‘Abilities are enduring characteristics which

underline a persons potential to acquire skill in one sport or

another’

• Abilities are enduring (long-lasting) characteristics which underlie a person's potential to acquire skill in one sport or another.

• To be skilful in one particular sport requires the person to have a specific profile of abilities.

• Ability is something you are born with, it is innate.

▪ perceptual ability - the ability to detect and use different types of stimuli

▪ conceptual ability - the ability to think through skills quickly

▪ gross abilities - the ability to move the larger parts of the body quickly

▪ fine abilities - the ability to perform delicate movements

▪ kinaesthetic ability - the ability to detect the positions of your limbs in space

Manual dexterity

Finger dexterity

Reaction time

Response orientation

Speed of movement

Response integration

Those that involve processing information and implementing movement

Explosive Strength

Static Strength

Stamina

Dynamic Strength

Trunk Strength

Dynamaic Flexibility

Those that involve movement and often linked to fitness

"The learned ability to bring about predetermined results with maximum certainty, often with the minimum outlay of time or energy or both.“ Knapp

Characteristics of skill

Learned

Aesthetic

Goal Directed

FluentRecognisable Efficient

Consistent

Economic

What perceptual skills does the player on the ball need to be successful?

“ Skill is an organised, coordinated activity in relation to an object or situation which involves a whole chain of sensory, central and motor mechanisms” Welford

• Cognitive – skills that involve thought process and intellectual ability. What to do, which action to use and when!• Perceptual – Skills that involve selecting, interpreting and making sense of information from our senses.• Psych-motor – movement decided upon and controlled by the brain. Mixture of motor and perceptual.

Closed skills

Open skills

Unpredictable environment

Predictable environment

Decisions to be made

No decisions - same skill

Self-paced skills

Externally-paced skills

Performer decides when

to start

Start determined by outside agency

Performer decides speed of movements

Speed of movement

decided by others

Distinct beginning and

end

Repetitive - no beginning and

end

Discrete skills

Continuous skills

Serial skills

Series of discrete skills

Gross skills

Fine skills

Uses large muscle groups

Uses small muscle groups

Input – stimuli to

sense organs

Decide – what

stimuli mean and what to do

Output – motor

programme runs

muscles

A simplified model

Stimulus identification stage Decide what information represents

Response selection stageDecide on an appropriate response

Response programming stageDecide how to organise response

Sense organs

Response selection

Stimulus identificati

on

Response programmin

g

Muscles -moveme

nt

Senses Response selection

Stimulus identificati

on

Response programmin

g

Movement

Feedback

Memory

3 main senses involved in sport4

Eyes/vision/visual sense

Ears/hearing/auditory sense

Touch/proprioception

Body awareness / kinaesthetic sense

Three components/stages

DetectionComparisonRecognition

Idea of single channel hypothesis

Short-term sensory storage

Short-term memory

Long-term memory

STSS – lasts 0.5-1 seconds; requires immediate attention or is lost

STM – only attended information; limited capacity and duration; DCR occurs in STM; rehearsed information goes to LTM

LTM – unlimited capacity; requires rehearsal, meaningfulness, speed of learning and overlearning to be remembered/retrieved

Short-term memory

Long-term memory

Stimulus Perception

Sense organs

Decision Movement

Feedback

(a) A basic information processing system consists of perception, translation and effector control. Explain what you understand by these terms, using appropriate examples from volleyball.

(6 marks)(b) Selective attention is an important

part of information processing. How can a coach improve a player’s selective attention?

(3 marks)

Perception – make sense of incoming information;e.g the ball has left the opposition server’s hand/equiv;Translation – decision making;E.g. the ball is at chest height I will use a

set/volley/equiv;Effector control – motor programme/doing the

movement;Send impulses to the muscular system in order for the

movement to be carried out;E.g hands high/viewfinder/extend the legs. (1 mark for description and 1 mark for appropriate

example)(d) Increase intensity of the stimulus/e.g’s;Motivate and arouse the performer;Highlight/ focus cues;Learn to ignore irrelevant stimulus;

Response time

Movement time

Reaction time

Time taken from initiation of signal to completion of movementTime taken from start of movement to completion of movementTime taken from initiation of signal to beginning of movement

Simple – single stimulus or single responseChoice – several stimuli or responses to be selected fromHick’s Law – more choices more time needed to decide

Choice RT – provide variety of responses – means opponent has to select from many stimuli

Practice – develop as wide a range of actions as possible

Avoid repeating movements/same response – becomes SRT for opponent – easy to react to

Unable to respond to second stimulus until first stimulus has been responded to – because of single channel

Basis of ‘faking’ or ‘dummying’

Give a signal concerning intended movement, then move another way – opponent responds to first signal before responding to second signal, by which time you are long gone!

