings, mainly 4 noble truths and middle patho Sangha – all buddhists of the world past and presento Buddhist teachings explain the constancy of change- all existence is movement and to

escape from this one must understand existence itself through enlightenment. Four noble truths: the simplicity and brevity of the truths means they are subject to many

interpretations and often only accessible to intellectuals.o First

life is suffering dukkha is a better interpretation of suffering – impermanence or instability.

Humanity’s craving and dependence on security means suffering exists in all aspects of life.

“Whatever is subject to arising is all subject to cessation”- the world is impermanent. May have happiness but it does not last.

o Second The cause of dukkha is ignorance. “I see no other hindrance such as this hindrance

of ignorance, obstructed by which mankind for a long long time runs on, round and round in circles”

Ignorance of the first noble truth means suffering continues. Egocentric understanding of ‘I’ maintains belief in permanency.

Since we do not have permanency we suffer.o Third

There is a way to escape suffering through reaching nirvana To reach nirvana one must eradicate desire, acknowledge and accept dukkha and

eradicate ignorance. “Free from everything called form, he is deep, immeasurable, unfathomable, just as a deep ocean.”

Must realise this for ourselves – cannot just be toldo Fourth

Way to achieve enlightenment is the eight-fold path. Each component must be practiced simultaneously Wisdom: more than just knowledge of teachings, must be instinctive and intuitive Conduct: ethics – adopting compassionate attitude Meditation: emptying mind- can receive awakening, understanding of true reality

Three marks of existenceo Dukkha- existence is ultimately unsatisfyingo Annica- everything is in a constant state of flux, nothing is permanento Anatta- insubstantiality of all things. There is no permanent essence, therefore, no

permanent self. Everything is interdependent, caused by something else, therefore it has no intrinsic reality of its own

Karma/ Samsarao Samsara is the opposite of nirvana it is the view of existence as a bondage to a set of

ongoing rebirths- based on the belief that all things rise and fall in dependance on each other. The world is in a constant state of motion.

o Since everything is interdependent, all intentions will ripen into corresponding future responses. This is the belief in karma. It is karma which fuels the cycle of samsara.

o Karma is not based on actions but intentions.o It is not a justice system where actions are judged by a powerful being, but works “in virtue

of its own nature, its own law.”o Effects of an action in one life can flow on to affect a later life.

Nirvanao Not a place but a state of mind in which one is awakened to the true reality of existence.o Have been able to relinquish the desire for permanency and have eradicated the ignorance

of the nature of suffering.o Released from cycle of samsara and karmao Still feels normal pains and pleasures but are not affected by them in the same way

Ethical Teachings

Buddhist ethical teachings are not seen as a set of commandments or rules, but rather high ideals which are difficult to meet perfectly yet are respected and striven for. They take the form of a personal undertaking. “Believe nothing, no matter where you read it, or who said it, no matter if I have said it, unless it agrees with your own reason and your own common sense.”

Generosity/Compassion:o ‘dana’- generates karmic fruitfulness, involves showing respect, helping, sharing and

rejoicing in other’ karmic fruitfulness. Underpins the central aim in causing no harm. “A generous heart, kind speech, and a life of service and compassion are the things which renew humanity.”

o About losing the idea of the ‘ego’/ self and adopting the no self / anatta, part of the three marks of existence and central to understanding Buddhist worldview.

o Fosters the breaking down of possessiveness, creates an open hearted and sensitive attitude and promotes spiritual progress

o The overarching goal of compassion is a particularly difficult one to enact. For instance, when one is unaware of the effect of their actions. Whilst this may be considered irrelevant due to a lack of volition, the responsibility of the adherent to be aware and knowledgeable of the issues around them must also be considered. This creates major areas of uncertainty as to the adherents’ morality in particular situations. To what degree are they responsible for harmful actions if they aren’t aware and to what extent are they morally obliged to be aware? Whilst compassion is central to Buddhist ethics it doesn’t provide clear moral outlines.

Intention/Volition:o Emphasis on seeing clear reality- ethics pertains to not necessarily actions but intentions.

