Aboriginal tourism—a linear structural relations analysis of domestic and international tourist...

Aboriginal TourismÐa Linear StructuralRelations Analysis of Domestic andInternational Tourist DemandChris Ryan1 and Jeremy Huyton2

1Waikato Management School, University of Waikato, Private Bag 3105, Hamilton, New Zealand; andVisiting Professor, Australian International Hotel School, ACT, Australia2Australian International Hotel School, Kingston, ACT, Australia

ABSTRACT

This paper analyses data from 471 domesticand international visitors to Katherine,Northern Territory as to their levels ofinterest in Aboriginal tourism products. It®nds that although 40% of visitors do have aninterest in Aboriginal culture, for the greatmajority such an interest is part of a widerinterest in the Northern Territory as a whole.There is little evidence that tourists might bedescribed as àmateur anthropologists'Ðrather their interest is related to other aspectsof the Territory, such as its landscape, ¯oraand fauna, and opportunities for outbackadventure. Additionally, it is argued thatevidence emerges of some tourists re-evaluating natural settings from anAboriginal perspective. Copyright # 2000John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Received 4 May 1998; Revised 5 October 1998; Accepted 14October 1998

Keywords: Aboriginal tourism; touristperceptions; Northern Territory; Australia.

In 1994 the Australian Commonwealth Depart-ment of Tourism issued a booklet entitled

À Talent for TourismÐStories about IndigenousPeople in Tourism' (Commonwealth of Austra-lia, 1994). This publication illustrated a num-ber of companies, which although not alwaysowned or managed by Aboriginal people,nonetheless featured their art and culture as atourist product. On page 20 it was noted thatÌnternational and domestic tourists are cryingout for information about Australia's indigen-ous culture and the demand will only getstronger' (J. Pratley, citing Mick Roe, Managerof Kurrawang Emu Farm). The signi®cance ofthis quote is that it is reproduced in bold, largefont on the page. This theme of a growingdemand and interest for things Aboriginal bythe tourist market is repeated almost as amantra in a series of reports published byAustralian governmental and tourist bodies.For example, within the National Eco-tourismStrategy, section 5.10 noted Ìnterest in culturaldiversity is integral to the desire for Eco-tourism experiences and provides an oppor-tunity for indigenous Australians to be in-volved in Eco-tourism (Commonwealth ofAustralia, 1994, p. 42). Hutchinson (1997), inhis report `Tourism: Getting it Right for theMillennium' spoke of the `very positive workbeing carried out by tourism operations ¼towards the sensitive integration of our in-digenous culture into the tourism industry'and saw Aboriginal culture as an asset and`major point of uniqueness' (Hutchinson, 1997,pp. 183±184). On the other hand the TourismIndustry Strategy of the Aboriginal and TorresStrait Islander Commission is more cautious,noting on page 3 that:

There is considerable confusion amongst

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF TOURISM RESEARCHInt. J. Tourism Res. 2, 15±29 (2000)

CCC 1099±2340/2000/010015±15 $17.50 Copyright # 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

* Correspondence to: Dr Chris Ryan, Tourism Manage-ment Programme, Waikato School of Management, theUniversity of Waikato, Private Bag 3015, Hamilton, NewZealand.E-mail: [email protected]/grant sponsor: Northern Territory University.

indigenous people about the tourismindustry. There are seen to be potentialbene®ts, but it is unclear what is the bestway to get involved, and how to go aboutbuilding a successful tourism enterprise.There are also seen to be potential dangersfrom the impact of tourism, and there is aneed for strategies to manage these im-pacts (ATSIC, 1997, pp. 3±4).

One notable exception to the continuingseries of of®cial reports emphasising the stronginterest of visitors in Aboriginal culture is theMasterplan of the Northern Territory TouristCommissionÐnotable in that the Territory hasthe largest proportion of Aboriginal people asa percentage of population in the whole ofAustraliaÐ10% as against a national averageof about 1.5%. It states:

¼ the extent of this interest varies accord-ing to research. Surveys in recent yearshave varied dramaticallyÐin 1990 anAustralian Council survey indicated over70% of international travellers expressedinterest in Aboriginal culture. Two yearslater the same survey registered only 48%.While recent ®gures from the TourismMonitor indicate 43% of overseas visitorsexpress interest, there is signi®cantly lessinterest from domestic travellers (NTTC,1994:55).

On the other hand a search of the academicliterature reveals very little research into theattitudes of tourists towards Aboriginal pro-ducts. Indeed, the work that has been carriedout can be categorised broadly as follows.

(1) DescriptiveÐfor example Zeppel's (1998)work outlining current Aboriginal tourismdevelopments and products in Australia.Altman's (1989) work is also primarilydescriptive, although he does refer to someeconomic implications of tourism forAboriginal communities. For example, itis noted that the host:visitor ratio for theTiwi islands is 1:0.008 and that tourismmight, at most, account for 5% of income.Making due allowance for special ¯ightsrelating to the Tiwi Islands Grand Football®nal, which attract a number of TiwiIslanders ¯ying home for a visit to familyand friends, it is dif®cult to be con®dent

that things have altered much over the lastdecade. Indeed, Langton (1997a,1997b)records quite low levels of income from anumber of Aboriginal tourism productsand estimates the total value of incomefrom Aboriginal tourism products (apartfrom arts and crafts sales for souvenirs) asbeing but A$5 millionÐa ®gure derivedfrom the National Aboriginal and TorresStraits Islander Tourism Industry Strategy(ATSIC) of 1997. The strategy documentalso cites unreferenced work that the salesof indigenous arts and crafts are worthA$200 million per annum, with an esti-mated half of this being sold through thetourism market (ATSIC, 1997, p. 6).

