Aboriginal Children’s Sport Participation in

Canada

Leanne C. FindLay HeaLtH anaLysis and MeasureMent Group

statistiCs Canada

daFna e. KoHen HeaLtH anaLysis and MeasureMent Group

statistiCs Canada

We would like to acknowledge Philippe Finès and Rochelle Garner for their assistance in thepreparationofthismanuscript,aswellasJulieBernier,NancyZukewich,HeatherTaitandSelmaFordfortheirinsightfulcomments.

186 Pimatisiwin

AbstractPhysicalactivitycanbeviewedasaproactivehealthpromotionstrategy

intermsoftherelativebenefitsincurredforbothphysicalandmentalhealth.ThepurposeofthispaperwastoexaminesportparticipationasoneaspectofphysicalactivityforAboriginalchildrenandtoprovideacomparisonofAboriginalchildreninCanadawhodoanddonotparticipateinsportoutsideofschool.Usingasocio-ecologicalapproach,variousfactorswereexploredaspotentialcorrelatesofsportbehaviour.FindingsfromtheAboriginal Peoples Survey 2001(Children’scomponent),suggestthat65%ofAboriginalchildrenwerereportedtoengage insportat leastonceperweek.Results indicatedthatAboriginalchildrenwhoparticipateinsportweremorelikelytobemale,havemoreeducatedparents,andcomefromtwo-parenthouseholds.Inad-dition,sportsparticipationwasmorelikelyifthechildwaslivingoff-reserveandifthechildwasMétisorInuitascomparedtoFirstNations.�Thefind-ingssuggestthatAboriginalchildrenareactivelyengaginginsport,althoughdemographic,environmental,orculturalfactorsmayaffectratesofpartici-pation.

IntroductionThehealthbenefitsofphysicalactivityarewell-documented.Forchildren

specifically,thesebenefitsincludetheprovisionofopportunitiesforpeerin-teraction,promotionofphysicalhealth(seeBailey,�999;PenedoandDahn,2005),andpositivementalhealth(e.g.,Biddle,�995;McAuleyetal.,2000).However, little is known about patterns of physical activity for AboriginalchildreninCanadawhomayhavedecreasedaccesstofacilitiesorprogramsorwhomaysharewiththeircommunityadifferentperspectiveonphysicalactivity(Thompsonetal.,2000).Inaddition,physicalactivitymaybeparticu-larlybeneficialforAboriginalpeoplesforwhomratesofdiabetesandobesityareaspecificconcern(Macaulayetal.,�997).Childhoodisapertinentage-grouptostudywithintheAboriginalpopulationgiventhatchildrenrepre-sentalargeproportionofAboriginalpeople;inthe200�Census,one-thirdofAboriginalpeopleinCanadawere�4yearsandunder(StatisticsCanada,2003a).Inaddition,behavioursestablishedinchildhoodandadolescencecanhavealastingimpactonlife-longhealth.Thus,thepurposeofthispaperwas

� Respondents self-identified as “North American Indian”; however, the term “First Nations” isusedthroughoutthisdocument.

AboriginalChildren’sSportParticipationinCanada 187

toprovideadescriptionofAboriginalchildreninCanadawhodoordonotengageinsportasonemeansofphysicalactivityengagement.

Sportisaphysicalactivitywhichisdifferentiatedfromleisuretimeac-tivitiesandexercisebyitsemphasisoncompetition(Bouchardetal.,2007).Sportisalsothemostcommonmeansbywhichchildrenengageinphysicalactivity(Tayloretal.,�999).Opportunitiesforsportoccuratschoolinphysi-caleducationclassesandrecesstime,afterschoolwithorwithoutpeers,orinorganized leagues throughcommunity centresorparks.AlthoughMills(�998) highlighted the importance of sport and recreation in the lives ofAboriginalchildrenandyouth,sportparticipationmaybemoreorlessacces-sibleeitherduetoenvironmentalconditions,financialconstraints,oraspectsofthechild’scultureorbackground.Moreover,thereisverylittleempiricalresearchconcerningAboriginalchildren’sparticipationinsportspecifically.

Benefits of Sport Participation for Aboriginal PeoplesPrevious research has shown that Aboriginal People have particular

healthrisks includingelevatedobesity levels (Dennyetal.,2005;Tremblayetal.,2005)andhigherratesofdiabetes(Campbell,2002;Reading,2003).Changes in the lifestyle of Aboriginal Peoples in Canada, including differ-encesindietanddecreasedphysicalactivitylevels,maypartiallyexplaintherapidriseinhealthcareproblems(CobleandRhodes,2006;Retnakaranetal., 2005).However,physical activity canbe consideredas an interventionstrategytodealwithsuchhealthimpairments.Thatis,byincreasingphysicalactivitylevels,theriseinobesityanddiabetesmaybeparticularlyimpacted(CobleandRhodes,2006).

