Academic English Skills: Reading Comprehension

Academic English Skills:Introduction to Reading Comprehension

By: Iwan Syahril

Questions

✤ What happens when we read?

✤ How do we construct meaning?

Schema Theory

✤ A text does not by itself carry meaning.

✤ “The reader brings information, knowledge, emotion, experience, and culture to the printed word.”

✤ Skills in reading depends on the efficient interaction between linguistic knowledge and knowledge of the world.

Source: Brown, H. D. (2001). Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to language pedagogy. New York: Pearson Education.

Two categories of schemata

✤ CONTENT SCHEMATA

➡ What we know about people, the world, culture, and the universe.

✤ FORMAL SCHEMATA

➡ What we know about the discourse structure.

Source: Brown, H. D. (2001). Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to language pedagogy. New York: Pearson Education.

So, what does this mean?Let’s do some practice.

Think-Aloud Exercise

✤ Reading and thinking are interrelated.

✤ If we work to think about what we are reading, we will remember a lot more.

✤ When we read, we think by bringing our previous experience, knowledge and understanding to make sense of the text.

Academic English Skills: Skimming & Scanning

By: Iwan Syahril

Questions

✤ What kinds of difficulty do you encounter when you read?

✤ How was your first Educational Psychology reading assignment?

Common Myths in Reading

Myth 1: “Comprehension should happen all at once.”

• Comprehension is usually a process. It is achieved gradually.

Myth 2: “We must read every word in the text.”

• If we have to read every word in the text, we will not have time to study what we have read.

Source: Langan, J. (2002). Reading and study skills. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Two strategies in reading

✤ SKIMMING

➡ Reading quickly to get the general idea from a text (a book, an article, a chapter, or just a paragraph).

✤ SCANNING

➡ Reading quickly to find information.

Source: Harrison, R. (2006). Academic skills: Reading, writing, and study skills. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

So, what does this mean?Let’s do some practice. Take out your Student Handbook.

5 KEY SKILLS

✤ There are 5 key skills in recognizing and using important elements of reading material.

1.Recognizing definitions and examples.

2.Recognizing enumerations.

3.Recognizing headings and subheadings.

4.Recognizing signal words.

5.Recognizing main ideas.

Recognizing definitions & examples

Let’s do this together. Locate the definitions and examples in the following text.

✤ Much behavior is innate; that is, animals are born with it. Their genes determine the animals’ behavior. In other words, the behavior is a biological inheritance. Some innate behaviors are simple, such as a reflex or a fight-or-flight response. What happens if something suddenly passes in front of your eyes? You blink - that is, you quickly close your eyes and open your eyes. This is a reflex. You have no control over it.

✤ Much behavior is def {innate; that is, animals are born with it.} Their genes determine the animals’ behavior. In other words, the behavior is a biological inheritance. Some innate behaviors are simple, ex {such as a reflex or a fight-or-flight response}. What happens if something suddenly passes in front of your eyes? You blink - that is, ex {you quickly close your eyes and open your eyes}. This is a def {reflex. You have no control over it}.

✤ One simple type of learned behavior is habituation. This happens when an animal learns to feel comfortable to a new situation and doesn’t pay attention to it anymore. For example, young horses are often afraid of noisy streets. But after a while, they learn to pay no attention to the normal sights and sounds of a city.

“Let’s do more exercises!”

Skill 2: Recognizing Enumerations

Recognizing Enumerations

✤ Enumerations are lists of items that may actually be numbered in the text.

✤ They are usually signaled by words such as first of all, second, moreover, next, also, finally and others.

✤ Typical phrases to introduce enumerations are: “There are three reasons why...”, “Two causes of ......”, Five characteristics of ....”.

✤ Enumerations are keys to important ideas.

So, what does this mean?Let’s do some practice. Take out your Student Handbook.

TEXT 1

Researchers have found two differences among parents in the ways they relate to their children: their expectations and their responsiveness. Some set high expectations and insist that they’re met; others expect little of their children and rarely try to influence them. Responsive parents, for example, accept their children and frequently interact with them; unresponsive parents tend to be rejecting, negative, or indifferent.