(2) ConceptualÐusually in terms of consider-ing the nature of tourism and its impactsupon Aboriginal culture and the conse-quent meaning of `authentic', e.g. Hollins-head (1996). Such work is in the tradition ofthe exploration of the `exotic other' in thatAboriginal tourism, like that of otherindigenous peoples, is seen as a thingapartÐa separate entity to which areascribed those things that are thought tobe missing in the viewer's own culture(Ryan, 1998a).

(3) EmpiricalÐfor example, the work of workof Moscardo and Pearce (1989), Finlayson(1991), (Pitcher, 1997, unpublished data),Pearce et al. (1997) and Pearce (1998). Whatis of interest, however, is just how littleempirical work has been undertaken, andof this work, just how little has actuallybeen reported in the wider academicliterature represented by journals. Addi-tional problems are also associated withthis work in that in some cases it representsinterviews with visitors who have alreadychosen to visit an Aboriginal site and thusby de®nition does not capture the level ofinterest of the wider, overall market (e.g.see Pearce et al., 1997; Pitcher, 1997,unpublished data). The size of the problemis signi®ed by an examination of theAboriginal and Torres Strait Islander'sATSIROM CD-ROM (RMIT, 1997) baseddatabase using the key words `tourism',`tourist attitudes' and `tourist perceptions'as key search terms. It was found to have1503 entries (in September 1998) with

Copyright # 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Tourism Res. 2, 15±29 (2000)

16 C. Ryan and J. Hayton

reference to tourism, but only three relatingto visitor attitudes and perceptions.

(4) Strategic and planningÐfor example, thegovernment and tourist commission re-ports cited above, including the NationalAboriginal and Torres Strait IslandersCommission's Tourism Industry Strategy(ATSIC, 1997). However, as an examinationof the Aboriginal and Torres StraitIslanders ATSIROM will reveal, over thelast 10±15 years a considerable number ofpolicy and planning documents have beenpublished, especially with reference toNational Park planning. For example,recent plans include those of the 1989Mootwingee Plan (Savigny et al., 1990),Watarrka National Park (e.g. McCluskey,1997) Flinders Ranges National Park (SouthAustralia Department of Environment andNatural Resources, 1996) and the variousplans relating to Kakadu (see Ryan, 1998b).Some of these plans relate to privateproperty where, for example, rock art sitesare found (see e.g. Kelton, 1995). TheATSIC itself has published tourism plans,guidelines and discussion documents(ATSIC, 1994, 1995, 1996), and Altman (1993,1995) has published economic assessments.However, although a profusion exists, duein part to various State and FederalLegislation (e.g. the Queensland AboriginalLand Act, 1971, National Parks and Wild-life (Aboriginal Ownership) AmendmentAct (NSW) 1992, the Nature ConservationAct 1992 (QLD) and the Aboriginal LandRights (Northern Territory) Act, 1976, tocite but a few) much of the planning hasapparently been based upon little empiricalresearch relating to tourist attitudes.

As already noted, this is not to say that nowork has been undertaken as to tourists' levelsof satisfaction with Aboriginal tourist pro-ducts. One such example is that of Pearce(1998). Pearce reports results from a survey of1500 visitors to the Tjapukai Cultural Park.Originally based at Kuranda in NorthernQueensland, Tjapukai is one of the signi®cantsuccess stories of Aboriginal tourism. Startedby Don and Judy Freeman in 1987 it was basedupon their experience of community theatredeveloped from living outside of Australia.

One of the ironies is that in spite of involvingdancers from the Djabugay tribe the venturereceived no ®nancial aid during its formativeyears from the programmes established by theDepartment of Employment for aiding busi-ness ventures by Aboriginal and Torres StraitIslanders (Schalch, 1994). By 1993, however,the Freeman's had built a A$1 million theatrecomplex and employed 44 staff. They werepresenting 17 shows a week and had a turn-over of A$1.5 million. In 1998 the TjapukaiCultural Park opened in Cairns at a cost of overA$8 million. Pearce (1998, p. 387) notes that`Overall high levels of satisfaction were re-ported which were equivalent to, but superiorto other leading attractions' within the Kur-anda Region. These attractions include the SkyGondola operating from Cairns to Kurandawith elevated views of the tropical rainforest.This paper would agree with Pearce (1998)

that it is important to consider visitor re-sponses to Aboriginal products within a widercontext of tourist attractions, and not simplymeasure response to speci®c products di-vorced from any other activity. It is a common®nding that, for example, satisfaction ratingsand stated interests in tourism are skewed tohigher levels of scores (Ryan, 1995). This initself might imply one reason why high levelsof interest are being recorded in Aboriginaltourism products. Similarly, ratings withoutany assessment of the level of importance tothe visitor of that which is being assessed isalso, arguably, an incomplete analysis. Thispossibly is again one reason why VisitorMonitor data may be overestimating theinterest of visitors in Aboriginal tourism. Ifvisitors are indicating interest, but the subjectof the interest is comparatively unimportant torespondents, then actual visitation may bebelow expectation. Few surveys used bytourism bodies adopt a multi-attribute ap-proach to attitude measurement.A further reason for analysing responses to