Physical activity and sedentary behaviour, which includes such behav-ioursastelevisionandvideogameusage,havebeenassociatedwithphysicalhealth,morespecificallywithobesity.ResearchwithbothAboriginaladults(Fitzgeraldetal.,�997;CobleandRhodes,2006)andchildren(TremblayandWillms, 2003) has shown a positive effect of physical activity on obesity,whichinturnhasaneffectonotherhealthconditionssuchasdiabetesandcardiovasculardiseaseinadulthood(Rabkinetal.,�997).Incontrast,lessac-tivechildrenwhowatchtelevisionorplayvideogames,havebeenshowntohavehigher levelsofobesity (Andersonet al., �998; TremblayandWillms,2003).Ambiguityexistsintheliteraturewithrespecttotherelationbetweenphysicalactivityandinactivity,withsomestudiessuggestingthathigherlev-els of activity are associated with lower level of inactivity, although otherstudiesshownosuchrelation(Sallisetal.,2000).However,whatisknown

188 Pimatisiwin

isthatgreaterphysicalactivityandlessinactivityareassociatedwithlowerobesitylevels.

Turningtomentalhealthbenefits,participationinphysicalactivityhasdemonstrated benefits for both adults and children alike. McDonald andHodgson’s(�99�)reviewsuggestedthatindividualswhoparticipateinphysi-calactivitygenerallyseeanimprovementinself-esteem,mood,andanxiety.Forchildrenandadolescents,researchisavailablewhichaddressessportpar-ticipationspecifically.Childrenandadolescentswhoparticipateinsporthavebeenshowntohaveincreasedsocialstatus,particularlyforboys(ChaseandDummer,�992),decreasedloneliness(Pageetal.,�992),elevatedself-esteem(JacksonandMarsh,�986),anddecreasedanxiety(FindlayandCoplan,2007;Kirkcaldyetal.,2002).HarrisonandNarayan(2003)foundthatadolescentswhoparticipatedinsportshadhigheroddsoflikingschoolandfeelinggoodaboutthemselves,andloweroddsoffeelingnervousorworriedandofsui-cidalthoughts.Thus,sportparticipationcanalsobeassociatedwithpositivementalhealth.

SpecifictoAboriginalyouth,sportparticipationhasbeentiedtopositiveself-esteemanddecreasedratesofsmokingbehaviour.InoneofthefewstudiesofAboriginalchildren’ssport,Kickett-Tucker(�999)foundthatparticipationinschoolteamsportswaspositivelyrelatedtoself-conceptfor�0to�2yearoldAustralianAboriginalyouth.ItwassuggestedthatAboriginalrolemodelslikeOlympicathleteCathyFreemanprovidedethnicidentificationandpride,and that sport participation was tied to a sense of Aboriginal identity. Intermsofphysicalhealth,Aboriginalyouthwhoparticipateinsporthavebeenshowntobelesslikelytosmokethantheirnon-activepeers(Reading,2003).ThisisparticularlyimportantgiventhatAboriginalyouthhavebeenfoundtohaveahigherprevalencerateofsmokingthantheCanadiannationalaverage(Retnakaranetal.,2005).Therefore,participationinsportinparticularmaybeespeciallyadvantageoustoAboriginalyouthbothintermsoftheimpactonmentalhealthandbydecreasingriskbehaviourssuchassmoking.

Correlates of Physical ActivityWhileratesofparticipationareofinterestinthecurrentstudy,predic-

torsofsportparticipationhaveimplicationsfortargetinginterventionpro-gramsto increasephysicalactivityorsportsparticipation.Social-ecologicaltheorysuggeststhatsocialandenvironmentalcontextsarekeyelementsinpredicting physical activity participation (Sallis and Owen, �999; Stokols,�996).Ratherthantakinganindividualisticapproach,thesocialecological

AboriginalChildren’sSportParticipationinCanada 189

frameworksuggeststhattheindividualisonlyonecomponentindetermin-inghealth-relatedbehavioursandthatbehaviourisdeterminedbysocialandenvironmental correlates. Thesecorrelatesmay include socioeconomic sta-tus,educationlevel,communityresources,andculturallyrelevantsocialsup-portorsocialnorms(FleuryandLee,2006).Assuch,studiesofhealth-relatedbehaviour,includingphysicalactivityandsport,shouldconsidervariousso-cialandenvironmentalfactorswhichmayenableorinhibitindividualsfromparticipating.

A narrative exploration of the literature by Coble and Rhodes (2006)confirmedthatsome individual level factorswereassociatedwithphysicalactivity participation, in addition to important environmental correlates.Agewasnegativelyassociatedwithparticipation,therefore,olderAboriginaladultsparticipatelessfrequently.Mixedresultswerefoundforeducationandemployment,suggestingthatlevelofeducationandemploymentstatusarenotconsistentpredictorsofphysicalactivityinadults.Moreover,maleswerefoundtobemoreactivethanfemales,althoughsomecautionshouldbeex-ercisedininterpretingthisfindingasseverallargesamplestudieshaveshownnogenderdifferences(e.g.,Dennyetal.,2005).

