EXPLAINING SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING

SUMMARY

Second language learners are different from young children

acquiring a language. We have to consider the characteristics

and the conditions of both the learner and learning. The

characteristics found are: a) knowing another language, b)

cognitive maturity, c) metalinguistic awareness, d) world

knowledge and e) anxiety about speaking (which is more common in

adults and adolescents rather than little kids). When learning a

language, it means you already acquired one, which can be both

an advantage and interference towards the learning of a second

language.

The conditions in need to consider are: f) freedom to be

silent (it happens more in young people and less in old people),

g) ample time (which also is given more in young and less in old

people), h) corrective feedback (which is. mostly given in the

classroom) and i) modified Input (which, unlike corrective

feedback, is common in every stage).

Perspectives that explain SLL:

Behaviourism Perspective: Mimicry and Memorization.

Language learning is viewed as the formation of habits.

Students would learn by constantly imitating patterns. States

that learner should learn language features that are similar to

her/his mother tongue with ease.

Innatist Perspective:

Universal Grammar.

Chomsky argued that innate knowledge of the principles of

Universal Grammar permits all children to acquire the language

of their environment during a critical period of their

development, which ends by the beginning of puberty. Some

authors theorize that UG is altered by each language a person

acquires. Formality of second language learning is under

discussion, as some authors argue that feedback and formal

instruction are only superficial, while the ones that think UG

is altered by prior languages argue that the learner may need

explicit information.

Krashens Monitor Model

The model was described by five hypotheses:

- Acquisition-learning hypothesis: We acquire unconsciously,

we learn consciously.

- Monitor hypothesis: Spontaneous use of language with a

monitor that polishes language. Needs time, concern, and

knowledge of the relevant rules.

- Natural order hypothesis: SLA develops in a predictable

way. The easiest things to learn are not necessarily the first

ones. Even the best forget the s in simple present sometimes.

- Input hypothesis: Comprehensible input, going only one step

ahead of whats already known (i + 1).

- Affective filter hypothesis: Learners that are tense,

anxious or bored may filter out input, making it unavailable

for acquisition.

Current psychological theories: The

Cognitivist/Developmental perspective.

Direct answer to innatists perspective: there is no need to

hypothesize that humans have a language specific module in the

brain or that acquisition and learning are different processes.

Learning is inherent to humans in every aspect.

Information processing model

SLA is the building up of knowledge that can eventually be

called on automatically for speaking and understanding. Learners

pay attention to what they can and need to attend in order to

learn.

Eventually they will need to pay attention to more complex

properties of the language. First learners would need to pay

attention to sounds, morphemes, isolated meaning of words. When

in advanced stages, learners use of language turns more

automatic, allowing them to pay attention to overall structures

instead of isolated words. Other authors see SLA as skill

learning, where knowledge turns from declarative knowledge into

procedural knowledge (from that to how), and eventually,

procedural knowledge ends up eclipsing declarative knowledge.

Learners thus forget the reason that led them to learn a

language, they just know it.

Sometimes the acquisition of a language, instead of

gradually building up knowledge, is given by restructuring,

meaning that learners suddenly put it all together even though

they werent taught anything by that moment. This can lead to

mistakes of overgeneralization though.

Transfer appropriate processing: Its easier to apply what

we learn in a context similar to that of our learning.

Connectionism

- The ability to learn is what is innate to us.

- The environment is very important, as learners build up

their knowledge mainly by exposure.

- Learners start connecting everything they were exposed to.

The Competition Model

Similar to Connectionism, learners get to understand the use

of each individual cue in a language through exposure. Learners

compare such cues within the sentences.

Second Language Applications: Interacting, noticing and

processing

- Interaction Hypothesis: quite similar to Krashens input

hypothesis, but more focused on HOW to make input

comprehensible. Thus the concept of Modified Interaction was

created. It is having the chance of interacting with other

speakers and make input comprehensible among themselves. The

modifications are 1) Checking understanding; 2) Clarification

Request; 3) Self-repetition or paraphrase. Interlocutors

negotiate meaning. Later this hypothesis was extended with the

comprehensible output hypothesis, which is focused on the

learner being demanded to producing comprehensible output and

hence learning better.

- Noticing hypothesis: according to this, nothing is learned

unless it has been noticed. This doesnt mean that noticing

means immediate learning. It is debated whether if learners must

be aware that they are noticing something in the input or not.

- Processability theory: Sometimes learners have difficulties

when processing what they get, which lead to the theory that

the sequence of development for features of syntax and

morphology is affected by how easy they were to process.

Sociocultural perspective

Language development is a result of social interaction. It

occurs when individuals interact with an interlocutor within

her/his zone of proximal development (ZPD).

People gain control of and reorganize their cognitive

processes during meditation as knowledge is internalized during

social activity.