Aboriginal tourism products is because thehistory of Aboriginal enterprise in tourism hasnot been one of unbroken success. Indeed, ofthe products identi®ed in the Commonwealthof Australia's 1994 publication, `A Talent forTourism', some had begun to experienceoperational dif®culties by 1998. Desert Tracks,although operating in the Pitjantjatjara±


Aboriginal Tourism 17

Angatja land on the Northern Territory±SouthAustralia borders, was being directed fromByron Bay on Australia's east coast and wascutting back on its programme. Manyallaluk,northeast of Katherine in the Northern Terri-tory, although a past prize winning venturewinning Brolga and other Industry Awardsbetween 1993 to 1996, in 1998, under a changeof management, began to experience dif®cul-ties. Jumbana Design, the company behind thefashion label Balarinji and originally inspiredin part by the traditions of the Yanyuwapeople, continued, in 1998, to be successful,but that success was accompanied by somecontroversy. It had moved from South Aus-tralia to Sydney, New South Wales, to bettertap larger commercial markets, and increas-ingly was using non-Aboriginal designers tocreate contemporary Aboriginal designsÐnotably the painting of two Qantas jumbo jets.Another company, featured in the 1994 pub-lication, Brambuk Living Cultural Centre, hadopened in 1991 after 10 years of negotiationbetween Aboriginal peoples of southwestVictoria as represented through six Aboriginalco-operatives plus the Portland, Hamilton andHeywood Aboriginal Communities. By 1998two of the original Koori communities haddropped out of the venture. This chequeredhistory of success may be explained by manyvariables, but among them may be the issuethat the high levels of tourist interest that isassumed in governmental and pseudo-govern-mental reports may be more apparent thanreal.Certainly it has become clear that there is

little real research underlying the nature ofAboriginal tourism in Australia. Van Ooster-zee, undertaking research for the Centre forIndigenous Natural and Cultural ResourceManagement, Darwin, in personal communi-cation with the authors, con®rmed this lack ofempirical data. There does exist, however, amore general research literature about culturaltourism and eco-tourism in general and inAustralia (e.g. Ceballos-Lascurain, 1987;Wheeller, 1991, 1993; Blamey, 1997; Clarke,1997; Burton, 1998; Mason and Moore, 1998).This study reports ®ndings from a ®rst stage

of research undertaken in Katherine, NorthernTerritory in 1997 which was subsequentlycontinued later in 1998 in Alice Springs and

Uluru (Ayers Rock) in Central Australia and isbased upon work reported earlier by Ryan andHuyton (1998). Ryan and Huyton devised aquestionnaire that was based upon the moti-vations identi®ed by the Beard and Raghebleisure motivation scale (Beard and Ragheb,1980; Ragheb and Beard, 1982). The question-naire, however, contained a mix of activitiesthat corresponded to leisure motivations and anumber of settings within which those motivescould be ful®lledÐsuch locations being se-lected from Northern Territory tourist destina-tions. Thus, for example, intellectual motiveswere assessed by questions relating to learningabout Aboriginal culture, visiting rock art sites,or learning about fauna and ¯ora. Physical/competency needs brought activities such ascanoeing and camping to the fore. The ques-tionnaire had six sections. First, a section aboutlength of stays in Australia and the NorthernTerritory and tours taken. Second, a list ofactivities and the importance of these tovisitors. Third, a list of places and the questionwhether the respondent had, or intended tovisit these. Next respondents were asked torecord their satisfaction with their experienceusing the items of the second section and aseven-point Likert-type scale with a non-response option. The ®nal sections of thequestionnaire related to ratings of attractive-ness of a list of possible tourism products and®nally a section eliciting socio-economic data.The results used in this study are derived fromthe second section of the questionnaire.The questionnaire was completed by 471

respondents (of whom 99 were overseasvisitors) in Katherine, Northern Territory inApril 1997 (Figure 1). Katherine was selectedbecause it is a signi®cant tourist location in itsown right while being on the route connectingthe Central Desert region, with its tourist iconsof Uluru (Ayers Rock), with the `Top End', andits attractions of Darwin and Kakadu NationalPark. Additionally, although having Aborigi-nal tourism products such as the SpringvaleCorroberee and Nitmiluk Tours (Zeppel,1998), it offers activities such as a visit toKatherine Gorge (Nitmiluk), where it is possi-ble to either canoe or take a boat trip down theriver. It represents therefore a microcosm ofthe type of experiences for which manyvisitors come to the Northern Territory.



The original study was motivated by a wishto assess the level of interest, and who had thatinterest, in Aboriginal tourism products. Whenasked to rate the level of attraction of variouslocations and tourism attributes of the North-ern Territory, respondents rated the ®rstAboriginal tourism-based activity (seeing rockart) at 15th place on the list. It was out-rankedby features relating to National Parks, a senseof the outback and space, and productsrelating to adventure and eco-tourism, suchas canoeing. Even seeing crocodiles rated asbeing of more importance to tourists thanexperiencing Aboriginal tourism products.Thus the cluster analysis was an attempt tode®ne if there was any speci®c grouping thatrepresented the market for Aboriginal tourism.