TEXT 1

Researchers have found two differences among parents in the ways they relate to their children: 1) their expectations and 2) their responsiveness. Some set high expectations and insist that they’re met; others expect little of their children and rarely try to influence them. Responsive parents, for example, accept their children and frequently interact with them; unresponsive parents tend to be rejecting, negative, or indifferent.

TEXT 2

Erikson’s work was popular and influential in the 1960s and 1970s, but since then, developmental theorists have taken issue with it on at least three points. First, some researchers argue that Erikson didn’t adequately address the role of culture in personal and social development. For instance, some cultures discourage autonomy and initiative in children, perhaps as a way of protecting them from dangers in their environment. Second, critics point out that some adolescents - and especially girls - establish a sense of intimacy with, or even before, a focus on personal identity. This contrasts with Erikson’s description of intimacy following the development of identity. Third, as you’ll see in our discussion of identity development in the next section, many people don’t achieve a sense of identity as early as Erikson suggested.

TEXT 2

Erikson’s work was popular and influential in the 1960s and 1970s, but since then, developmental theorists have taken issue with it on at least three points. 1) First, some researchers argue that Erikson didn’t adequately address the role of culture in personal and social development. For instance, some cultures discourage autonomy and initiative in children, perhaps as a way of protecting them from dangers in their environment. 2) Second, critics point out that some adolescents - and especially girls - establish a sense of intimacy with, or even before, a focus on personal identity. This contrasts with Erikson’s description of intimacy following the development of identity. 3) Third, as you’ll see in our discussion of identity development in the next section, many people don’t achieve a sense of identity as early as Erikson suggested.

Skill 3: Recognizing Headings and Subheadings

Recognizing Headings & Subheadings

✤ Headings and subheadings are important visual aids that give us a quick idea of how information in a chapter is organized.

✤ There are two methods for using headings to locate key ideas:

✤ Change headings into basic questions. (starting with what, why, how, when, where, or who.

✤ See how subheads relate to main heads.

Skill 4: Recognizing Signal Words

Recognizing Signal Words

✤ Signal words help readers follow the direction of a writer’s thought.

✤ They are like signposts on the road that guide the traveller.

✤ Common signal words show emphasis, addition, comparison or contrast, illustration, and cause and effect.

Emphasis Words

✤ The writer tells us that a particular detail or idea is important.

✤ Think of such words as red flags.

✤ Some typical emphasis words are:

important to note especially valuable the most ....... above all a key feature

a significant factor a major event especially relevant a vital force a central issue

✤ Let’s do some practice. Take out your Student Handbook.


Example:Although the resources of our world are limited, the wants of people are not. Indeed, one of the most

important assumptions of economics is that total human wants can never be satisfied. No matter how much we have, we seem to want more. As people’s incomes increase, so does their desire for more and better goods

Text 1

To be happy, adolescents must be realistic about the achievements they are capable of, about the social acceptance they can expect to receive, and about the kind and the amount of affection they will receive. Of the three, social acceptance is the most crucial. Well-accepted adolescents will automatically receive affection from those who accept them, and their achievements will win approval if not acclaim.

Text 2As you see in Table 3.1, an authoritative parenting style, one that combines high expectations and high levels of responsiveness, is the most effective for promoting healthy personal development. Children need challenge, structure, and support in their lives, and authoritative parents provide them. While providing support, authoritative parents also encourage their children to develop values and goals that guide their actions (Soenens et al., 2007).

Addition Words

✤ These words tell us that the writer’s thought is going to continue in the same direction or to add more points of details of the same kind.

✤ Addition words are also used to signal enumerations.

✤ Some typical addition words are:

also first of all last of all for one thing likewise moreover finally

and first second next the third reason another in addition



Text 1

As adolescents struggle with their identities, two processes occur (Luyckx, Goosesens, & Soenens, 2006). The first, identity formation, involves the creation of commitments based on conviction or belief. This was illustrated in Taylor’s comment, “it feels really good to work with people and help them.” The second process, evaluation, occurs when they consider alternative identities and weigh the pros and cons of each. For example, you may have asked yourself whether or not you want to be a teacher or perhaps work instead in the business world. These deliberations are your attempt to evaluate different options.