Turningtotheenvironmentalcorrelatesofphysicalactivity,CobleandRhodes(2006)didnotfindasignificantassociationbetweenphysicalactivityandthephysicalenvironment(e.g.,safety,badweather).Thatis,Aboriginalpeoplewerenotmoreorlesslikelytoparticipatebasedontheirphysicalen-vironment.Noresearchwasreviewedregardingtherelationbetweenphysicalactivity and sedentaryor inactivebehaviours.However, the social environ-mentwaspositivelyassociatedwithphysicalactivity;personswithsocialsup-portsuchasknowingotherswhoexerciseorhavingactiveneighboursweremorelikelytoengageinphysicalactivitythemselves.Thus,environmenthadanimportantimpactonphysicalactivityparticipation,yetrelativelylittleisknownregardingthecorrelatesofAboriginalchildren’ssportparticipation.

Anotherdemonstrationoftheimportanceoftheenvironmentonphysi-calactivityorsport istherolethatchanges intheenvironment(i.e., inter-ventions) can have on children’s participation. One such example is theKahnawakeSchoolsDiabetesPreventionProject(KSDPP),acommunity-basedprojecttodecreasetheprevalenceofdiabetesinanAboriginalcommunitybyimprovingeatingandphysicalhabitsandincreasingdiabetesawareness(Macaulayetal.,�997).Paradisandcolleagues(2005)revealedthatobesityandphysicalfitnesswerenotsignificantlyimprovedintheinterventioncom-munity;however,benefitsofparticipationincludedanincreaseintheaverage

190 Pimatisiwin

numberofphysicalactivities.Ofparticularnoteisthehighdegreeofsup-port for theprogramintheAboriginalcommunity, suggestingthat futureresearchevaluate thisandotherprograms’ success rates in termsofusingenvironmentalchangestophysicalactivitylevels.

The Current Study — Aboriginal Children’s Sport Participation in Canada

Giventhelinkbetweenphysicalactivityandsportparticipationandchil-dren’shealth,itwasofinteresttoexaminetherateofAboriginalchildren’ssportparticipationaswellaspredictorsofparticipationinsport.Specifically,familialandenvironmentalvariableswereofinterestgiventhatpreviousre-searchershavesuggestedthatecological factorsmay influencethephysicalactivity and health of Aboriginal people (Adelson, 2005; Campbell, 2002).Data from the200�Aboriginal Peoples Survey (Children’s component)wasexaminedto(a)exploreratesofparticipation,(b)compareparticipantsandnon-participantsintermsofdemographic,environmental,andculturalfac-tors such as Aboriginal identity, and (c) examine the association betweensportsparticipationandparticipationinsedentaryactivitiessuchastelevi-sionviewingandvideogameusage.

MethodsIn 200� (October through December), following discussions with na-

tionalAboriginalorganizationsandgovernmentsectors(federal,provincial,and territorial), Statistics Canada conducted the Aboriginal Peoples Survey(APS)togaininsightintothesocialandeconomicconditionsofFirstNationspeoples,Métis,andInuitinCanada.TheAPSisapost-censalsurvey,mean-ing thatparticipantswereselectedbasedonself-identificationasbeinganAboriginalpersonor reportingAboriginalancestry in the200�Census. Inthe current study, participants were only those individuals who reportedAboriginal identityandnot solelyAboriginalancestry.Participation in theAPSwasvoluntary.Participantswereadvisedpriortoparticipatinginatele-phoneorpersonalinterviewthatCensusinformationwouldbeaddedtothedatacollectedfromtheinterviewandthatallinformationwasconfidential.

SampleThe target population consisted of residents in all �0 provinces and 3

territories,includingthoseinFirstNationcommunities,Métissettlements,Inuitcommunities,andbothurbancentresandruralareas.However,dueto

AboriginalChildren’sSportParticipationinCanada 191

abstentionbysomecommunities,costs,andthesmallsizeandlocationofseveralcommunities,thefinalsamplingframedidnotincludeallcommuni-tiesacrossCanada.Thesampleincluded2�9communities;acompletelistofcommunitiesisavailablefromtheAPS200�User’sGuide(StatisticsCanada,2003b). A significant result of not sampling from all communities is thataggregateestimatesoftheon-reservepopulationarerepresentativeonlyoftheparticipatingcommunities.2As is typicalwithsurveysamples,eachre-spondentrepresentsotherpersonsinthepopulation;therefore,weightingisappliedtothestatisticalanalyses.Initialweightsareadjustedtoaccountfornon-responseandtoeliminatediscrepanciesbetweenkeycharacteristicsofthesampleandthetargetpopulation.

Thechildren’scomponentoftheAboriginal Peoples Surveywasdesignedforchildrenages0to�4;thepersonmostknowledgeable(PMK)aboutthechildrespondedtothequestionnaireontheirbehalf(82%ofthetime,thiswasthebiologicalmotherorfather,5%grandparent,3%auntoruncle,�0%other, e.g., adoptiveparent, sibling, stepparent). The total sample size forthe children’s component of the APS with Aboriginal identity was 33,623children.