It was concluded that two groups representeda potential market. These were termed, as aresult of a cluster analysis (Ryan and Huyton,1998), (i) the active information seekers and (ii)the comfort/intellectual seekers. Both seg-ments, who formed about 40% of the sample,had higher than average scores for interest inproducts such as tours to see rock art sites,Aboriginal guided tours and Aboriginal danceperformances. It was noted, however, thatthese groups had high scores in other areastoo. It was reasoned the active informationseekers were a group of tourists who wished toexperience and sample the quintessentialNorthern Territory life-style, geography andculture. For these visitors the Aboriginalcomponent was but one component of all the

Figure 1. Map of Australia showing location of Katherine, the survey site, and other places mentioned in thetext



other things that de®ned or represented thispart of Australia. The Aboriginal culture wasseemingly considered as at one with theterrain, the harshness of the environment, thesettler history, the fauna and the ¯oraÐit allformed an entity. From the practical marketingperspective it meant that Aboriginal tourismproducts were competing with all the otherproducts and thus had to be as professional asthese others, and probably were not in aposition to command a pricing premium.Nonetheless, there may be an attempt to doso as, in personal communication, Zeppelcomments that most Aboriginal day tours arealso very expensive at A$240 to A$400 a day.By comparison, day trips to places such asLitch®eld National Park can be had for aboutA$90. On the other hand, the authors know ofcheaper tours and Aboriginal-based tourismproducts in the Northern Territory. The priceis also in part due to transport costs, as someAboriginal communities are located far fromthe main highways. It is not the purpose of thispaper to discuss pricing policy, but it doesremain an issue for such tourism.Although con®rming the lower estimates of

those having an interest in Aboriginal tourism(NTTC, 1994), the signi®cance of Ryan andHuyton's (1998) work lies in pointing out thatthose interested in Aboriginal tourism are alsolikely to have a strong level of interest in otheraspects of their holiday as well. For thesetourists, the Aboriginal component is but oneperspective of their total holiday experienceÐit is not the sole component.For the purposes of this paper an alternative

approach was adopted to analyse the data.Factor analysis seeks to identify underlyingthemes and to separate and clarify the data insuch a way that any correlation that existsbetween the factors and the items that com-prise those factors is minimised. Like mostmultivariate techniques it examines only asingle relationship at a time. Linear structuralrelationships or structural equation modellingon the other hand seeks to explain thestructure or pattern of a series of interrelateddependence relationships simultaneously be-tween a set of latent constructs (which may bede®ned as unobserved, non-measurable ortheoretical dimensions such as a factor orcluster) and a set of one or more manifest

(observed, empirical or measurable) variables.One attraction of the technique is that it cantake account of a situation where one depen-dent variable becomes an independent vari-able in a subsequent dependence relationship.A common use of the technique is to con®rmexploratory factor analysis. In this instance thesoftware package EQS was used to re-examinethe factor analysis reported by Ryan andHuyton (1998), to assess in particular therelationship between visitor interest inNational Parks and Aboriginal tourism pro-ducts. It could be hypothesised that these twoelements characterise the main components ofthe tourist attractions of the Northern Terri-tory. Given that the researchers were wantingto subsequently undertake research at Uluru±Kata Tjuta National Park, where it might beargued a more explicit relationship betweenAboriginal culture and National Parks exists, itwas decided to try to explore this relationshipfurther within the data derived from a study atKatherine. Reisinger and Turner (1999) notethat `A path diagram should show all causalrelationships. The number of causal pathsshould be theoretically justi®ed', but Figure 2breaks this rule. This is simply because thenumber of items used in the total question-naire numbered 30 and thus a complexdiagram resulted. As noted, the hypothesis tobe tested was that the correlation between thedimensions of National Parks with theirassociated items of vastness, a sense of spaceand an opportunity to learn about ¯ora andfauna was correlated with a dimension ofAboriginal tourism products. The ®rst stagewas simply to assess whether this form ofanalysis would produce any additional ®nd-ings, for if this was the case then it would beuseful to examine the data more closely. Figure2 is a summary of the result. For the purposesof this paper it was suf®cient to encouragefurther analysis, and it is this analysis thatforms the main subject matter of this article.The method used to derive Figure 2 was

based on the use of covariance data as input,using maximum likelihood estimates (MLE).Two reasons dictated this; ®rst the sample waslarge, and it is generally felt that for structuralmodelling sample sizes should be between 100and 200 (Hair et al., 1995). However, MLE canbe used with larger samples than this. Second



MLE may be used to estimate parametersunder the assumption of multivariate normal-ity and is robust against departures fromnormality. The w2 statistic was 16.69 based on8 degrees of freedom, which was just signi®-cant (normal theory estimated least squares(ELS) for this solution being w2 = 15.45). None-theless Figure 2 can be regarded as exploratoryonly, for a number of reasons. First, with asample size of 471 the data became toosensitive and the ®t was poor. Even deletingsome items that had low weightings and usinga cut-off point of 0.6 on weightings, meantpoor results on the indices of goodness of ®t.Poor goodness-of-®t measures are problematicin the range of 0.5±0.6, as they provideevidence neither for nor against the modelbeing conceptualised. The comparative ®tindex (Bentler, 1990) has the advantage of thenon-normed ®t index, in re¯ecting ®t for a

wide range of sample sizes, and is computedas:

CFI � 1ÿ �rk=�ri

where

�rk � max��nQk ÿ dk�; 0�based on the model of interest and

�ri � max��nQi ÿ di�; �nQk ÿ dk�; 0�and where nQi and nQk are values of the nulland substantive models and di and dk theassociated degrees of freedom associated witheach (Bentler and Wu, 1995, p. 93).The Bentler±Bonett normed ®t index is

computed for any particular ®tting function as

NFI � 1ÿQk=Qi

where Qk and Qi are the values of the ®ttingfunction obtained at k for the model and thecorresponding i for the independence model

Figure 2. Overall Sample Non-Standardised weights. Comparative Fit Index 0.703 Bentler-Bonett Normed FitIndex 0.685



respectively. The functions refer to specialisedfunctions derived from those available in EQS.They are thus derivations of the w2 statisticassociated with the model of uncorrelateditems (see Bentler and Wu, 1995). Bentler andWu (1995, p. 93) note that `Values of NFIgreater than .9 are desirable.' To some extentthese ®gures parallel coef®cients of correlationand hence, as noted, the model is problematicwith its mid-point values. As noted above acontributory factor to this was the non-normaldistribution of some of the data being used.The data were derived from Juster scales(Juster, 1966; Gruber, 1970; Gendall et al.,1991) because (i) the literature reports highcorrelation between statements from suchscales and subsequent action; and (ii) suchscales in part obviate the need for non-response options (Ryan and Garland, 1999). It

is suggested that such scales may haveincreased the level of skew and variance, butit should be noted that this is no more than asuggestion and these data have not beenanalysed to explore this contention.The removal of poorly described relation-

ship paths to create a `sounder' model, how-ever, is more an act of judgement than anaction based on sound statistical theory. An-other problem was that the data were subjectto skew as tourists generally express moderateto high levels of interest for most items. Thedata are shown in Table 1. Although general-ised least-squares methods can adjust for theviolation of such conditions, Figure 2 didindicate some interesting relationships notinitially clear in the factor analysis reportedby Ryan and Huyton (1998).Thus, in spite of these dif®culties the

Table 1. Mean scores and standard deviations for items used (n = 471). Items arranged by level of kurtosisa

JusterMean

Standarddeviation Skew Kurtosis

Conduct business 0.77 2.12 2.94 7.68Visit Places that are different 8.06 1.91 ÿ2.66ÿ 7.33Visit National Parks 8.04 1.78 ÿ2.39ÿ 6.33Go hunting 0.92 2.24 2.55 5.55See Katherine Gorge 7.54 2.46 ÿ1.93ÿ 2.95The warm sunny climate 7.30 2.55 ÿ1.59ÿ 1.64See memorable sun sets 7.11 2.46 ÿ1.39ÿ 1.18Visit Yellow Waters 7.04 2.83 ÿ1.45ÿ 0.93Satisfy sense of adventure 6.70 2.76 ÿ1.12ÿ 0.28Swim in fresh water pools 6.70 2.92 ÿ1.16ÿ 0.18Experience vastness of space 6.73 2.81 ÿ1.12ÿ 0.13Go bushwalking 6.25 2.90 ÿ0.88ÿ ÿ0.36ÿSee crocodiles 6.08 2.71 ÿ0.66ÿ ÿ0.54ÿVisit friends and family 2.36 3.70 1.07 ÿ0.71ÿMake new friends 6.04 2.90 ÿ0.68ÿ ÿ0.66ÿLearn about fauna 5.83 2.97 ÿ0.66ÿ ÿ0.67ÿView Aboriginal rock art 5.94 2.84 ÿ0.59ÿ ÿ0.73ÿBathe in hot springs 6.04 3.21 ÿ0.76ÿ ÿ0.81ÿSee kangaroos 5.52 3.30 ÿ0.49ÿ ÿ1.17ÿSee Ayers Rock 6.01 3.79 ÿ0.75ÿ ÿ1.23ÿBuy authentic aboriginal souvenirs 3.57 3.25 0.39 ÿ1.24ÿVisit Alice Springs 5.63 3.66 ÿ0.57ÿ ÿ1.33ÿSee aboriginal music and dance performance 4.36 3.27 0.01 ÿ1.34ÿGo on aboriginal guided tours 4.42 3.42 ÿ0.05ÿ ÿ1.46ÿHave good hotel/motel accommodation 4.08 3.47 0.13 ÿ1.49ÿCamp under the stars 5.08 3.63 ÿ0.31ÿ ÿ1.55ÿCanoeing/kayaking 3.76 3.64 0.30 ÿ1.56ÿGo on an outback tour 4.21 3.71 0.06 ÿ1.65ÿa Juster scale ranges from 0 to 9, with 9 representing 90% probability or more of participation in item.