In team games such as basketball or netball, performers need to make rapid decisions.(i) Give an appropriate example from a team game of simple reaction time and choice reaction time. (2 marks)(ii) The ‘Psychological Refractory Period’ often occurs in team games. Explain, using an example of this from a team game, how and why it occurs. (3 marks)

(i) SRT - movement to whistle/equiv;CRT - movements of own players on court

and who to pass to/equiv;(ii) The use of a deception/fake/dummy/in a

named team game situation/equiv; Only process one item of information at a

time/equiv;Response to later information likely to be

delayed/equiv;Due to responding to first stimulus.

3 functions

Change incorrect responseReinforce correct responseMotivate performer

Intrinsic Extrinsic Knowledge of

results Knowledge of

performance Immediate/

delayed Concurrent/

terminal

Sourced from within Sourced from outside Concerning end result

of action Concerning movement

pattern Before/after

completion During/at end of

action

Swimmers will experience different types of feedback both during and after a performance.

(a) Knowledge of results and knowledge of performance are two types of feedback. Explain these two types of feedback.

(2 marks)

(b) What are the three main benefits of feedback to a swimmer? (3 marks)

(c) What are the characteristics of ‘effective feedback’ for a swimmer?(4 marks)

(a) KR – outcome of action;KP – information about movement/kinesthesis/feel of movement/intrinsic;(b) Correct errors/improve technique/highlight weaknesses;Reinforcement/illustrate success/highlight strengths;Motivation/self-confidence;(c) Process only limited amount of information/succinct/short;Clear information/accurate/correct/relevant/simple;Immediate;Individualised;Different forms – verbal and visual;Intrinsic;Terminal better for beginners/concurrent for elite;Positive for beginners/Negative for advanced;

Executive

(decides)

Effector

(does it)

No feedback. Pre-planned actions.Explains fast, ‘ballistic’

movementsStored as executive programmes

that simply run and cannot be adjusted

Executive Effector

Motor command

Feedback

Feedback involved. ‘Memory trace’ recalls previous correct

responses and initiates movement ‘Perceptual trace’ as a model of

correctness that is adjusted and strengthened through practice.

Does not account for actions too fast for feedback

Does not explain limits of memory

Four relationships (schema) stored for every movement.

1. Initial conditions

2. General motor programme

3. Knowledge of results

4. Sensory consequences

Recall schema provides motor programme – 1 and 2

Recognition schema evaluates responses – 3 and 4

(a) In relation to skilled performance, what do you understand by the terms motor programme and subroutines? Give appropriate examples from a tennis serve.

(3 marks)(b) Schmidt’s schema theory is based on

four sources of information which are used to modify motor programmes. List the four sources of information. (4 marks)

(c) How can a coach organise practices to enable a schema to develop? (3 marks)

(a) Motor programme – Controls movement/set of instructions/made up of subroutines/plan of action stored in memory (long term)/equiv;

Subroutines – Sequences of movement, which are performed automatically/isolated aspects of a movement/practised in parts/equiv;

Grip/footwork/backward swing/forward swing/ball toss/contact with ball/follow through; (minimum of three examples for 1 mark)

(b) (Knowledge of) initial conditions/set up/requirement of skills;

(Knowledge of) response specifications/demands/what is needed;

Sensory consequences/Kinesthesis/Knowledge of Performance/KP;

Movement outcomes/Knowledge of Results/KR;

(c) Practice to be varied/avoid blocked or massed practice/examples;

Should include plenty of information;Should have feedback;Should be realistic to the game/activity;Should include transferable elements;Becoming more challenging/more difficult.

(c) Practice to be varied/avoid blocked or massed practice/examples;

Should include plenty of information;Should have feedback;Should be realistic to the game/activity;Should include transferable elements;Becoming more challenging/more difficult.

(c) Practice to be varied/avoid blocked or massed practice/examples;

Should include plenty of information;Should have feedback;Should be realistic to the game/activity;Should include transferable elements;Becoming more challenging/more difficult.