MeasuresDemographicquestionsofinterestincludedchildsexandage,thelatter

beinggroupedintoconceptualphasesofearlychildhood(0–4years),mid-

2 CautionshouldbeexercisedingeneralizingthecharacteristicsofthereservesthatparticipatedinAPStotheentireon-reservepopulationinCanada.Thesampleselectionofreservecommuni-tiesforAPSwasnotdesignedtoberepresentativeoftheentireon-reservepopulation.Therewasnorandomnessintheselectionprocessofthereservesandnorandomnessinthereservesthatrefusedtoparticipate.Asaresult,anyaggregationofAPSreservedataisonlyrepresentativeofthereservesthatparticipatedinAPS,andcannotbeconsideredrepresentativeofthetotalon-reservepopulation.However,thedataisavailableatthecommunitylevelforeachreservecommunitythatwasselectedandparticipatedinAPS.

ThesamplingstrategyforAPSthatfocusedonthelargereservecommunitiescovered44%oftheentireon-reservepopulation.InanattempttoevaluatehowcomparablethedatacollectedontheAPS-selectedreservesaretotheentireon-reservepopulation,asmallstudywascarriedout.Socio-economiccharacteristicsofreservesthatparticipatedinthe200�APSwerecomparedtothesamecharacteristicsofthetotalreservepopulationfromthe200�Census.Thevariablesusedinthecomparisonwereasfollows:sex,age(5-yearagegroups),highestlevelofschooling,labourforceactivity,mobilitystatus(oneyear),mothertongue,andhousing.Whilethedifferencesindistributionsarerelativelysmallformostofthecharacteristicsmeasuredinthisstudywiththeexceptionofthemothertonguevariable,thisdoesnotmeanthatsimilardifferenceswouldbeobservedforothercharacteristics.Equally,itdoesnotcoverallcharacteristicsmeasuredinAPS,suchasinformationaboutAboriginalculture,andhealth.

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dlechildhood(5–��years),andtheteenageyears(�2–�4years).PMKhigh-estlevelofeducationwascollapsedintothreegroups:lessthanhighschooleducation,highschooldiploma,andmorethanhighschool.ThePMKalsoreportedwhether the child livedwithoneor twoparents, thenumberofsiblings in thehome,andwhether they lived inanurban, rural,orArcticarea.Urbanareasarerepresentedbyapopulationofgreaterthan�000per-sons.Finally,thePMKreportedthechild’sAboriginalidentity(FirstNations,Métis,Inuit,singleormultipleorigin),andwhetherthefamilylivedonoroffreserve.GroupswerecreatedforFirstNations,MétisandInuitsingleorigin,andacombinedFirstNationsandMétisgroup.3SincetheAPSwasapost-censalsurvey,informationregardinghouseholdincomewasaddedfromthe200�CanadianCensus.

Children’ssportparticipationwasmeasuredbythequestion,“Outsideofschoolhours,howoftendoes play sports (including taking les-sons).”Responseoptions included:never, less thanonceperweek,one tothreetimesperweek,or4ormoretimesperweek;however,datawascol-lapsed to represent two categories: participated at least once per week ormoreversusnon-participationorparticipationlessthanonceperweek(non-participants).Parentswerealsoaskedtoestimatethenumberofhoursperdaytheirchildwatchedtelevisionorplayedvideogames.FurtherinformationregardingquestionnairecontentisavailablefromStatisticsCanada(StatisticsCanada,2003b).

Data AnalysisDatawere examined to compare (usinga chi-square test) thepropor-

tionofchildrenwhowere/werenotparticipatinginsportsbasedonsex,age,parent education, dual/single parent, urban/rural/Arctic, cultural identity,andlivingonoroffreserve.ThelattercomparisonwasforFirstNationschil-drenonly.Previousliteraturesuggeststhatboysandgirlsparticipateinsportatdifferent ratesand thatdeclines in sportparticipationvaryby sex (vanMechelenetal.,2000);therefore,asexbyageinteractionwasexaminedforsportsparticipantsonly.Finally,means(t)testswereperformedtoexaminewhether sports participants as compared to non-participants demonstrat-edanydifferencesbasedonincome,numberofsiblings,andtelevisionandvideogameusage.AnalyseswereconductedusingSASversion9.�.Bootstrap

3 AlthoughsomeindividualsdididentifyasFirstNationsandInuitorInuitandMétis,thesegroupsweretoosmalltoconductseparateanalysis(n=44andn=29respectively).

AboriginalChildren’sSportParticipationinCanada 193

weightswereappliedtoaccountfortheunderestimationofstandarderrorsduetothecomplexsurveydesign(RustandRao,�996).

ResultsIn general, the majority of Aboriginal children were reported to have

participatedinsportoutsideofschoolhoursatleastonceperweek(65%).Specifically,23%ofchildrenwerereportedtoneverparticipate,�2%partici-patedlessthanonceperweek,39%participated�to3timesperweek,and26%engagedinsometypeofsports4ormoretimesperweek.Participantsweremorelikelytobeboysthangirls(seeTable�).Intermsofage,aninter-estingtrendwasshownwherebychildrenaged5–��weremorelikelytopar-ticipateinsportthanwereyouth(ages�2–�4)andyoungerchildren(0–4).Forsportsparticipants,asexbyageinteractiondidnotshowanysignificantdifferencessuggestingthatthedeclineinsportsparticipationforyouthwassimilarforbothboysandgirls.

