ABDUL AFIFF FIQHRY BIN ABDUL LATIF - core.ac.uk · menggabungkan mesin kisar konvensional dengan...
Transcript of ABDUL AFIFF FIQHRY BIN ABDUL LATIF - core.ac.uk · menggabungkan mesin kisar konvensional dengan...
EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF BIOMEDICAL
STAINLESS STEEL 316L VIBRATION ASSISTED
MILLING USING RETROFITTABLE 1D UVAM
WORKTABLE
ABDUL AFIFF FIQHRY BIN ABDUL LATIF
UNIVERSITI TUN HUSSEIN ONN MALAYSIA
EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF BIOMEDICAL STAINLESS STEEL 316L
VIBRATION ASSISTED MILLING USING RETROFITTABLE 1D UVAM
WORKTABLE
ABDUL AFIFF FIQHRY BIN ABDUL LATIF
A thesis submitted in
fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the
Master of Mechanical Engineering
Faculty of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering
Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
SEPTEMBER 2017
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DEDICATION
MY BELOVED PARENTS,
Abdul Latif bin Shaari and Roshida binti Hasan
For their love and support throughout my whole life
MY HONOURED SUPERVISOR,
Dr. Mohd Rasidi Bin Ibrahim
For his advices, support and patience during the completion of this research work
ALL MY COLLEAGUES, ESPECIALLY
Amiril Sahab Abdul Sani, Zazuli Mohid, Haris Rachmat and Nur Azurine
For their encouragement, cooperation and effort throughout this study
ALL TECHNICAL STAFF IN UTHM, ESPECIALLY
Mr. Mohamad Faizal, Mr. Zahrul Hisham, Mr. Mohd Adib and Mr. Azmi
Only Allah S.W.T can repay your kindness and hopes Allah S.W.T bless your life.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Alhamdulillah and praise to Allah S.W.T. for His grace, mercy and the strength
given to me to complete this research work successfully. Peace and blessings be upon
the beloved Prophet S.A.W, with his risalah and teaching the study has become
meaningful to me. I am extremely fortunate to be involved in this exciting and
challenging research work and get to expand my knowledge especially in machining
and manufacturing industries. With this research work I obtain an opportunity to
experience the technology and apply it in real life instead of just doing theoretical
studies. I also learned how to communicate with people and knew how to conduct a
design of experiment from this research work.
I would like to express my gratitude and respect to my supervisor, Dr. Mohd
Rasidi Bin Ibrahim for giving me his excellent guidance, suggestions, advice and
suggestion till I have successfully completed this project. I am so lucky to be able to
work alongside him.
Special thanks dedicated to my parents for their love, sacrifice, supports and
encouragements throughout the completion of this research work. Apart from that, I
would like to thank my family members for their support and love throughout the
research work.
Last but not least, I wish to extend my special appreciation to my fellow friends
in Precision Machining Research Centre (PREMACH) for their friendly cooperation
and moral support. There are numerous of people support and cooperation in this
research work without those direct and indirect the laboratory staffs that has helped
me a lot in laboratory and experimental work. I would like to acknowledge from
technical staffs which are Mr.Zahrul, Mr.Faizal, (Advanced Machining Lab) who gave
a lot of suggestion and for providing their laboratory equipment for research purposes.
Thank you.
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ABSTRACT
Nowadays, the demand in industry for hard and brittle materials including alloys and
glasses components has been increasing. Thus, it is important to ensure machining for
these parts are done in a high precision manner. Ultrasonic vibration assisted milling
(UVAM) is a well-known precision machining equipment. It improves the machining
performance and could perform machining on extremely delicate components. UVAM is
an advance machining process which consists of the combination of conventional milling
with ultrasonic vibration assistance. This research investigates the effect of imposing
ultrasonic vibration assisted milling with feed and cross-feed vibration on conventional
milling (CM). The desired vibration is proposed from the workpiece by a specialised one-
dimensional UVAM worktable. A series of end-mill experiment in dry cutting conditions
were conducted on stainless steel 316L. A commercially available cutting tool
manufactured by HPMT with a diameter of 6 mm and featured with differential pitch was
used in this research. The ultrasonic vibration generator excites the workpiece with a
frequency in the range of 9~18 kHz and an amplitude of 0.5~3 µm. The values of the
cutting parameter were chosen with regards to the recommendation by the manufacturers.
Several parameters including cutting force, cutting temperature, surface roughness, chip
formation and tool wear progression were compared between CM and UVAM. The results
showed that a considerable improvement was identified in UVAM. It was found that end
milling with ultrasonic vibration in the feed vibration of 18 kHz with an amplitude of 3
µm was able to reduce 13%(Fx) and 18%(Fy) of cutting force, reduce 18.4% of cutting
temperature and improve the surface roughness up to 60% as compared to CM. Apart
from that, it also decreased the tool wear progression as compared to conventional milling,
In addition, the chip formation has shown a positive trend where larger amplitude and
higher frequency would produce smaller chips as compared to conventional milling.
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ABSTRAK
Pada masa kini, permintaan bahan keras dan lembut di industri sangat tinggi seperti aloi
keluli dan komponen kaca. Proses pemesinan perlulah dilakukan secara tepat dan jitu.