A relatively permanent change in behaviour

Seen to have occurred in performance of skill

Improvements in performance seen as a learning curve

Learning plateau

little early improvement

Period of rapid improvement

no improvement Performance

deteriorates

Fatigue

Loss of motivation/boredom

Technical deficiencies

If fatigued – Rest/recovery periodsTo motivate - Rewards/goalsLimited skill - Change style/method

of practice or isolate and correct faulty technique

The production of a stimulus produces an appropriate response (associationist or S-R theories)

Conditioning theories - link between stimulus and response (bond) strengthened by reinforcement

Classical and operant conditioning

Positive reinforcement is praise Increases probability of repeat of

behaviour/successStrengthens S-R bondNegative reinforcement also

encourages repeat of successBut involves removal of negative/

unpleasant stimulus when desired response occurs - coach/crowd stop barracking

Punishment is used to stop repeat of undesired/unsuccessful behaviour/ attempt

Inhibits S-R bond strengthening

positive reinforcement – the games player makes an accurate pass (behaviour) and the teacher shouts ‘nice pass’ (reinforced)

negative reinforcement – the teacher who constantly shouts from the touchline suddenly stops shouting; the players know that their behaviour must now be correct

punishment - giving a red card for a foul in a game serves to prevent that behaviour happening again

Learn unconditioned response to conditioned stimulus e.g. Pavlov’s dogs

Rare in sport

Can be used to reduce anxiety prior to performance – relaxation through calming phrase and physical cue

Trial and error learning - behaviour reinforced - success/praise motivates to repeat success

Thorndike’s laws1. exercise - rehearse to strengthen

bond2. effect - rewards strengthen bond3. readiness - performer able to do task

Operant conditioning = trial and error learning

Based on S-R relationshipCoach manipulates environment to

achieve desired response (shaping) – target/feeder/conditions/etc

Uses reinforcement to bring about desired response

Copying/mimicing another's behaviour/action

Requires learning to be:AttentiveCapable of remembering (retention)Capable of performing (production)Willing to learn (motivation)

Insight learning - concerned with understanding rather than linking S-R

Work out what is happening - whole practice, rather than learning skills in isolation

Cognitive – understanding nature of task; develop motor programme; requires demonstration from coach; feedback is extrinsic; many errors

Associative – practice stage; less visual more proprioceptive; fewer but repetitive errors

Autonomous – skill mastered; little conscious effort; processing used for strategies rather than skill

Positive - benefitsNegative - hindranceBilateral – from one side to otherProactive – current skill helps future

skillRetroactive – current skill improves

past skill

Command

Reciprocal

Discovery

Problem Solving

Teacher makes all the decisions with no input from the learners

Clear instructions and objectives, large groups catered for, control and discipline maintained

Possible lack of understanding, little social interaction, little creativity, limited individual feedback

Used when:

Groups are large or undisciplinedNovice performers need to be taught

recognised techniquesDangerous situationsComplex skills

Most decisions made by teacher with some learner input

Instructions and objectives are clear, social interaction skills are developed, some individual feedback received, self-confidence increased

May be difficult for beginners, performers may lack communication skills, unable to analyse movement, difficult to monitor for teacher

Used when:

Learners are more experiencedSimple skills are involvedLimited danger is presentTime is available

Teacher guides performer to find the correct movement by providing information, giving specific clues or asking questions

Encourages creativity and decision making skills, responsibility for own learning, increased motivation and self confidence

Time consuming, difficult for those who lack creativity, progress of large groups is difficult to monitor

Used when:

Creativity is requiredThere is no right or wrong answerMore experienced performers are

involved

Problem set by teacher and solved by student. There is no right or wrong answer

Encourages creativity and develops cognitive skills

Novice performer throwing javelin

Novice performer developing a gym routine

Experienced basketball players practicing free throws in a practice session

Sixth from students rock climbing for the first time

Year 9 students practicing the smash in badminton, for the first time, in a 50 minute lesson

Year 9 students practicing the smash in badminton, for the third lesson in a series or four

An outside coach coming in to take a kick boxing lesson at a club for the first time

What have you based you decision on?