®ndings yielded suf®ciently interesting resultsto merit an analysis by smaller comparativesamples. Figure 2 represents a recursivemodel, where, following conventional prac-tice, the items (factors) are latent variables andare drawn in circles and the observable itemsdirectly measured by respondent scores aredrawn in quadrangles. The values on thesingle-headed arrows have been presented asnon-standardized regression weights. It can beseen, for example, that although latent variableF6 (National Parks) retained its original senseof places that were different, it is to be notedthat this conceptualisation (F2) could beseparated out and a relationship between`National Parks' and the location for adventuretourism (F5) could be identi®ed. The factor ofAboriginal tourism products identi®ed in theoriginal work by Ryan and Huyton (1998),which used varimax factor analysis, couldlikewise be teased into a series of relationshipsbetween those products with interaction withAboriginal people (F1) and those such as `rockart' (a measured variable), which was looselyrelated with National Parks. Thus F4 wasnamed Art/Culture, re¯ecting the relationshipbetween place, heritage and art that is to befound among Aboriginal people. A weakrelationship seemed to exist between souve-nirs and a dimension based on Ayers Rock andAlice Springs (F3). The standard errors asso-ciated with the latent variables had valuesbetween 0.14 and 0.35. The implications of thepoor ®t of the data are commented uponbrie¯y below. It could be hypothesised thatthese tenuous relationships might arise be-cause the sample was far from homogeneous,as revealed by the above-mentioned clusteranalysis (Ryan and Huyton, 1998). Indeed, animportant determinant might simply be thedifferences in attitudes towards Australiantourism products between domestic and over-seas visitors.This relationship was then examined. It has

been stated that the data exceed that recom-mended by Hair et al. (1995) for structuralanalysis. As noted, a complicating issue wasthe number of items being used. There were atotal of 30 relating to Territory tourist experi-ences and the use of a multi-attribute approachmeant that each item was used twice in adifferent setting. A number of other questions

were also asked, yielding a total of 103 itemsper respondent in the total data set. Hence tosimplify the analysis, it was assumed from theabove results and those reported by Ryan andHuyton (1998) that a difference would existbetween overseas visitors and domestic tour-ists on a model where the dependent variablewas interest in visiting an Aboriginal commu-nity which, although catering for tourists, didnot provide speci®c tourist accommodationbeyond that which could be described as basicbut comfortable. Such a place offered anopportunity for visitors to interact with Abori-ginal people during an overnight stay as aguest in a stable communityÐin fact the modelborne in mind was that of Manyallaluk, whichoffered this type of opportunity. The indepen-dent variables were classi®ed as existing ofthree categories. First, an interest in Aboriginaltourism as expressed through visiting rock artsites, seeing a dance performance, being takenon a tour conducted by Aboriginal people andbuying authentic souvenirs. Such interest doesnot necessarily translate into the overnight stayjust described. The second category was an`Adventure' orientation. This was measuredby a wish to go into the outback, camping inthe outback at night and canoeing. The thirdcategory was an interest in `Nature' asmeasured by items relating to visiting NationalParks, learning about ¯ora and fauna andseeing crocodiles. Although other itemsappeared on the questionnaire these wereselected on the basis of seemingly having highdiscriminatory values when analysing thedata. As discussed previously, Figure 2 showsthat these variables are interrelated. The ®nalmodels are illustrated with results in Figure 3.The ®rst stage in the analysis was to ensure

that for each subsample of domestic andoverseas visitors the derived categories werestatistically strong. The alpha coef®cients forthe Aboriginal items were `satisfactory' at 0.79for both subsamples, and that for adventure`moderate' at 0.57 for overseas visitors and 0.53for Australian residents. The `nature' categorywas weak at about 0.2. This was to be expected.Figure 1 shows that the Northern Territory hasa strong appeal for being `different' and`vast'Ðbut these attributes hold for bothoverseas and domestic tourists. This also wasreported in a study of crocodiles as a tourist



attraction reported by Ryan (1999). The itemsof seeing crocodiles and learning about ¯oraare stronger discriminators between overseastravellers and domestic tourists, but correlatemore weakly with National Parks, perhapsbecause it is possible to do nature-basedactivities outside of National Parks. However,because discriminatory items were beingsought in order to distinguish between over-

seas and domestic tourists, these items wereused in the analysis.The second stage was to ensure that linear

relationships existed between the categoriesand the dependent variable in order to ensurethat the use of regression techniques wasappropriate. This was achieved by using theplot subcommands within regression inSPSS2. The Aboriginal and adventure items

Figure 3. Coef®cients of correlation relationships



were clearly linear, the nature item less so. Theresults are described in Figure 3. It should benoted that the respective sample sizes were 99for the overseas subsample and 239 for theAustralian subsample.For overseas visitors the separate correlation

between each of the items is shown on the linedrawn between the category and the depen-dent variable described as ìnterest in Abori-ginal communities tourist attractions'. Thus foroverseas visitors the coef®cient of correlationbetween this dependent variable and otheritems of interest in Aboriginal tourism pro-ducts is 0.50 (p< 0.001). The ®gures below thecategories show the coef®cients of correlationbetween each of the classi®cations. Thus, foroverseas visitors the coef®cient of correlation is0.32 between Àboriginal items' and `Nature',but 0.62 for the relationship between Àbori-ginal items' and Àdventure'. It is to be notedthat generally the relationships are `stronger'for the overseas group than for the domesticgroup. It also should be mentioned that most,but not all relationships were at a level wherep< 0.05Ðthe exceptions being the links invol-ving `Nature'. The coef®cient of determinationfor both subsamples using ìnterest in realAboriginal communities tourist attractions' asthe dependent variable is approximately thesame at about 0.30, but the standard meanerror is less for the overseas sample.These results support the evidence derived