Pemesinan Berbantukan Frekuensi Getaran Mesin Kisar (PBFGMK) dikenali sebagai
pemesinan yang jitu dan tepat. PBFGMK mampu meningkatkan prestasi pemesinan dan
dapat melakukan pemesinan komponen yang sangat kecil. Proses pemesinan ini yang
menggabungkan mesin kisar konvensional dengan getaran sistem berbantu ke dalam
proses pemotongan tunggal. Kajian ini akan mengkaji kesan ultrasonik berbantukan
getaran dengan arah suapan dan merentas getaran pada mesin kisar konvensional. Getaran
dihasilkan daripada satu dimensi PBFGMK mesin. Satu siri eksperimen mesin kisar
dalam keadaan pemotongan kering telah dijalankan pada keluli tahan karat 316L. Alat
memotong didapati secara komersial yang dihasilkan oleh HPMT dengan diameter 6 mm
dan mempunyai sudut mata alat yang berbeza telah digunakan. Penjana getaran ultrasonik
menghantar isyarat frekuensi 9 ~ 18 kHz dan amplitud 0.5 ~ 3 µm. Parameter pemesinan
dipilih seperti yang disyorkan oleh pengeluar mata alat. Daya pemotongan, potongan
suhu, kekasaran permukaan, pembentukan serpihan dan kadar mata alat haus telah
dibandingkan antara mesin kisar konvensional dan PBFGMK. Keputusan menunjukkan
bahawa peningkatan yang besar dalam PBFGMK, dengan getaran ultrasonik dalam
getaran suapan pada 18 kHz dengan amplitud 3 µm dilihat dapat mengurangkan 13% (Fx)
dan 18% (Fy) daya pemotongan, mengurangkan 18.4 % daripada suhu pemesinan dan
penambahbaikan kekasaran permukaan sehingga 60% berbanding dengan pemesinan
konvensional. Selain itu, ia juga dapat mengurangkan kadar mata alat haus jika
dibandingkan dengan permesinan konvensional dan pembentukan serpihan juga
menunjukkan corak yang positif di mana amplitud yang lebih besar dan frekuensi yang
tinggi akan menghasilkan tatal lebih kecil berbanding dengan permesinan konvensional.
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CONTENTS
TITLE i
DECLARATION ii
DEDICATION iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv
ABSTRACT v
ABSTRAK vi
CONTENTS vii
LIST OF TABLES x
LIST OF FIGURES xi
LIST SYMBOL AND ABREVIATIONS xv
LIST OF APPENDICES xvi
LIST OF PUBLICATIONS xvii
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Problem Statement 4
1.3 Objective 5
1.4 Scope of the Project 6
1.5 Significant of Study 6
1.6 Scope of the Thesis 7
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction of Milling Process 8
2.2 Cutting Tool 10
2.2.1 Geometry of End Mill 11
2.2.2 Classification of Cutting Tool 12
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2.3 Machining Performance 14
2.3.1 Cutting Force 14
2.3.2 Cutting Temperature 18
2.3.3 Surface Roughness 20
2.3.4 Tool Wear 23
2.3.5 Chip Formation 27
2.4 Stainless Steel 316L 29
2.5 Conclusions from The Literature Review 31
CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction 32
3.2 Process Flow Diagram 33
3.3 Machining Parameter 34
3.4 Workpiece Preparation 35
3.5 Experimental UVAM Setup 36
3.6 Major Instruments 38
3.6.1 CNC Milling 38
3.6.2 Dynamometer 39
3.6.3 Thermocouple K-Type 41
3.6.4 Tool Maker Microscope 43
3.6.5 High Magnifying Microscope 44
3.6.6 Surftest SJ-400 45
3.6.7 Digital Oscilloscope 47
3.6.8 Function Generator 48
3.6.9 Portable Digital Vibrometer 49
CHAPTER 4 ULTRASONIC VIBRATION ASSISTED
MILLING WORKTABLE
4.1 Ultrasonic Vibration Assisted Milling (UVAM) 52
4.1.1 Cutting Principle of UVAM (1D) 53
4.1.2 UVAM Benefit 58
4.2 UVAM Design Review 61
4.3 Material 62
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4.4 UVAM Worktable Design 63
4.5 Vibration Mechanism 65
CHAPTER 5 RESULT AND DISCUSSION
5.1 Introduction 68
5.2 Result and Analysis of UVAM Worktable 68
5.3 Result and Analysis of Cutting Force 74
5.4 Result and Analysis of Cutting Temperature 78
5.5 Result and Analysis of Surface Roughness 79
5.6 Result and Analysis of Tool Wear 82
5.7 Result and Analysis Chip Formation 84
CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1 Conclusion 87
6.2 Recommendations 88
REFERENCES 89
APPENDICES 96
x
LIST OF TABLES
2.1 Chemical composition of AISI 316L SS (wt%) 30
3.1 Machining parameter 34
3.2 UVAM parameter 34
3.3 Cutting tool terminology 35
3.4 Cutting conditions 35
3.5 Mechanicam and thermal properties for AISI 316L 36
3.6 Specification of Mitutoyo SJ-400 Surftest 47
3.7 Digital Oscilloscope (Yokogawa DL1620) specification 48
3.8 General specification of PDV-100 51
4.1 UVAM design comparison 61
4.2 Specifications of PK4FQP2 66
5.1 Simulation parameter 69
5.2 Compliance mechanism physical properties 69
5.3 Photographs of chip produced under different frequency
and amplitude 85
xi
LIST OF FIGURES
2.1 Top view of slot cutting 9
2.2 The main part of the end mill (a) Side view, (b) Bottom
view 11
2.3 Estimated global use of the main cutting material 14
2.4 The force component affecting the cutting edge 15