As adolescents struggle with their identities, two processes occur (Luyckx, Goosesens, & Soenens, 2006). The first, identity formation, involves the creation of commitments based on conviction or belief. This was illustrated in Taylor’s comment, “it feels really good to work with people and help them.” The second process, evaluation, occurs when they consider alternative identities and weigh the pros and cons of each. For example, you may have asked yourself whether or not you want to be a teacher or perhaps work instead in the business world. These deliberations are your attempt to evaluate different options.

Text 2There are several criticisms toward Kohlberg’s theory. For one thing

it appears to focus strongly on Western thinking (Snary, 1995). Post-conventional reasoning isn’t seen in all cultures. Moral reasoning also depends on context (Turiel, 2006). For example, people are more likely to believe that breaking a traffic law is immoral if it can cause someone harm. Finally, Kohlberg’s work has been criticized for focusing on moral reasoning instead of moral behavior. People may reason at one stage and behave at another, influenced by context and personal history (Krebs & Denton, 2005). For example, an adolescent trying to decide whether to drink alcohol when out with friends will be influenced by family and cultural values as well as peer pressure. Kohlberg’s work ignores these factors.

There are several criticisms toward Kohlberg’s theory. For one thing it appears to focus strongly on Western thinking (Snary, 1995). Post-conventional reasoning isn’t seen in all cultures. Moral reasoning also depends on context (Turiel, 2006). For example, people are more likely to believe that breaking a traffic law is immoral if it can cause someone harm. Finally, Kohlberg’s work has been criticized for focusing on moral reasoning instead of moral behavior. People may reason at one stage and behave at another, influenced by context and personal history (Krebs & Denton, 2005). For example, an adolescent trying to decide whether to drink alcohol when out with friends will be influenced by family and cultural values as well as peer pressure. Kohlberg’s work ignores these factors.

Comparison and Contrast Words

✤ Comparison words tell us a similarity between two subjects or statements. Some typical comparison words are:

like just as in the same way similarly likewise in like manner

alike just like equally in a similar fashion similarity as

✤ Contrast Words tell us a difference between two subjects or statements. Some typical contrast words are:

but yet however in contrast on the contrary difference

still conversely otherwise differ on the other hand


Text 1

Sleep has always been a fascinating topic. We spend

about one-third of our adult life sleeping. Most animals

sleep in a similar fashion – they collapse and relax their

muscles. In contrast, birds and horses sleep upright, with

their antigravity muscles at work.

Text 2The term self-concept and self-esteem are often used interchangeably, but they are actually quite different. In contrast with self-concept, which is cognitive, self-

esteem, or self-worth, is an emotional reaction to, or an evaluation of, the self (Schunk et al., 2008). People who have high self-esteem believe that they are inherently worthy people and feel good about themselves.

Text 2The term self-concept and self-esteem are often used interchangeably, but they are actually quite different. In

contrast with self-concept, which is cognitive, self-

esteem, or self-worth, is an emotional reaction to, or an evaluation of, the self (Schunk et al., 2008). People who have high self-esteem believe that they are inherently worthy people and feel good about themselves.

Text 3

Kohlberg (1963, 1969, 1981, 1984) used responses to moral

dilemmas, such as this one, as a basis of his research,

which he later developed into his theory of moral

development. Like Piaget, he concluded that moral

reasoning exists in stages, and development occurs when

people’s reasoning advances to a higher stage.

Illustration Words✤ They tell us that an example or illustration will be given to make an

idea clear.

✤ They are typically used in textbooks that present a number of definitions and examples of those definitions.

✤ Some typical illustration words are:

for example for instance to illustrate such as specifically



Text 1The mesosystem consists of the interactions between the elements of the microsystem, and healthy development depends on how effectively the elements work together. For example, research suggests that effective teachers involve parents in their children’s education, creating links between two important elements in the microsystem (Epstein, 2001). In a similar way, effective schools open their doors to the community to create a web of support for the developing child (Comer, Joyner, & Ben-Avie, 2004).

Text 2

Moral issues are also embedded in the school curriculum.

History is not a mere chronology of events; it is also a

study of people’s responses to moral issues, such as

poverty, human suffering, peace, justice, and whether

decisions to go to war are justified.