In terms of family factors, Aboriginal children of parents with higherlevelsof educationandwho livedwith twoparents (as compared toone)weremorelikelytoengageinsport(seeTable�).Acomparisonofmeansin-dicatedthatchildrenwhoparticipatedinsportswereoffamilieswithhigherreportedincomesthanthosewhodidnotparticipateinsports(seeTable2).Inaddition,childrenwhoparticipatedinsportshadfewersiblingsthandidchildrenwhodidnotparticipateinsports.

Turningtogeographicandidentitycorrelates,nodifferencesinratesofparticipationwerefoundforchildrenlivinginurban,rural,orArcticregions(Table�).However,MétisorInuitchildrenhadhigherratesofparticipationthandidFirstNationsorthecombinedFirstNationsandMétisgroup.Inad-dition,FirstNationschildrenlivingoff-reservehadhigherratesofparticipa-tionthandidchildrenlivingon-reserve.4

Thefinalsetofcomparisonsrevealedanassociationbetweensportandchildren’sparticipationinotheractivities.AsshowninTable2,sportspar-ticipantswerefoundtowatchfewerhoursoftelevisionthandidnon-par-ticipants.However,childrenwhoparticipatedinsportalsospentmoretimeplayingvideogamesthandidnon-sportsparticipants.

4 Theon-andoff-reservecomparisonwas restricted tochildrenwho identifiedasFirstNationsonly. InCanada,mostpeople livingon-reserveself-identifyasFirstNations.Thus,tocreateanequivalentdenominator,thoselivingoff-reservewerealsorestrictedtoFirstNationsonly.

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Table 1. Sport Participation in Aboriginal Children and Youth

n

% who participate at least once per

week

% who do not par-ticipate at least once per week

χ2 p

Child DemographicsSex Male �6866 72.85 27.�5 275.�� <.000� Female �6757 62.93 37.07Age 0–4(Youngchild) �0480 53.07 46.93 208.03 <.000� 5–��(Child) �66�0 69.63 30.37 �2–�4(Youth) 6526 67.58 26.33Family DemographicsParental Education Lessthanhighschool �2238 6�.86 38.�4 93.90 <.000� Highschooldiploma 8903 68.�� 3�.89 More than high school

diploma�666 72.20 27.80

Family structure Single-parenthousehold 9858 63.�0 36.90 ��2.83 <.000�Twoparenthousehold 208�4 70.�5 29.85Urban vs rural Urban 202�6 67.76 32.24 6.32 ns Rural ��557 67.52 32.48 Arctic �850 70.95 29.05Aboriginal Identity FirstNations �945� 65.07 34.93 �09.56 <.000� Métis �0248 7�.58 28.42 Inuit �93� 72.�0 27.90 FirstNationsandMétis �250 66.97 33.03Reserve vs off-reservea

Onreserve 4593 62.06 37.94 �8.�3 <.000�Offreserve �4858 66.05 33.95

Note:Bootstrappingtechniqueswereappliedtoaccountforthecomplexsurveydesign. a Reserve/off-reserveanalysiswaslimitedtoFirstNationsonly.

Table 2. Comparison of means based on sport participation (at least once per week)Participants Non-participants

n M SD M SD t pIncome 33623 44,496 36,752 34,645 27,35� -2�.36 <.000�Numberofsiblings 27224 2.67 2.2� 2.89 2.3� 6.�8 <.000�Hoursoftelevision 23458 2.28 �.34 2.56 �.34 �4.68 <.000�Hoursplayingvideogames 23244 �.�7 �.24 �.05 �.�6 -7.�0 <.0�Note:Bootstrappingtechniqueswereappliedtoaccountforthecomplexsurveydesign.

AboriginalChildren’sSportParticipationinCanada 195

DiscussionThe purpose of the current study was to examine rates of Aboriginal

children’s sportparticipationaswellas to investigatecorrelatesofpartici-pation.ThemajorityofAboriginalchildrenwerereportedtoparticipateinsport(65%).ThisrateissimilartotherateforCanadianchildreningeneral(64%of4–�4yearolds,asdeterminedfromtheNationalLongitudinalSurveyofChildrenandYouth,2000/0�).ThesefindingssuggestthatAboriginalchil-drenareequallylikelytoparticipateinsportsasareotherCanadianchildren.However,35%ofAboriginalchildrenwerenotparticipatinginsportatleastonceperweek,whichmayhaveimplicationsforhealthandwell-being.