2.5 The influence of steel hardness on cutting forces 16
2.6 Variation of cutting force with time during up milling
using (a) single tooth cutting at a time (b) two teeth at
a time 17
2.7 Factor affecting milling forces 18
2.8 Source of heat generated in orthogonal cutting process 19
2.9 Percentage of the heat generated going into the workpiece,
tool and chip as a function of cutting speed 20
2.10 Common surface roughness parameters 21
2.11 Type of failure and wears on cutting tool 24
2.12 Wear on end milling tools (ISO 8688-2) 25
2.13 Chipping (a) CH1 and (b) CH2 (ISO 8688-2) 26
2.14 Four type of chip formation in metal cutting
(a) discontinuous (b) continuous with built up edge
(d) serrated 27
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2.15 Classification of chip forms according to ISO 3685 29
2.16 Typical applications stainless steel 316 L 29
3.1 Research flow chart 33
3.2 Experimental setup of UVAM 37
3.3 Mazak Nexux 400 A- II CNC milling 38
3.4 Reaction force in dynamometer Kistler 9254 39
3.5 Coordinate system of dynamometer 40
3.6 Multi channel amplifier 5070A 40
3.7 K-type thermocouple 41
3.8 Measuring point for temperature 42
3.9 8 Channel amplifier 42
3.10 Nikon MM-60 too maker measuring microscope 43
3.11 Optical microscope OLYMPUS STM6 44
3.12 Equipment to clean surface workpiece 45
3.13 Mitutoyo SJ-400 Surftest 46
3.14 Three fixed spot measure on workpiece 46
3.15 Digital Oscilloscope (Yokogawa DL1620) 47
3.16 Function generator Hantek HDG6162B 48
3.17 Type of wave 49
3.18 Schematic diagram for measure displacement of UVAM 50
3.19 PDV-100 Portable digital vibrometer 50
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3.20 Example result from PDV-100 51
4.1 Classification of vibration assisted machining (a) Cutting
velocity direction (b) Feed direction 54
4.2 Coordinate system 54
4.3 1D vibration-assisted machining 55
4.4 Tool workpiece engagement in the UVAM process 55
4.5 Full assemble of UVAM worktable 64
4.6 UVAM worktable components 64
4.7 Piezo-actuator (PK4FQP2) 65
4.8 The mechanism of piezo-actuator 66
4.9 Motion of the compliance mechanism 67
5.1 FEA loading input 70
5.2 FEA meshing output 70
5.3 Natural frequency of the compliance mechanism 71
5.4 Location of maximum stress of compliance mechanism 72
5.5 UVAM components after fabricate 73
5.6 Model (a) Assembly from solidworks (b) Assembly of
UVAM prototype 73
5.7 Displacement change over frequency 74
5.8 Experimental cutting forces under different conditions 75
5.9 Cutting force in Fx component 76
5.10 Cutting force in Fy component 76
5.11 Workpiece temperature in various condition 79
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5.12 Qualities and surface roughness of the bottom surface
machined with various condition machining 80
5.13 Surface roughness in various condition 81
5.14 Location wear at the cutting edge 83
5.15 Flank wear values for various condition 83
5.16 Progression of tool wear under various condition 84
5.17 Photographs of chips produced under different amplitude 85
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SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS
𝜌 - Density
Tc - Cutting temperature
T2 - End temperature
T1 - Initial temperature
t2 - End time
t1 - Initial time
�̇� - Volume flow rate
λc - Cutoff length
r - Diameter of Shank (mm)
S - Spindle Speed (rpm)
T - Cutting Tool Life (cycles)
t - Cutting Time (s)
Wv - UVAM Width of Cut (mm)
w - Rotational speed
Vb - Flank Wear (µm)
x - X-axis Displacement
Fc - Cutting Force
Fx - Cutting Force in X Component
Fy - Cutting Force in Y Component
Fz - Cutting Force in Z Component
ap - Axial Depth of Cut
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ae - Radial Depth of Cut
f - Feed per rev
VC - Cutting speed
A - Vibration Amplitude (mm)
D - Cutting Tool Diameter (µm)
f - Frequency (Hz)
fr - Feed Rate (mm min-1)
k - Hinge Spring Constant
N - Number of Cutter Teeth
R - Radius of Cutting Tool (mm)
Ra - Surface Roughness (µm)
HRB - Rockwell Hardness
CM - Conventional Machining
UVAM - Ultrasonic Vibration Assisted Milling
PBFGMK - Pemesinan Berbantukan Frekuensi Gegaran Mesin Kisar
DM - Dry Machining
PREMACH - Precision Machining Research Centre
SEM - Scanning Electron Microscope
UTHM - Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
MRR - Material Removal Rate (mm3 min-1)
xvi
LIST OF APPENDICES
APPENDIX TITLE PAGE
A Technical Drawing for Base 97
B Technical Drawing for Cap 98
C Technical Drawing for Spacer 99
D Technical Drawing for Compliance Mechanism 100
xvii
LIST OF PUBLICATIONS
Proceedings:
(i) Latif, A. A., Ibrahim, M. R., Rahim, E. A., & Cheng, K. (2017, April).
Investigation of 1-Dimensional ultrasonic vibration compliance mechanism
based on finite element analysis. In AIP Conference Proceedings (Vol.