Includes faith and trust in one’s sense of right, awareness (e.g. removing ignorance) and self respect. Buddha questions, “All wrong-doing arises because of mind. If mind is transformed can wrong-doing remain?”

o Links directly to the eight fold path of ‘right mind’. The attempt to eradicate ignorance is central to an understanding of reality. The emphasis of volition also links to the causes of karma which are also centred around intention.

o Counteracts negative qualities/hindrances in ability to judge clearly, promotes spiritual progress, beneficial in its own right but also leads to higher level of meditation and spiritual understanding.

5 precepts:o Avoiding injury to others, theft and cheating, sexual misconduct, lying and maintaining

sobriety. Focuses on positives of achieving these rather than the guilt and regret of breaking them. Reflected in central texts, “he should not kill a living creature, nor cause to kill, nor approve of others killing” (sutta nipata)– again links to intention.

o Each precept individually reflects the key principal beliefs e.g. abstain from false speech reinforces the Buddhist value of seeking the truth, and as a whole they formulate the

middle path, firstly in the way they should be approached, by avoiding extremes of laxity or rigid adherence, and secondly in the values they communicate about right conduct.

o Applicable to many everyday situations e.g. to abstain from taking what is not given- to not exploit workers. Has many benefits such as confidence, lack of fear, good reputation etc. benefits highlighted through the negatives of not upholding the precepts “a person of poor morality who fails in morality suffers great diminution of wealth owing to laziness”.

o Broad nature of the precepts enables them to be universal and adaptable, however, it also means they are widely open to interpretation e.g. abstaining from sexual misconduct- in countries such as Thailand flirting with married women is a breach of this precept in other countries it pertains to sexual responsibility. Due to this ambiguity and their nature as flexible guidelines, they may not act as a decisive ethical system in certain situations and rely upon the context and decisions of the adherent.

Vinaya:o Aimed at monastic community, contains 227 rules on the proper way of life and behaviour,

organisation of the sangha and nature of monastic duties, very specific e.g. “do not talk with food in the mouth.”

o Vinaya is designed to guide monks and nuns to live there life in such a way that they are able to understand the four noble truths

o Removes them from situations of desire, therefore help then to achieve spiritual enlightenment.

o Problem is they are only applicable to a small number of Buddhists, the monastic community and therefore, many rules are not highly significant to the Buddhist population. Yet even these specific rules are open to debate and interpretation as can be seen in the early councils.

Sacred Texts

Tripitaka – Theravadin Canono Vinaya pitaka: for monks

Monastic discipline and behaviour Importance: strong emphasis on monastic discipline within Thervadin Buddhism,

differs from Mahayana. Adhering to the code set out by buddha is vital to achieving enlightenment, therefore, vinaya must be followed.

o Sutta pitaka: for lay community Discussions between Buddha and disciples Buddhist beliefs- noble truths etc Stories of buddha’s life Importance: source of teachings, discussions aid in interpreting and explaining the

beliefs, events and stories act as a guide and role model through demonstration in particular examples.

o Abhidhamma pitaka: for intellectuals Metaphysical writings Argues for Buddhist worldview Importance: of lesser importance however, justifies Buddhist understanding over

other views and gives insight into deeper questions Lotus of the Good Law – Mahayana

o Parables and stories of Buddha’s lifeo Anecdotes each contain metaphors of buddha saving people from disaster e.g. a father

entices his children out of a burning house when they do not realise the seriousness of the fire. Metaphor for the buddha’s role in helping people escape ignorance and samsara. “Suppose a fierce wind blew their ship to the land of demons. If just one of them calls the name of Avalokitesvara they will be saved” Ch 24

o Importance: Sends important message of universal potential for buddhahood as well as explaining the role of the bodhisattva. The lotus of the good law is also highly accessible to

a popular audience due to the colour and vivacity of the plot meaning its messages are more effectively and widely communicated.

Tibetan Book of the Deado Describes experiences between death and rebirth. Read aloud to the dying as a form of

guidance in their disorientated state.o E.g. “At this time, you should bring to mind and visualise the Lord of Great Compassion or

any other embodiment of your spiritual ideal”o Importance: the dying are in a dangerous condition where they could easily choose the

wrong way, therefore it is integral that they have guidance at this time so they may reach nirvana or come back to samsara in a favourable body.

o Can also be used by the living, seen as death a rebirth of the ego rather than the body

Puja

Puja refers to a variety of ritual or ceremonial practices of worship or devotion. The purpose of Buddhist puja is to show honour respect or devotional observance.