Nature of performer – experience, stage of learning, age, gender, size of group

Nature of task – open or closed skill, gross or fine, discrete serial or continuous, self or externally paced

Experience – amount of knowledge, personality, relationship with group

Environmental conditions – facilities, time available, purpose of the session

Whole Learning

Part Learning

Progressive Part Method

Whole-Part-Whole Method

Performer attempts the whole movement following instructions or demonstration

Develop an awareness of entire movement and understand the relationship between different subroutines immediately

Difficult to use with complex skills, difficult for novice performers, not ideal for dangerous skills

Ideally used when:

Skill is discrete or ballistic

Subroutines lack meaning

Performer is motivated

Performer is experienced

Performer attempts all sub routines before attempting skill as a whole

Complex skills are broken down into subroutines, specific aspects of technique modified, develops confidence on completion

It hinders timing of complete skill, reduces kinaesthetic awareness, transfer part-whole may not be effective, time consuming

Ideally used when:

The skill is complex

Skill involves long sequences

Performer has limited attention span

Inexperienced

Subroutines linked (chaining) once each individual part is learned

Complex skills introduced gradually, novice performers achieve quick success, development of understanding of subroutines, transfer to whole is easier

Time consuming, too much focus on particular subroutines

Ideally used when:

Skill is complex, serial or dangerous

Time is not a constraint

Performer is inexperienced

Performer attempts whole skill and then develops specific subroutines before completing the whole skill

An overall feel for movement developed initially, success is ongoing as subroutines are developed

Transfer form part to whole is difficult

A novice athlete learning the triple jump

Year 9 class learning how to head a football

A premier rugby team learning a set tactical move

A golfer practicing his tee shot

An experienced fast bowler practicing his action

An inexperienced cricketer learning a bowling technique

A gymnastics floor routine

A year 11 team practicing basketball lay ups

A hockey flick

An athlete working on their sprint start

Mr Kirk learning a dance routine

Practice occurs after the presentation of practice

Coach to decide on type ensuring learning occurs, motivation is maintained and fatigue does not affect performance

Four Types:1.Massed2.Distributed3.Variable4.Mental

Repeated practice with little or no recovery period between blocks

Ideally used when:1. Skills are discrete2. Performer is motivated3. Performer is experienced4. High level of fitness5. Replication of fatigue in games is required

Possible problems – boredom and fatigue

Repeated practice followed by recovery period before repetition or new task

Recovery period may involve other form of activity not just rest (mental practice or feedback)

Ideally used when:1. The skill is new and complex2. The performer is a novice3. Low levels of motivation4. Low levels of fitness5. Short attention span

Recovery period can lead to – de-motivation, loss of concentration and lack of discipline

Coach uses a mixture of massed and variable practice

Maintains interest levels and motivation

Helps to limit the effects of fatigue when required

Cognitive rehearsal of skill without physical movement

Used before, during or after performance

Internal – sees themselves from within (kinaesthetic feel)

External – seeing themselves as if they were a spectator

Creates mental image, reduces reaction time, improve anticipation and control arousal

Ideally used when:1. Learning time needs to be reduced2. Preparing for alternative situations or experiences3. Concentrate on specific aspects or the overall skill4. Arousal needs to be controlled5. Performer is injured

Optimised by1. Quiet Location2. Encouraging successful outcomes3. Regular practice4. Use during recovery period

Guidance is used to develop movement patterns and reduce errors made in performance

Guidance depends on the situation, nature of the task and ability of performer

Types: Visual, Verbal, Manual and Mechanical

Creating a mental picture through observation of demos, videos, pictures etc

Can also be developed through modifying the playing area

To optimise visual guidance: accurate demo, focus on key points, info relevant to age and ability and clear and realistic stimuli

Advantages

Good for performers in the cognitive stage of learning

Provides a clear idea of the movement pattern to be performed

Specific cues can be highlighted

Disadvantages

De-motivation if the performer is unable to replicate the skill

Can provide too much information for a novice

Static forms of guidance soon loose their impact

Explaining the motor skill to be performed, understanding the requirements and feedback

General or specific depending on ability

To optimise visual guidance: clear and accurate info, limit the amount of information required, language and terminology relevant to age group, most effective with visual guidance

Advantages

Good for all stages of learning if combined with other types of guidance

Useful in the autonomous stage of learning

Feedback can be given immediately either during or after the performance

Focus the performers attention on specific cues when watching a demo

Disadvantages

De-motivation if unable to replicate the skill

Overload of information may occur

Difficulty in understanding, especially for novice performers

Some movement may be difficult to explain

Involves the performer being physically placed or supported into correct position

To optimise manual guidance: avoid over use of kinaesthetic awareness will not develop, combine with verbal guidance and ensure movement pattern is correct

Advantages

Good for all stages of learning especially novice

Reduce fear and builds confidence

Helps to reduce risks in some potentially dangerous situations

Development of correct kinaesthetic awareness

Disadvantages

Performer becomes over reliant on help and support

Lack of intrinsic feedback

Difficult to learn for own mistakes and correct them independently

Difficult in large groups

Similar to manual but uses some form of device or support

Trampolining and swimming use them