1831, No. 1, p. 020028). AIP Publishing.
(ii) Afiff Latif, Mohd Rasidi Ibrahim, Mohammad Sukri Mustapa, Hakim Rafai
& Charles Prakash. Effect of Variable Pitch on Cutting Temperature,
Cutting Forces and Surface Roughness using Nitico30 Cutting Tool when
End Milling of Stainless Steel 316L in 2017 5th Asia Conference on
Mechanical and Materials Engineering (ACMME 2017), University of
Tokyo, Japan, June 9-11, 2017 (On process publication)
(iii) M. Rasidi Ibrahim, A. Afiff Latif, and A. Zahid Amran. “Effect of Feed
Rate and Depth of Cut on Cutting Forces and Surface Roughness when End
Milling of Mild Steel using NOVIANO Cutting Tool” Proceedings of the
International Conference on Industrial Engineering and Operations
Management Rabat, Morocco, April 11-13, 2017 (On process publication)
(iv) M R Ibrahim, A A Latif, A Z Amran, and E A Rahim” A Study Effect of
Feed Rate and Cutting Speed on Surface Roughness and Material Removal
Rate of Mild Steel” ICMER2017 4th Conference on Mechanical
Engineering Research. Kuantan, Pahang August 1-2, 2017. (On process
publication)
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of Study
In the process of machining, milling is the most appropriate operation to perform
metal shaping process. To increase the accuracy, a higher value of cutting parameter such
as cutting speed, feed rate and depth of cut are needed. A higher value cutting parameter
would increase the generation of heat energy. Thus, the cutting temperature would also
increase. A higher cutting temperature will cause deterioration on the surface quality as
well as affecting the tool life (Childs et al., 2000). This phenomenon would happen due
to the failure of penetration of the conventional cutting fluid to the chip-tool interface
during high-speed milling processes.
To overcome this problem, the Ultrasonic Vibration assisted machining (UVAM)
was introduced. UVAM is an advance machining process where it is grouped under non-
traditional machining process. It is commonly used to machine conductive, non-
conductive, hard and brittle work materials. Vibration assisted drilling, vibration assisted
turning, vibration assisted milling, vibration assisted abrasive are all categorised under
the scope of vibration assisted machining. Vibration assisted machining was introduced
during the early 1950’s and today, it has become a widely accepted method in precision
metal cutting industries (Rasidi, 2010). A hydrostatic bearing with its sub-micrometer
rotational accuracy was the first component of precision metal cutting to benefit from the
efforts of researches. Along with the refinement of conventional machine component
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(spindle, metrology, frames, etc.), the development of linear motors in the late 1970s and
piezoelectric driven stages in the 1980s allowed tool positioning and control to be on
nanometer scale. Besides, researches on material and the development of the
monocrystalline diamond tool with Nano metric edge sharpness had ensured the levels for
errors to occur and surface roughness to be reduced significantly (Brehl & Dow, 2008).
This has attracted many researches to further develop various systems to suit different
applications.
Vibration is one of the mechanism that can be used to assist machining processes.
Vibration is an oscillation of an object about a static position. There are a few range of
vibrations that can be produced to assist machining processes. Ultrasonic vibration has
been widely used for industries in Japan, where the machining processes have widely
adapted vibration technologies to improve the machining processes in order to obtain a
better and fine result for the products.
UVAM is an advanced machining process that combines ultrasonic vibration as a
supporting mechanism in milling process. From previous researches, it is found that by
adding vibration to milling processes, several improvements were identified such as
extended cutting tool life, reduction of cutting force and improvement on the cutting
quality especially on surface roughness. In current technologies, the vibration mechanism
can be installed on either the cutting tool itself or at the worktable. When a small
amplitude of vibration is applied to the tool or to the work piece, it could help the
machining process to achieve a better result as compared to conventional machining.
There are many types of vibrations that exist in this world. Nevertheless, only a few types
of vibrators could produce an efficient vibration at small amplitude. Piezo actuator is one
of the devices that could produce a precision vibration amplitude (in micro and nano) at
both high and low frequencies. Both the vibration installation method and vibration
emitter component have their own capabilities and disadvantages, and these factors could
actually deliver different outcomes. In addition, the interaction between high frequency
vibrations with the cutting tool motion will enhance the characteristics of the outcome of
the milling process. The motions of the vibration exist in different directions including X,
Y, and Z or a combination of the axis. However, the frequency rate as well as the
amplitude of vibration is usually manageable. These characteristics could usually become
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the parameter factors that control and distinguish the outcomes from UVAM process and
conventional milling process.
Typical ultrasonic vibration assisted milling consist of three main parts which are
data output (computer), data acquisition card (DAQ), and the vibration device
(piezoelectric actuator). Nevertheless, a typical UVAM would still have a few drawbacks.
In recent years, there are various researches which was conducted to improve the current
UVAM which is by applying a closed-loop control system. Closed-loop system is a
system that utilises feedback where the feedback is used to make decision about any
changes to the control signal that is driving the system. In a closed-loop control system,
sensors are being used to obtain reading from the output signal (vibration amplitude of
cutting tip). Then, the software would react according to the changes of the system by
recalculating and readjusting the driven signal (input signal). The system responds to
changes by having several samples taken repeatedly, and the cycle continues until the
system reaches the desired state. At the desired state, the software will cease making
further changes. Previous researchers (Barr, 2002; Moriwaki & Shamoto, 1995; Rasidi,
2010; Shamoto & Moriwaki, 1994; Shamoto, Suzuki, Moriwaki, & Naoi, 2002) have
developed a closed-loop control system for ultrasonic vibration in order to stabilise the
ultrasonic elliptical vibration. The results of their experiments showed that amplitude of
vibration as well as phase difference are kept constant, and the average resonant frequency
is successfully organised in the present the control system.