This is achieved through the use of offerings such as a lit candle, burning incense, flowers or fruit to an image of the Buddha, a bodhisattva or teacher (guru). Each of these offerings has symbolic significance such as the lit candle which represents the enlightenment of Buddha and the role of his teachings in removing ignorance. Actions such as bowing show respect and humility. Specific puja rituals include the taking of the refuge in the 3 jewels. This is a simple ritual that reaffirms a persons commitment to the Buddhist path, it is performed before an image of the Buddha and involves offerings and possible bodily prostration.

However, puja also has a deeper impact on the adherent. On the basis that puja is performed from genuine and natural emotion, it acts as an exterior manifestation of inner sentiment and feeling. Performing puja mindfully means thought and attention is directed away from personal concerns. Instead concentration is completely focused on the Buddha and his noble qualities. This honest admiration serves in bringing about anatta, a sense of ‘no self’, it occurs when one suppresses their ego and becomes completely selfless, it is a vital step in gaining true concentration. Due to the joy, calm and subsequent ease generated, the ability to achieve concentration increases and therefore, puja acts as an valuable aid in finding awareness and liberating insight. “When a noble disciple contemplates upon the enlightened one, at that time his mind is not enwrapped in lust, nor in hatred, nor in delusion.”

Depth Study: Judaism

Context

The Patriarchs o Abraham rejected paganism instead declaring his adherence to a single God. His God asked

him to leave his country and travel to another region with his tribe. He gathered his people and travelled from Ur in Mesopotamia to Canaan.

o The Patriarchs were the forefathers of modern Judaism. The very first covenant was made between Abraham and the unseen God. Abraham had demonstrated his complete trust in God, when called upon by God he had taken his young son Isaac and had been prepared to sacrifice him, so strong was his love for God. The Lord on seeing this commitment requested that a ram instead be sacrificed and a covenant was established which illustrated the special relationship between God and his people, which is at the heart of Jewish practices and beliefs today. This covenant was God’s eternal promise to Abraham to make him the “ancestor of a multitude of nations” (Gen17:5).

o Upon Abraham’s death his son Isaac became the second patriarch and leader of the Hebrew people. The covenant was renewed through him and through his son Jacob, who was the third Patriarch. Jacob was also given the name “Israel’ – meaning contender with God” after having a vision of him wrestling with the Lord (Genesis 32:22). This epitomized

the journey of struggle which the Jewish people endured. Jacob lent his name to a nation – Israel. The promises made to the Patriarchs in the covenants continued in Jewish history and continued with the covenant through Moses.

Significance of his actionso His legacy of monotheism, the belief in one God over mankind.o His concern that people act ethicallyo Abraham’s life is an example of supreme faith and devotion to God, love of fellow man.

Demonstrated through his willingness to sacrifice his only son and leave his family and home behind. “Leave your country, your relatives and your father’s home, and go to a land that I am going to show you” (Gen 12:1).

o Entering covenant with God, given their word to go on living as a people in a special way, acknowledging there is something greater than themselves.

o Theme of exile and return, highlights the Jewish value of hospitality. “Sirs, please do not pass my home without stopping; I am here to serve you” (Gen 18:3)

Moses and the Exoduso A Hebrew baby is saved from the river by the daughter of the Pharaoh, he was known as

Moses. Eventually falling foul of the Pharaoh he was exiled to the far side of the red sea, where he became a shepherd. One day whilst minding his flock and meditating on the suffering of enslaved people God spoke to him from a burning bush. He commanded that Moses lead his people to the “land of milk and honey”. Stirred into action Moses prepared for his journey, leading the Israelites out of slavery in Egypt.

Themes of the Exoduso Path to God’s love is difficult so that people do not enslave themselves. This is not

necessarily literal enslavement e.g. worship materialism, money etc. Moses takes the long path They outnumber the Egyptians yet are still enslaved

o Nature of God Divinity seen through miracles such as the burning bush God is powerful- turns the stick into the snake “take this walking stick with you, for

with it you will perform miracles” (Ex 4:17) There is only one God – building the gold calf God is precious – instructs the people to make the arks

o Covenant God responds to the needs of the people by calling Moses – fulfilling and upholding

the covenant demonstrates love for his people The 10 commandments

o Justice Punishment is given to those who do not uphold the covenant “for God fights for

their cause, and strikes those who strike them” Passover, 10 plagues, death of Egyptians in the Red Sea

Variants of Judaism

Orthodoxo Traditional observances as prescribed by law, limited interpretation of the Torah.o Distinguished by its worship in traditional Hebrew.o Belief in Biblical laws, with respect for the law’s divine origin. o Not administered by any central authorityo Synagogues are established by groups and individuals and each has their own distinctive

ideology and culture.