Despitethebenefitsofsportparticipationforchildren,someAboriginalchildrenandyoutharelesslikelytoparticipate.FromtheresultspresentedinTable�,itwouldappearthatadolescentsandgirlsaremostat-riskfornon-participation.Notunliketheirnon-Aboriginalpeers(Thompsonetal.,2005),itwouldappearthataschildrengetolder, theyare less likelytoengage insport.Adolescenceisatimewhereinindividualsbegintoassertautonomyintheirdecisionmakingandmakelifedecisions(Shafferetal.,2005).Thisisalsoatimewhenlife-longhabitscanbeformed,whichincludeswhetheror not the individual will chose to engage in sport on a regular basis, bethatforhealth/fitnessorpurelyforenjoyment(CentreforResearchinGirlsandWomeninSport,�997).Thus,adeclineinparticipationatthisstageisparticularly problematic since it may be associated with increased risk tohealthoverthelifecourse.SexdifferencesinsportparticipationsuggestthatAboriginalgirlsare less likelytoengage insport.Whiletheresultsparallelfindingsfornon-Aboriginalgirlsversusboys(Sallisetal.,2000),thefindingshighlighttheimportanceofpromotingparticipationforgirlsasastrategyforlifelonghealth.Furtherinvestigationsarewarrantedtoexaminewhethergirlsarelesslikelytoengageinallphysicalactivityorjustsportinparticular.

Aspredictedbythesocio-ecologicalapproach(SallisandOwen,�999),socialandenvironmentalfactorswerefoundtoimpactAboriginalchildren’sparticipation rates. For instance, childrenwhowere participating in sportwerefrommoreaffluentfamiliesandhadparentswithhigherlevelsofedu-cation.Theseresultsarenotsurprisinggiventhateducatedparentsmaybemore likely tobeawareof thebenefitsof sport. Indeed,parental support,whichincludestransporting,observing,andencouragingthechild,hasbeenshowntobesignificantlyassociatedwithchildren’sphysicalactivity(Ornelaset al., 2007; Trost et al., 2003). In addition, children who lived with both

196 Pimatisiwin

parentsandwhohadfewersiblingsweremorelikelytobeparticipatinginsport.Sharedcare-giving,especiallyinlargefamilies,mayfacilitatetimeavail-ableandtravelrequirementsrelatedtochildren’ssportsparticipation.Thatis,dualparentsorfamilieswithfewerchildrenaremorelikelytohavethefinancialandtimeresourcestopermitparticipationinsport(HarrisonandNarayan,2003).Childrenfromlargerfamiliesmayalsohaveotherresponsi-bilitiessuchaschildmindingandhouseholdchoresleavinglesstimeavail-ableforparticipationinsport(BianchiandRobinson,�997).

Withrespecttogeographicdifferences,ourresultssuggestnodifferencesinsportparticipationbetweenAboriginalchildrenwholiveinurban,rural,andArctic regions. Thesefindings confirm thoseofWilcox and colleagues(2000)whofoundthatAmericanAboriginalwomenlivinginurbanascom-paredtoruralareasdidnotsignificantlydifferintermsoftheproportionofthepopulationengaginginregularphysicalactivity.Theresultssuggestthatchildreninurbanareashavegreateraccesstocommunityfacilities(StammandLamprecht,2005),whichfacilitatesparticipation.Childrenlivinginruralorremoteareasmaynothaveopportunitiestoparticipateinabroadarrayofphysicalactivities(Skinneretal.,2006);however,thecurrentstudydemon-stratesthatchildreninrural,urban,andArcticareasparticipateatasimilarleveloverall.

Interesting results were found with respect to Aboriginal identity.Specifically, children livingoff-reservehadhigherratesof sportsparticipa-tionthandidchildrenlivingon-reserve.Reservesarelocatedbothnearur-bancentersandinruralandremotecommunities;however,furtherresearchneedstoexplorepotentialfactorsthatmayinfluenceparticipationbothonreservesandinothercommunities.Theresultsofthisstudyshouldbeinter-pretedwithcautiongiventhattheon/offreserveanalysiswasrestrictedtoFirstNationschildren.Inaddition,theon-reserveresultscanonlybegeneral-izedtothosecommunitieswhoparticipatedintheAPS.

ThecurrentstudyalsorevealedthatMétisandInuitchildrenappeartohavehigherratesofsportsparticipationthandoFirstNationschildrenandthosewho identifiedasbothFirstNationsandMétis.Qualitativeresearchcouldexaminethesedifferencessinceactualratesofsportparticipationmayvarybasedondifferences in theverydefinitionof sport. That is, activitiessuchashunting,snowshoeingandlacrosse,whicharedistinctactivitiestiedtocertainAboriginalgroupsorcultures(Poulter,2005),maynotbecalled“sport”andthuswouldnotbecapturedinthecurrentstudy.Itisalsopossiblethateconomic,environmental,orsocialconditionsspecifictoFirstNations,

AboriginalChildren’sSportParticipationinCanada 197

Métis,orInuitdiffer,althoughfurtherresearchisnecessarytogainanunder-standingofanypotentialdifferences.Thesebroadband“groups”haveprevi-ouslybeenarguedtodifferintermsofhistory,geographiclocation,generalsocioeconomicconditions,andintergovernmentalrelations(HealthCouncilofCanada,2004),andtheimpactofthesedifferencesonsportparticipationwarrantsfurtherresearch.