This research would focus on the effect of one-dimensional vibration towards
cutting force, cutting temperature, surface roughness, tool wear and chip formation.
Cutting force is the force that is required to cut the material to desired dimensions. Cutting
force would commonly affect the tool wear. When the cutting force is set to be high, the
tool that is being used will have to exert a greater force and this could lead to the rapid
wear of the tool. Next, the heat generated in machining operation is an important factor in
addressing several metal cutting issues such as dimensional accuracy, surface integrity
and tool life. A higher value of cutting temperature will increase the deterioration of
surface quality as well as affecting the tool life (Childs et al., 2000). Furthermore, this
research will also compare the effect of cutting force, cutting temperature, surface
roughness, tool wear and chip formation when vibration is being applied or not being
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apply during the milling process. The UVAM worktable that was used in this experiment
is a 1-D UVAM, where it includes two motions either in X-axis or Y-axis. 1-D UVAM
has a linear movement where it can only move in one motion. It is notable that in 1-D
UVAM, the cutting force and tool wear can be reduced. Apart from that, the 1-D UVAM
can extend the tool life significantly as compared to conventional machining.
1.2 Problem Statement
Machining AISI 316L is complicated due to the properties of low thermal conductivity
which creates and builds up heat in the cutting zone. Cooling lubricant is commonly
recommended to machine this group of alloys. It helps to achieve a better result in terms
of tool life, surface finishes and ensure a smooth chip flow. However, in recent years, its
usage in industries is nonetheless characterised to have problems during waste disposal.
These issues have caused a large number of ecological problems, environmental concerns
and had also been identified to be one of the major factors for sickness among the workers.
Some researches claimed that, cost related to cutting fluids is enough to represent an
enormous amount of expenditure which could overtake the cost of cutting tool. Thus, dry
cutting machining is a relevant and beneficial alternative which could fulfill the needs for
cost reduction and environmental concerns. Nonetheless, it is notable that dry cutting is
not suitable in some applications that require high accuracy of the finished components
as well as high surface integrity. In conventional milling machine, high force and friction
are produced during the process of machining. As a result, it will induce rapid tool wear
and could alter the surface integrity of the machining product. Furthermore, a higher force
could reduce the quality of the products. The tool could also easily wear out during the
processes. This could increase the maintenance cost and decrease the quality of surface
integrity.
UVAM is an effective method to counter this problem and could be utilised in
machining operations. Besides, UVAM processes have a lot of advantages as compared
to conventional milling processes. However, it is still uncommonly used in the industry.
This phenomenon is due to various major drawback factors that still could not be fully
understood in depth by current researchers. Vibration amplitude, vibration frequency and
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voltage supply are several key factors in determining the performance for surface
integrity, cutting force and cutting temperature. In previous studies conducted (Rasidi,
2010), it has been shown that an increase in the vibration amplitude could lead to the
reduction in cutting force, lower cutting temperature, improvement in surface integrity
and enhancing tool life. In this study, both performance between X-axis and Y-axis
ultrasonic vibration assistance are investigated in order to further comprehend the
mechanism of 1-D UVAM. The amount of vibration amplitude that can be obtained
during machining process is mainly depended on the types of piezoelectric actuators being
used. Different types of piezoelectric actuators have different capabilities of vibration
amplitude and resonance frequency. Thus, a number of experiments have been done to
determine the optimum vibration amplitude and frequency that can be produced by the
selected piezoelectric actuator.
Cutting force and temperature is an importance factor in metal cutting process and
it is linked to many issues in cutting process such as product accuracy, surface roughness
and tool life. Theoretically, cutting force and temperature in ultrasonic vibration assisted
milling should be much lower than conventional milling since there are intermittent gap
being produced during the cutting process. The intermittent gap produced is mainly
depended on the vibration amplitude and vibration frequency. A higher amplitude of
vibration could result in a larger intermittent gap being produced and a higher vibration
frequency would cause the frequency of the intermittent gap to increase. The increase in
both vibration amplitude and vibration frequency would decrease the cutting force and its
temperature. However, there is a lack of scientific evidence or research study to
understand and explain this theory.
1.3 Objective
i. To design a UVAM worktable
ii. To investigate the experimental and simulation of compliance mechanism
iii. To study the performance of Ultrasonic Vibration Assisted Milling (UVAM) with
feed and cross-feed vibration against dry machining in terms of
1. Cutting force
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2. Cutting temperature
3. Surface roughness
4. Tool wear
5. Chip formation
1.4 Scope of Study
In order to achieve the objectives, this study has been carried out with some limitations
and assumptions. This research would include finite element analysis, experiments, visual
observations and measurements. The works were done under the following scope.
i. Machining parameter:
a) Spindle speed, n : 2387 (min-1)
b) Feed, Vf : 191 mm/min
c) Depth of cut ap : 0.1 mm
d) Condition : Dry cutting
e) Workpiece : Stainless steel 316L
f) Cutting tool : Nitico 30
: 6 mm diameter
: 4 flute end mill
: Differential pitch
: Uncoated
g) Type of cutting : Slot milling (Up and Down milling)
ii. UVAM parameter
Signal Pattern Sine Wave
Amplitude, µm 0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0
Frequency, kHz 9 13 15 18
iii. UVAM work table:
a) Vibration motion : 1D motion (Linear X or Y axis)
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b) Vibration emitter : Thorlab discrete piezo stack PK4FQP2
iv. Material
a) Stainless Steel 316L
1.5 Significance of Study
This study focused on the machining of 316L stainless steel with a higher creep, stress to
rupture and tensile strength at elevated temperatures as the technology for machining
process of this particular material is still developing. Through this study, the development
of the machining process for stainless steel 316L was enhanced by using UVAM.