Ultra Orthodoxo Recognised by their stylized long black coats and beards.

o The best known group is perhaps the Chasidim, small community with strict adherence to Jewish study and practice, have considerable influence in the larger Jewish community.

o This movement began in Eastern Europe in the mid 18th Century. Chassidism was seen as a way of infusing joy and hope into a life of difficulty and despair. It emphasizes joy in life, love of fellow men and ecstasy at being in the presence of God.

o Strong focus on converting Jews from their current ways back to the traditional style

Progressiveo Movement began in early 19th century described as reform, liberal or progressive Judaism.o Views the sacred heritage of the Torah as evolving and adapting. Belief that the Torah

needs to be reinterpreted to capture the age.o Rejected belief in a personal Messiah, resurrection of the dead, rebuilding of the temple in

Jerusalemo In recent years has modified its original revolutionary stance and putting more emphasis

upon traditional observances. Most recent principles as stated in 1999 calls for ongoing study of the sacred texts, commitment to Israel, study of the Hebrew language and equality for women and acceptance of all regardless of sexual orientation. Including the ordination of women rabbis

o Main ideological distinction with the Orthodox is the temple service, uses English and is adapted and shortened. Men and women sit together and women Rabbis may officiate, use of organ music and liturgical features.

o Since the Holocaust have been more supportive of Zionism (national movement for return of the Jewish people to their homeland) and greater interest in revival of ritual.

Conservativeo Fosters traditional Judaism while embracing modernity. Yet more traditional than

progressive Judaism, especially in relation to worship.o Study of Holy texts is embedded in belief that Judaism is constantly evolving to meet

contemporary needs.o Belief that the laws of the torah and the Talmud are of divine origin, and therefore requires

the following of Jewish law (halacha) yet acknowledges the human element in the sacred texts.

o Belief that God’s will is made known to man through revelations. The revelation at Sinai the most public, but also belief in revelations to the prophets.

o Service is in Hebrew but includes prayers in Englisho Places great importance on a universal people of Israel and the centrality of the land of

Israel.

Principal Beliefs

Nature of Godo Monotheistic- one god who is creator “You shall have no other God before me, you shall

not make for yourself an idol”o He is transcendent and immanent. Separate from the world yet still involved in it through

the covenant.o Incorporeal

Do not support iconography Yet anthropomorphic language is often used – illustrates how humans are but a

shadow of God and must strive to emulate his moral attributeso He is a personal God, connect with in a personal relationship – love of humanityo God is ultimately good and moral therefore, everything he creates is good. He acts out of

morality not anger or personal preference.

o God is precious and holy “You shall be holy because I the Lord your God am holy” (Lev 19:2). We cannot live by morality and ethics alone. Whilst ethics enables life, holiness ennobles it. It is about having respect.

Divinely inspired moral lawo Moral law binds Jews to God. The 613 Mitzvot are very specific and used to remind Jews of

God in every action and aspect of their life. It is a form of expressing their faithfulness to the covenant.

o The sacred Texts, that is the Torah and the words of the prophets are unchanging because they are the divine word of God.

Covenanto By entering into the covenant, God accepts a limitation to the exercise of his omnipotence,

hence, endowing humans with free will. However, this freedom comes with moral obligation, both externally in actions and an internal reform in attitude and beliefs. The covenant becomes the framework for mutual obligation

o It is a path of communication with God and a forum for discourse e.g. Moses talks to God about his obligation to the people for forgiveness when they make the golden calf. It affirms the people’s relationship with God and establishes order and authority. God’s willingness to share in the perfection process with humans demonstrates his absolute love and care for them.

o Ultimate goal of the covenant is to restore perfection to the world. Attempt to reinstate peace and love between all people. This goal is achieved through human participation and therefore, outlines ethical system and provides Jews with an ethical objective and purpose, “to act justly, to love mercy and to walk humbly with God.”

o The covenant provides a sense of identity and unity to the Jewish people. Known as ‘the people of Israel’ the covenant brings Jews together, the chosen people, with common rights and responsibilities. There is a common affection and concern for the state of Israel.

o Circumcision is a sign of accepting and ratifying the covenant.