Text 3

Ethical issues are also found in literature written for young people. For instance in E. B. White’s (1974) children classic Charlotte’s Web, moral issues are involved when Charlotte, the spider, devises an ingenious plan to save Wilbur the pig from slaughter. And teachers commonly choose books such as The Yearling (Rawlings, 1938), The Scarlet Letter (Hawthorne, 1850), and A Tale of

Two Cities (Dickens, 1859), not only because they are good literature but also because they examine moral issues.

Text 3

Ethical issues are also found in literature written for young people. For instance, in E. B. White’s (1974) children classic Charlotte’s Web, moral issues are involved when Charlotte, the spider, devises an ingenious plan to save Wilbur the pig from slaughter. And teachers commonly choose books such as The Yearling (Rawlings, 1938), The Scarlet Letter (Hawthorne, 1850), and A Tale of

Two Cities (Dickens, 1859), not only because they are good literature but also because they examine moral issues.

Cause-and-effect Words

✤ These words signal that the author is going to describe results and effects.

✤ Some typical cause-and-effect words are:

because therefore thus since as a result consequently

reason effect so that if.....then cause result in



Text 1

Steve, a high school senior, works at a night job to help support his mother, a single parent of three. Steve is conscientious and works hard in his classes, but he doesn’t have enough time to study. Because of his night work, and because he isn’t fond of history, he is barely passing. If he fails the final exam, he will fail the course and won’t graduate.

Text 2

If he cheats, he will pass the test, but cheating is morally

wrong. On the other hand, if he doesn’t cheat, he will

likely fail the course and not graduate.

Let’s do more practice.Review Exercises on Signal Words from Student Handbook.

for example in addition as a result alike

therefore for instance especially valuable

similarly moreover just as such as

differ most important consequently

however also but most significant

✤ Emphasis: most important, most significant, especially valuable.

✤ Addition: moreover, also, in addition.

✤ Comparison: alike, just as, similarly.

✤ Contrast: but, differ, however.

✤ Illustration: for example, for instance, such as.

✤ Cause and effect: therefore, as a result, consequently.

Text 1While positive resolution of the crisis at one stage better prepares people for a positive resolution at the next, Erikson didn’t believe that it is always ideal. For instance, while learning to trust people is desirable, we cannot trust all people under all circumstances. However, when psychological development is healthy, the positive resolution predominates at each stage. In addition, when positive resolution doesn’t occur at a particular stage, individuals often revisit earlier stages to rework these crises.

Text 2More recent research suggests that African American children who grow up in a warm and supportive environments, both at home and school, actually possess higher levels of self-esteem than their Caucasian American counterparts (C. Carlson, Uppal, & Posser, 2000; S. French et al., 2006; Gray-Little & Hafdahl, 2000). However, some cultural minorities experience hardships linked to poverty, crime, and drug use (Dwyer & Osher, 2000). In addition, schools unresponsive to the needs of minority children can retard the development of self-concept and self-esteem (Ferguson, 2003; Noguera, 2003a). These findings suggest that unique challenges can exist for students who are members of ethnic minorities.

Skill 5: Recognizing the Main Idea

Recognizing the Main Idea

✤ The basic structure of a textbook: A point is mentioned and then supported with specific reasons, details, and facts.

✤ Finding the main idea is a key to understanding a paragraph or short selection.

✤ The main idea is often located in the first sentence of a paragraph. It may also be located at the end, in the middle, or any other place in the paragraph.

What does it mean?Let’s do some practice.

Academic English Skills: Guessing the Meaning from the Context

By: Iwan Syahril

DEALING WITH NEW WORDS IN THE TEXT

• It’s important not to use a dictionary for every new word.

• You can understand the main ideas of reading without knowing the meaning of every word in it.

• The rest of the sentence or paragraph can usually help us to find the meaning of the new word.

• Sometimes you don’t need to know the meaning of a new word because the word isn’t important.

•Can I guess the meaning of the word from its context?

Yes

Stop. Don’t use a

dictionary

No

Ask yourself: Is the word important?

Yes No

Use a dictionary to look up the meaning.

Don’t worry. Keep reading. Remember: It’s OK not to know the exact meaning of

every word.

Take out your Student Handbook.

PRACTICE TIME

Academic English Skills: Reading Comprehension

Education

Transcript of Academic English Skills: Reading Comprehension