This study is also an effort to build the market value for UVAM machining in
industry as it has a wide usage and bright future development. Although UVAM had
already been used by advance technology in global market, the knowledge regarding the
process is still incomplete. This study could fulfill the missing knowledge of the UVAM
especially on effect of the cutting force, cutting temperature, surface roughness, tool wear
and chip formation.
Thus, by conducting this research, a new UVAM worktable that is industry
friendly can be designed. However, it can only be done by enhancing the characteristics
and reducing the limitations of current UVAM technology. UVAM can assist machining
in many ways that are still yet to be discovered. Hopefully this study will be one of the
stepping stone that could increase the technology usage of UVAM in Malaysia as UVAM
technology is currently being developed by advance countries.
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction of Milling Process
Milling operation is considered one of the most common machining operations in
industry. It can be used for face finishing, edge finishing as well as material removal.
Milling machine is one of the widely used machine in removing excess material to achieve
a desired part. One of the machines that was used in this research was CNC milling
(MAZAK Nexus 400A-II CNC). Milling is a machining operation in which a work part
is fed past a rotating cylindrical tool with multiple cutting edges. The axis of rotation of
the cutting tool is perpendicular to the direction of feed. This orientation between the tool
axis and the feed direction is one of the features that distinguishes milling from drilling.
In drilling, the cutting tool is fed in a direction which is parallel to its axis of rotation. The
cutting tool in milling is called a milling cutter and the cutting edges are called teeth.
The geometric form created by milling is a plane surface. Other work geometries
can be created either by means of the cutter path or the cutter shape. Due to the variety of
shapes and its high production rates, milling is considered as one of the most versatile and
widely used machining operations. It is an interrupted cutting operation where the teeth
of the milling cutter enter and exit the work during each revolution. This interrupted
cutting action subjects the teeth to a cycle of impact force and thermal shock on every
rotation. Thus, the tool material and cutter geometry must be designed to withstand these
conditions.
9
In milling operation, there are many types of cutting including slot cutting. In slot
cutting, the direction of cutter rotation can be distinguished into two forms of milling: up
milling and down milling which are as illustrated in Figure 2.1. In up milling which is
also called conventional milling, the direction of motion of the cutter teeth is opposite to
the feed direction. It is milling “against the feed.” In down milling which is also known
as climb milling, the direction of cutter motion is the same as the feed direction. It is
milling “with the feed.” The relative geometries of these two forms of milling would result
in different cutting actions. In up milling, the chip formed by each cutter tooth would start
out very thin and would increase in thickness during the sweep of the cutter. In down
milling, each chip would start out thick and would reduce in thickness throughout the cut.
The length of the chip in down milling is lesser as compared with up milling. This means
that the cutter is engaged with less time per volume of material cut. Thus, this would
increase the tool life in down milling (Groover, 2013). The cutting force direction is
tangential to the periphery of the cutter for the teeth that are engaged in the work. In up
milling, there is a tendency to lift the work part as the cutter teeth exits the material. In
down milling, this cutter force direction is downward which is tending to hold the work
against the milling machine table.
Figure 2.1: Top view of slot cutting
Y
X
Cutting
tool rotation
Up
milling
Down
milling
Cutting width, ae
Feed
10
Computer Numerical Control (CNC) machining center is a multifunction machine
that uses a programmable mini-computer with a read-write memory to perform numeric
control (NC) functions to control the machine tool. The minicomputer provides basic
computing capacity and data buffering as part of the control unit. CNC machines can
execute a wide variety of operations including milling, drilling and boring, without
changing the setup of any components. CNC units also allow combinations of these
operations with variable spindle speeds and feed rates. By using the computer numeric
control programs, CNC machines can automatically control the tool change, tool path,
machining parameters, and coolant usage without further complex manipulations.
2.2 Cutting Tool
2.2.1 Geometry of End Mill
One important way to classify cutting tools is via machining process. There are tools such
as turning tools, cutoff tools, milling cutters, drill bits, reamers, taps, and many other
cutting tools that are named for the operation in which they are used. Each of the tools
has its own tool geometry, and in some cases are quite unique. Cutting tools can be divided
into single point tools and multiple-cutting-edge tools. Single-point tools are used in
turning, boring, shaping, and planning. Multiple-cutting-edge tools are used in drilling,
reaming, tapping, milling, broaching, and sawing. Many of the principles that are applied
to single-point tools could also be applied to other cutting-tool types. This is due to the
fact that the mechanism of chip formation is basically the same for all machining
operations.