from cluster analysis by Ryan and Huyton(1998), who, as described above, reported thatthe main level of interest in Aboriginal tourismwas demonstrated by a group termed àctiveinformation seekers'. An analysis of the socio-demographics composition of this group re-vealed that two-thirds were overseas visitors.Ryan and Huyton also noted that the samplewas two-thirds female. When the analysis wasundertaken for a much smaller group offemale, young, overseas visitors the correlationbecome much higher, as might be expected,but is problematic in that the sample size isreduced to 60 owing to problems relating tomissing data.Thus this approach con®rms the original

®nding that tourists who have an interest inAboriginal tourism are likely to have anequally high level of interest in the naturalenvironment of the Territory and the possi-

bilities for adventure tourism. This is to beexpected, however, if one assumes internalconsistency in respondents' patterns of replies.Other reasons include, ®rst, the dataset beinganalysed for this paper is the same used byRyan and Huyton (1998). Second, research onbehalf of the Northern Territory TouristCommission into the nature of the Territory'sattractions has supported the contention thatpeople are attracted to the Territory by reasonof it being different, vast, and offering a uniquelandscape (AGB-McNair, 1996; Ryan, 1998c).Visitation to National Parks is high, with eachof the major Parks attracting over 220 000visitors per year (Parks and Wildlife Commis-sion of the Northern Territory, 1997). Thepractical implication of such ®ndings is thatit would be a mistake to regard visitors asamateur anthropologists seeking a detailedunderstanding of Aboriginal peoples and theirculture. Demand for arts and crafts is high, asevidenced by current levels of expenditure,but for as many as 60% of visitors to theTerritory, interest in Aboriginal culture is low.Of the remaining 40%, their interest in Abori-ginal culture is akin to their interest in otheraspects of the TerritoryÐall form part of amosaic of experiences that create the unique-ness of the Territory. The competition is thushigh for the `tourist dollar', and hence anyAboriginal tourism product has to compete bybeing as ef®cient and professional as thoseoffered by other competitors. The success ofthe Tjapukai Dance Theatre in Kuranda, NorthQueensland, proves that visitors will pay forsuch products. Yet, and this is where thecurrent work of Pearce (1998) is of interest,does that success indicate a real interest inAboriginal culture per se, or is it simply aninstance of a professional entertainment beingable to attract an audience by reason of beingin a high-¯ow tourist destination? Is it akin tothe magician's illusion shows on the GoldCoastÐsuccessful by reason of proximity toaudience and high levels of professionalismaided by spectacular lighting effects?Does this matter? The answer must be `yes',

as governmental bodies have seeminglywished to encourage Aboriginal communitiesto consider tourism as a source of income andemployment. It must be noted, however, thatsuch a wish is increasingly being tempered by



at least two factors. First, as noted by the NTTCMasterplan:

It is acknowledged that growth in Abori-ginal tourism should occur at a pacedictated by Aboriginal people themselvesotherwise this aspect of tourism could bejeopardised (NTTC, 1994, p. 53).

Second, the actual Aboriginal and SpecialProject Development Of®cers of the NorthernTerritory Tourist Commission have expressed,what to the authors, are very realistic views asto the actual opportunities available. Forexample, although East Arnhem Land is acentre of Aboriginal traditional culture, itsvery inaccessibility to major tourism ¯owsmust temper the more ambitious tourismprojects that are sometimes voiced. Such policyimplementation at ground level, with itsconcerns for long-term social and ®nancialsustainability, will recognise the realities oftourist interest and thus, hopefully, protectAboriginal communities from unsustainablebouts of optimism about tourist interest inAboriginal culture.Ryan and Huyton (1998) noted another

factor of importance. If Aboriginal tourismproducts are but part of a total Territoryproduct for 40% of the market, then oneimplication might be that to reach a largermarket share other products may acquire aveneer of Àboriginalisation' so as to create aùnique selling point'. Certainly there is wide-spread use of Aboriginal art styles being usedin brochures for products where no Aboriginalinvolvement is engaged; for example in ad-vertising tours to Kakadu National Park. Ryanand Huyton (1998) comment:

Finally, such a recommendation to devel-op mainstream tourism products withAboriginal culture being offered as anàdded value' is itself an option that needsto be explored carefully. It contains withinit the seeds of simpli®cation, the commo-dization of culture and the risk of a loss ofcontrol by Aboriginal people.