Sacred Texts

The commandments are the essence of the entire Torah. They are the main principles for survival of Jewish people religiously and ethically. When seen in the correct light it is life itself.

The moral law is set out in the first five books of the Bible, known as the Torah. This comprises 613 commandments, which include the Ten Commandments. These form the principle foundations of faith and are given for all times

“Things that are revealed to us belong to us and our children forever, to keep all the words of this Torah (Deut 29:28). It is forbidden to add or subtract a commandment or to interpret so as to add a prohibition which was not included in tradition

The Torah provides Adherents with direction for their spiritual life and ethics and guides their rituals. Judaism places great emphasis upon the observance of ceremony and tradition. The rites and rituals practices are believed to focus attention upon God. Rituals have a significant influence upon the life of the adherents. Observance of religious law shapes the lives of Jewish people on a daily basis. This may be seen through observances such as Shabbat, or Sabbath, considered the most important day of the Jewish week.

A great emphasis is placed upon studying and reading the Torah, this is part of the 613 mitvot, “the exhortation to study the Torah” (Deut 6: 7) as a result, literacy and learning has become deeply ingrained in the Jewish way of life

Ethical Teachings

The Jewish faith is a religion based upon “ethical monotheism’, a belief in a single God who gives commandments which constitute the moral law and ethical teachings for mankind.

This moral law is manifested in the halachah, the Jewish legal system which enables Jews to practice the ethical teachings in their everyday life.

Adherents live their lives in accordance with these commandments. Jewish ethics place demands upon adherents to act in a certain way on a wide range of social, environmental, economic and personal issues. It guides them in a “right relationship with God and right relationship with one’s families and neighbours”. Extensive “laws” provide stringent guidelines for ethical guidance on all areas of life.

“God wanted to benefit Israel; he therefore gave then Torah and commandments in abundance.” For a devout Jew the beauty in the abundance of these laws is there is never any doubt as to how to act in ways to please God. Their wide coverage of issues from business to clothing means almost aspects of life are addressed in Jewish law. However, the stringency and specificity of the laws makes them very difficult to enact for an everyday Jew. Further complications arise from the question of their relevance to modern societies. Whilst orthodox Jews affirm the commandments are unchanging, progressive Jews are more willing to accept reform as issues change and develop throughout the ages.

At the centre of the Torah and the commandments is the message “what you find hateful, do not do to others”

God’s primary demand is ethical behaviour, he cares more about how humans treat each other than anything else. He asks that humans act with justice and mercy. Judaism asks people not to worry about their own spirituality to the exclusion of others, this defeats the purpose of seeking spirituality.

The prophets remind Jews that worship and ritual is insufficient, it must be accompanied by charity and love. A fight for social justice has a strong presence in the books of the prophets. Amos speaks often of justice, he calls for punishment to those who “trample on the heads of the poor and deny justice to the oppressed.” (Amos 2:7). This incorporates many fundamental beliefs of Judaism such as the theme of hospitality, that Jews should perform acts of kindness and charity. It also reinforces God’s claim of punishment to those who do not uphold the covenant, they will receive justice.

For Adherents the ten commandments are central to their faith and form part of the binding covenant that they entered into with God, “If you obey me fully and keep my covenant, then out of all nations you will be my treasured possession”(Exodus 19 : 5)

Jewish family life is inextricably linked with principal ethical teachings. The family home is considered the centre of Jewish life, above even the synagogue. All family members have duties and responsibilities to ensure the integrity of family. For women this includes keeping the dietary rules. The strict ritual observance of Kosher foods and preparation and lighting of the Shabbat candles. Children also have duties in honouring their parents “Cursed be he who dishonours his father or his mother” (Deut 27:16)

The duties of parents also include the obligation to have their sons circumcised, in keeping with the original covenant Abraham entered into with God. They must ensure that their sons are educated in the Torah, learn a trade and must find them a wife, preferably Jewish.