Most multiple-cutting-edge tools are used in machining operations in which the
tool is rotated. Primary examples are drilling and milling. On the other hand, broaching
and several sawing operations (hack sawing and band sawing) would use multiple-
cutting-edge tools that could operate in a linear motion. Other sawing operations (circular
sawing) would use rotating saw blades. The major types of milling cutters are as follows:
11
• End milling cutters - an end milling cutter looks like a drill bit. Nevertheless, close
inspection indicates that it is designed for primary cutting with its peripheral teeth
rather than its end. (A drill bit cuts only on its end as it penetrates into the work.)
End mills are designed with square ends, ends with radii, and ball ends. End mills
can be used for face milling, profile milling and pocketing, cutting slots,
engraving, surface contouring, and die sinking. The major part of the end mill is
as illustrated in Figure 2.2.
• Face milling cutters - These are designed with teeth that cut on both the periphery
as well as the end of the cutter. Face milling cutters can be made of HSS, or they
can be designed to use cemented carbide inserts.
• Plain milling cutters - These are used for peripheral or slab milling. It has a
cylindrical shape with several rows of teeth. The cutting edges are usually oriented
at a helix angle to reduce impact on entry onto the work, and these cutters are
called helical milling cutter.
• Form milling cutters - These are peripheral milling cutters in which the cutting
edges have a special profile that is to be imparted to the work. An important
application is in gear making, in which the form milling cutter is shaped to cut the
slots between adjacent gear teeth, thereby leaving the geometry of the gear teeth.
(a) (b)
Figure 2.2: The main parts of the end mill (a) Side view, (b) Bottom View
DISH
ANGLE
PRIMARY ANGLE (SIDE)
RAKE ANGLE
WEB
TOOTH HEIGHT
TOOTH WIDTH
CORE DIAMETER
SECONDARY ANGLE
(SIDE)
GASH ANGLE
HELIX ANGLE
PRIMARY LAND WIDTH
12
Dish angle – At the end of cutting edge the angle is formed and a plane perpendicular to
the cutter axis. The flat surface is produced by dish from the cutter.
Gash angle – The gash feature relief angle.
Helix Angle – A line tangent to the helix formed by the angle and a cutting edge or a
plane through the axis of the cutter where a helical cutting edge from axis
of cylindrical cutter contained a plane
Rake – At a given point and a reference plane or line, there is an angular relationship
between the tooth face and a tangent to the tooth face which we call rake. The
surface of the end mill has an angular feature
Axial rake – A line parallel or tangent to the tooth face and a plane passing
through the axis form the angle.
Effective rake – The rake angle influencing the chip formation which is measured
normal to the cutting edge. The effective rake angle is mostly
influenced by the axial and radial rake only when corner angles
are involved.
Helical rake – Helical and axial rake can be used interchangeably for most
situation. It is the indication of the tooth face with reference to a
plane through the cutter axis.
Negative Rake – The initial contact between tool and workpiece which cause
a negative rake at a point or line on the tooth other than the
cutting edge.
Positive Rake – The initial contact between the cutter and the workpiece which
form a positive rake at the cutting edge. The cutting edge leads
to rake surface.
2.2.2 Classification and Properties of Cutting Tool Material
Cutting tool materials constitute a special group of tool materials because they have to
withstand extreme process conditions specifically for cutting, i.e. high temperature, high
13
contact stresses, rubbing on the workpiece surface by fast moving chip. Consequently,
cutting tool materials must have certain properties which depend on the type of machining
operations. Thus, workpiece material being machined and overall thermomechanical
process conditions commonly include the following:
• High hardness at elevated temperatures (hardness at high temperature) to resist
abrasive wear
• High deformation and resistance to prevent the cutting edge from plastic
deformation under high stresses and elevated temperatures during chip formation
• High fracture toughness to resist edge micro-chipping and breakage especially
during interrupted cutting
• Chemical inertness (low chemical affinity or high chemical stability) with respect
to workpiece material to protect against heat-affected wear types, i.e. diffusion,
chemical and oxidation wear
• High thermal conductivity to reduce temperature near the cutting edge (the cool
edge of the tool)
• High fatigue resistance for tools suffering from peaked mechanical loads
• High thermal shock resistance which naturally follows the mechanical shock
• High stiffness required to maintain accuracy
• Adequate lubricity (low friction) to increase welding resistance and to prevent
seizure (built-up edge formation)
It should be noted that all properties are with respect to an ideal tool material and in
practice no single material exhibits all of the desired properties mentioned above.
Moreover, some of the desired properties are mutually exclusive, for example hardness
and toughness. The main classes of tool materials currently in use include high speed
steels (HSS) and cobalt enriched high-speed steels (HSS-Co), sintered tungsten carbides
(WC), cermets, ceramics (aluminas and silicon nitrides), super-/ultra-hard materials such
as polycrystalline cubic boron nitride (PCBN) and polycrystalline diamond (PCD). Figure
2.3 shows the global use of the main cutting tool materials based on a 'Technology
Forecast 2005' by Kennametal, USA (Trent & Wright, 2000). It can be seen through this
14
pie diagram that currently CVD and PVD coated carbide tools are the commonly used
materials in manufacturing sector (about 53% of the total usage).
Figure 2.3: Estimated global use of the main cutting material in year 2005 (Trent &
Wright, 2000)
2.3 Machining Performance
2.3.1 Cutting Force
In machining operation, cutting is a process of extensive stresses and plastic deformations.
The high compressive and frictional and contact stresses on the tool face with the work
piece face may result in substantial cutting force (Marinov, 2001). There are several
mathematical and graphical methods for determining the components of force in face
milling. The difficulties involved are the change in the chip forming geometry and chip
thickness during the cutter revolution for each tooth.