IntheirethnographicdescriptionofthemeaningofphysicalactivityforAboriginalpeople,Thompsonandcolleagues(2000:724)arguedthat“physi-cal activity is embedded ina complexwebofmeanings that tiepeople totheir family and larger Aboriginal community.” They suggest that physicalactivityandsportrepresentdifferentfacetsofAboriginal life,eachwithitsown meaning and value. For instance, in their ethnographic study it wassuggestedthatexercisingsolelytomaintaingoodhealthmaybeconsideredshamefulandself-servingtosomeAboriginalpeopleduetoanindividualis-tic,versuscollectivist,focus.However,sportparticipationwashighlyvaluedastheplayerwasconsideredtobearepresentativeofthelargerAboriginalcommunity (Thompson et al., 2000). Thus, differences in community andculturalvaluesshouldbeconsideredwheninitiativesto increasechildren’shealthviaphysicalactivityaredeveloped.

It was worthy to note that children who participated in sport alsowatchedfewerhoursoftelevisionperday.Additionalevidencesuggeststhatchildrenwhoengagedinsportsweremorelikelytoparticipateinotherac-tivitiessuchasmusic,clubs,andothercommunityendeavors(FindlayandKohen, forthcoming).While further researchon these typesofactivities isnecessary,itmaybethatchildrenwhoparticipateinsportatleastonceperweekareengagedingeneral;thatis,theyarealsoinvolvedinotheractivitiesintheircommunities,includingsport,culturalactivities,leisuretimegames,etc.Multiplefactorsmaybeatplay;thesechildrenmay(a)haveemotionallyorfinanciallysupportiveparentswhomayencourageactivityinvariousdo-mainsand/orhavetheresourcestosupportparticipation;(b)havecertainpersonalitytraits(e.g.,extroverted)orgrossmotorskillsthatareconducivetobeinginvolvedinsports;or(c)livewithincommunitiesthatprovidemultipleopportunitiessuchascommunitycenters,organizedleagues,andprograms.Thecurrentdatadonotallowforafurtherexaminationofthesepossibilities;however,futureresearchmightinvestigateotherenabling,predisposing,andreinforcingfactorsfacilitatingparticipationinvariousAboriginalcommuni-ties.

198 Pimatisiwin

Finally,thesomewhatsurprisingfindingthatchildrenwhoparticipatedinsportreportedagreaternumberofdailyhoursplayingvideogamesmayberelatedtoincome.Opportunitytoplayvideogamesisconstrainedbybeingabletopurchasetheequipment,andthosefamilieswithsufficientincometopurchasevideogamesmayalsobeabletoaffordparticipationinorganizedactivities(TremblayandWillms,2003).Itisalsopossiblethatchildrenwhoenjoysportsareplayingvideogameswithasports-context,thatis,theyareusingvideogamesasanalternativeoutletforsports“activities.”Forinstance,videogamesbasedonhockeyandfootballmaybeparticularlypopularamongchildrenwhoplaysportsonaregularbasis.

ImplicationsFindingsfromthecurrentstudyhaveimplicationsintermsofrecommen-

dationsforprogramsaimedat increasingsportparticipationinAboriginalchildren. For instance, providing opportunities in sports that are particu-larlytargetedtowardgirlsmaypromotegirls’participationrate.Goranandcolleagues (�998) suggested that sports participation may be less sociallydesirable forgirls as compared toboys. Inaddition,making low-costpro-gramsavailableviacommunitycentresorinfrastructurethatminimizesthecost forparents createsopportunities for children from low-income fami-lies.Partnershipswithlocalschoolboardsincreasetheavailabilityoffacili-ties, suchas gymnasiums,whichalreadyexist in local schoolsbutmaybecurrentlyinaccessibleafterschoolhours.Projectstargetedatsportspartici-pationcouldalsobuildorimprovefacilities,providecoachingbursariesorincentives,andcreatecompetitionsorleagues.Inaddition,Aboriginalchil-drenlivinginremotecommunitiesmayneedsupportfortraveltocommuni-tieswheremoreresourcesareavailable.Finally,supportorencouragementofAboriginalcoacheswouldfostergreaterorganizedsportsopportunitiesforAboriginalchildren.Communitiescanimplementstrategiestoincreasethelikelihoodofparticipationbytargetingspecificgroupssuchasfemales,youthoflowerincomes,andolderyouth.Suchstrategiesshouldfocusonthesocialandenvironmentalbarrierswhichcanbeattributedtoparticipation(SallisandOwen,�999,Stokols,�996).

Thisstudymakesasubstantialcontributiontotheliterature.Itisthefirsttoourknowledgetoexaminesportparticipationusinganationallyrepresen-tativedatasetofAboriginalchildren(althoughsomecautionshouldbetakenregardingtheon-reservepopulation).Inaddition,thislargesampleincludesMétis,Inuit,andFirstNationchildrenlivingbothon-andoff-reserve.This

AboriginalChildren’sSportParticipationinCanada 199

informationwaslargelyusedtofocusonbetweengroupcomparisonsandtoexamineavarietyofsocio-demographiccorrelatesofsportsparticipation.