Currently further work is being carried outon visitor interest in Aboriginal culture.Zeppel, for example, is conducting workfunded by the Australian Research Councilinto the development of Aboriginal-based

tourism. In March and April of 1998 theauthors began the collection of data frominterviews with visitors in Alice Springs andthe Uluru±Kata Tjuta National Park. At thesame time it was announced that the NorthernTerritory Tourist Commission had gainedfunding of A$54 000 to speci®cally study theattitudes of international visitors to Aboriginaltourism. To develop a tourism product from anindigenous peoples' culture can only requiresensitivity, co-operation and an understandingof what it is people requireÐboth from thosewho will bestow their knowledge, and thosewho seek that knowledge. How dif®cult thiscan be is evidenced byMcKercher and du Cros(1998)Ðwho sought the Aboriginal experienceof Uluru, but still found only Ayers Rock! It is atruism to say that signi®cant implications mayexist for Aboriginal people as a result of theways in which they become involved intourism. The authors are also very mindful ofthe fact that as non-Aboriginal people writingof Aboriginal tourism, their ability to entersuch a discourse is constrained by a lack ofknowledge about values ascribed by Aborigi-nal peoples to their sites. Thus this researchhas sought to con®ne itself to measures of, andenquiries into, the attitudes of tourists ingeneral to the Northern Territory, and theirperceptions of the importance of tourist pro-ducts based on Aboriginal culture. Nonethe-less, it is thought important to do this for ifAboriginal people act on general assumptionsthat all visitors have a strong interest in theirculture, then, should this not be the case,aspirations may be defeated, and the resultantdisappointment mean that future acts in theaf®rmation of the values of Aboriginal culturesmay be all the more dif®cult to undertake.From a more prosaic stance, it may be arguedthat basic market research is also important forany business, and perhaps this paper mayoffer help of that nature.Finally, it should be noted that although the

results possess an ìntuitive sense', the datasetis problematic, as has been noted throughoutthe paper. The goodness of ®t is ambivalent atbest, the raw data does not conform to normaldistributions and there are, for some items,high levels of skew and kurtosis. The size ofthe dataset, as noted by Hair et al. (1995) is alsoproblematic for this application. Linear struc-



tural modelling also assumes that there is lowcorrelation between emerging latent variables,and this assumption is also `strained' if notbroken within the results. It has been notedthat a `National Parks' factor emerges, whichlinks with locations for `Adventure tourism'and `Art and culture'. Within the context oftourists in Australia this is very understand-able. As indicated, activities such as canoeingtake place in such Parks, but tourists may belearning about an Aboriginal viewpoint thatdoes not simply see natural settings as aes-thetic places, but as the homes of spirits andancestors, which are portrayed in art andwhich guide them in their travels. Addition-ally, National Parks are heavily promoted bystate tourist commissions as places to visit fortheir ecological values. National Parks thusrepresent a nexus of different cultures; Wes-tern concepts of the hedonistic and scienti®c,and Aboriginal concepts of identi®cation ofself with place as living entities. Everitt andDunn (1991, p. 263) note that:

Before an attempt can be made to estimatethe parameters in a covariance structuremodel, the identi®cation problem must beconsidered. Essentially this concernswhether a knowledge of the covarianceof the observed variables, � (in terms of itssample estimate, S) allows unique esti-mates of the unknown parameters in themodel.

No matter how the authors sought to de®nethe model, problems of correlation of the typeindicated emerged. The question thus arises asto why attempt to analyse the data in this way.Partly, to be honest, because the authors havebeen in¯uenced by the growing popularity ofsuch causal analysis and have expressedconcern that it has not been used more in thetourism literature. More importantly though,successful modelling creates parsimoniousdescriptions of sets of correlations, and whatKuveri and Speed (1982) term `conditionalindependence statements'. Are the linkages tolatent factors that are hypothetical constructsof the researcher of use? Lenk (1986) respondsby saying that the answer is a resoundingÐsometimes! In this instance, in spite of thedif®culties, the suggested solution is one thathighlights some important aspects of tourist

attitudes towards indigenous Australia and itstourism products. First, there is an interest, butit tends to adopt a holistic view of what theoutback is, and that Aboriginal culture islocated within this context. It continues aportrayal of Aboriginal people in a `safe' otherlocationÐexotic perhaps, but it is arguable stillan image of an exotic other. In the minds ofthese authors it con®rms the wisdom of, forexample, ATSIC trying to create more compleximages of Aboriginal people in its poster seriesthat shows Aboriginal people in contemporaryas well as traditional situationsÐin wealth aswell as in poverty. Yet it is interesting to notethat at the same time there does seem to berecognition of a new way of looking at naturalsettings by at least part of the tourist commu-nityÐthat National Parks are spiritual placesas well as scienti®c locations. That it isarguably the overseas tourist who is moreinclined to do this re¯ects, the authors believe,a question of samplingwithin this study. Theredo exist the Australian counterparts of thosemore sensitive overseas tourists. This study isthe ®rst part of what are planned to be aseries of papers emanating from three sep-arate studies conducted in the period 1996to 1998, and it is hoped to be able to analysethe resultant databases over time whenother responsibilities permit. It is believed thatthe questions of how to present Indigenoustourism products are important, and that theyare not con®ned to Aboriginal Australiaalone.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors wish to acknowledge fundingprovided by the Northern Territory Universitythat enabled this study to proceed. The helpprovided by the staff of the Nitmiluk NationalPark permitting access to undertake the inter-views is also acknowledged, as is that of staffof Travel North, Katherine, Northern Terri-tory, students of the Northern Territory Uni-versity and staff from the Northern TerritoryTourist Commission. However, the interpreta-tion remains solely the responsibility of theauthors. The interest of Professor Terry DeLacy, Director of the Co-operative ResearchCentre for Sustainable Tourism, Grif®th Uni-versity, is also acknowledged and appreciated.



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