However,certainlimitationsofthecurrentstudyshouldbenoted.ThemeasureofphysicalactivityreportedintheAPSislimitedinthatitreliedonparentalreportandwasbasedonasinglequestionregardingsportpartici-pation.Futureresearchmightconsideramoredetailedmeasureofsportorofphysicalactivity ingeneralwhichshouldincludeactivitytype,duration,andfrequency.Futureresearchmightalsocollectinformationfrommultiplesources, includingparents, teachers,or self-report, inparticular foryouth.Previous researchershave suggested that self-reportprovides amore accu-rate representation of sports participation for children over the age of �0(Ekelundetal.,2004).

Inaddition,physicalactivityisadynamicandcomplexbehaviourwhichmayvarybyseason(e.g.,winterversussummeractivities)andbytherespon-dent’sperceptionofwhatconstitutesbeingphysicallyactive.Thisisproblem-aticwhenstudyingAboriginalgroupsforwhomphysicalactivitymayhavealternativedefinitionsormeanings(CanadianHeritage,2005).Forinstance,researchersandindividualsalikedifferinopiniononwhetherwalkingcon-stitutesamodeoftransportationoraphysicalactivity.Inthecurrentpaper,weconsidersportparticipationspecificallyandnotgeneralphysicalactivity;however,definitionalissuesneedtobeconsidered.

The final limitation pertains to the APS 200� data specifically and re-sponse bias issues. As mentioned previously, some communities declinedparticipation,orwerenot sampleddue to remotenessor small communi-ty size. Generalizability is limited to those communities for which data isavailable. It is possible that communities not included differ in ways thatareimportanttounderstandwhenconsideringtherelationshipbetweenen-vironmentaldeterminantsandchildren’s sportparticipation.For instance,childrenfromsmallorremotecommunitiesmaybe less likelytohaveop-portunitiesforsportsparticipation.Therefore,somecautionshouldbetakenwhengeneralizingtheresults.Inaddition,aPan-Aboriginalapproachshouldbeavoidedwheninterpretingthecurrentfindingsastheymaybemoreorless applicable to specific communities.Opportunitiesorbarriersmayex-istatthecommunitylevelonly,andthusrecommendationsorinterventionstrategiesmayonlyberelevantinthatdomain.

Thecurrentstudywasintendedtoprovideaprofileofsportparticipa-tionforAboriginalchildreninCanada.Withthis,itishopedthatissueshavebeenhighlightedasimpetusforfuturestudiesofAboriginalchildren,inpar-

200 Pimatisiwin

ticularwithrespecttovariouspredictorsofhealthofwhichsportspartici-pationisonlyone.Intermsoffutureresearchdirections,bothquantitativeandqualitativeresearchisnecessary.Forinstance,qualitativeresearchwouldallowforan in-depthexaminationofbarrierstosportorphysicalactivity,motivationforparticipation,andissuesofaccess.Inaddition, longitudinalstudyisnecessaryforanexaminationofpatternsofsportorphysicalactivityparticipationovertimeaswellastheimpactofparticipationonlong-termhealthoutcomes.

Finally,futureresearchisneededtofurtherinvestigateothercorrelatesofphysicalactivityand/orsportforAboriginalchildreningeneralandatthecommunity level.Each culturehas itsownhistoryandbackgroundwhichmayrelatetothenormsandvalueswithineachindividualAboriginalcom-munity(FrideresandGadacz,2005).Forinstance,inthecurrentstudy,com-parisonsweremadeforFirstNations,Inuit,andMétischildren;however,itwouldalsobeofinteresttoexaminedifferencesbylanguageorbyculturalarea.Aboriginalpeoplesarecharacterizedmorebyculturalcomplexitythanbysameness,aswouldbeimpliedbymakingbroad-bandstatementsaboutAboriginalpeopleingeneral(McMillanandYellowhorn,2004).Thus,whilstthecurrentstudypaintsapictureofAboriginalchildren’ssportparticipationin general, further research is required to understand the complexity andrichnessoftheuniqueculturalaspectsandcommunitydifferencesthatmayexist.

ConclusionPhysicalactivitycanbeconsideredameansofpreventativecareforlong-

termhealth.Assuch,opportunitiesforphysicalactivitysuchassportshouldbeencouragedandactiontopromotephysicalactivityisanecessarypartoflifelonghealthhabits.While65%ofAboriginalchildrenwerefoundtopar-ticipateinsportatleastonceperweek,participationwasfoundtobeinflu-encedbysex,age,familydemographics,andAboriginalidentity.Thesecor-relatesshouldbetakenintoconsiderationnotonlyforfutureresearch,butalsowithrespecttopolicyrecommendations.Programstargetinggirls,ado-lescents,andchildrenoflesseducatedandsingleparentsmaybeparticularlyimportantforincreasedsportsparticipationinAboriginalchildren.However,one must be cautious in generalizing the current results to all Aboriginalchildren.FuturestudiesareneededtoexaminetheroleofcultureandsportforAboriginalpeople, inparticularwithrespecttothedefinitionofsport;individualcommunitiesandtheirvaluetowardsport;andtheuniqueanddi-

AboriginalChildren’sSportParticipationinCanada 201

verseaspectsofAboriginaldailylifewhichimpactphysicalactivityandsportparticipation.

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