The force components can be measured during cutting tests with the aid of a device
which is known as dynamometers which could be mounted on the machine tools. During
operation, this device will record all the forces being exerted on the machine tool.
However, using this device requires an exact experiment and is a time-consuming way.
15
Thus, it is useful to develop a simple method to calculate the forces based on information
of the tool geometry and the work material (Heikkala, 1995)
In face milling, it is convenient to consider the components of force in tangential,
radial and axial directions of the cutter which is as shown in Figure 2.4. The tangential
component is called the power force ft and is the most important component. The radial
and axial components are called thrust forces fr and fa. The power force can be expressed
in a general form which is as shown in Equation 2.1.
𝑓𝑡 =𝑊∗ℎ𝑚∗𝐶𝑆
sin 𝐾 (2.1)
Based on the above equation, W is the depth of cut, hm is the undeformed-chip
thickness, K is the approach angle of the cutter and Cs is the cutting force per unit cross-
section-area of cut (N/mm2). This specific cutting force is a material parameter that is
defined by many factors, mainly the tool geometry, the work material and the
undeformed-chip thickness as well as other less significant cutting parameters in normal
milling processes.
Figure 2.4: The force components affecting the cutting edge: FT, power force; FR, thrust
force in the radial direction; FN, force component normal to the feed; and Fs, force
component parallel to the feed (Heikkala, 1995)
16
As observed in Figure 2.5, the cutting forces would increase drastically when
conducting machining on materials with hardness higher than approximately 45 HRC.
Therefore, larger negative rake angle and tool corner radius would influence the passive
force Fp by increasing it remarkably. This means that an absolute stable and rigid process
has to be provided. This requirement has to be specially kept when using super-hard tools
with smoothing, multi-radii geometry, so-called wiper tools (Davim, 2010).
Figure 2.5: The influence of steel hardness on cutting forces (vc = 90 m/min, f=
0.15 mm/rev, ap = 0.9 mm) (Davim, 2010).
For variation of cutting forces with time during plain up milling, it can be observed
the thickness of the chip to be cut by each tooth increases from zero to a certain maximum
value and decreases to zero again. This means that the cutting forces will vary in the same
trend. Figures 2.6 shows typical changes in peripheral cutting force for up milling using
a cutter with straight teeth. Such diagrams are valid for situations when the contact angle
is smaller than the angular pitch of the cutter teeth. Thus, there is always only one tooth
cutting at a time. Periodic variations of forces cause vibrations, which may lead to chatter.
A better uniformity of tooth loading and quick work could be obtained by increasing the
number of teeth cutting at one time or by using helical teeth (El-Hofy, 2014).
17
(a)
(b)
Figure 2.6: Variation of cutting force with time during up milling using (a) single tooth
cutting at a time (b) two teeth cutting at a time (El-Hofy, 2014)
There are many factors that influence and affect the cutting forces during the
machining. These factors are classified according to the material of workpiece, tool
material, tool shape and machining conditions which is as shown in Figure 2.7.
Rake angle: An increase in the value of rake angle will decrease the cutting forces
and power. This is explained by the degree of plastic deformation which decreases at
lower rake angles.
Cutter diameter: The forces and power would decrease due to the reduction of
thickness of the chip hm. Despite the increase of ks, the decrease of chip area hmxbw
decreases the forces and power (Kaczmarek, 1976).
Number of teeth: For the same feed/tooth, Sz, the total resistance may increase or
the number of teeth cutting simultaneously, Ze, may increase.
Cutting edge radius and wear: The forces and power would increase with the
increase of edge radius and wear.
18
Figure 2.7: Factors affecting milling forces.
2.3.2 Cutting Temperature
In metal cutting process, the tool which performs the cutting action is by overcoming the
shear strength of the workpiece material. This generates a large amount of heat in the
workpiece and may often result in a highly localised thermomechanical coupled
deformation in the shear zone. Temperatures in the cutting zone could considerably affect
the stress–strain relationship, fracture and the flow of the workpiece material. Generally,
increasing the temperature would decrease the strength of the workpiece material and
thus, increase its ductility. It is now assumed that nearly all the work done by the tool and
the energy input during the machining process are converted into heat (Abukshim et al.,
2006). The main regions where heat is generated during the orthogonal cutting process is
as shown in Figure 2.8
Firstly, heat is generated in the primary deformation zone due to plastic work done
at the shear plane. The local heating in this zone would result in a very high temperature.
Thus, it would soften the material and allow greater deformation. Secondly, heat is
generated in the secondary deformation zone due to the work done in the chip deformation
and overcoming the sliding friction at the tool-chip interface zone. Next, the heat
generated in the tertiary deformation zone, at the tool workpiece interface is due to the
work done to overcome friction. This occurs at the rubbing contact between the tool flank
Workpiece material
Microstructure
Hardness
Strength
Cutting Conditions
Feed rate
Depth of cut
Cutting speed
Width of cut
coolant
Tool material and shape
Rake angle
Helix angle
Edge radius and wear
Cutter diameter
Number of teeth
Milling
Forces
19
face and the newly machined surface. Heat generation and temperatures in the primary
and secondary zones are highly dependent on the cutting conditions while heat generation
in the tertiary zone is strongly influenced by tool flank wear. In summary, the power
consumption and the heat generation in metal cutting processes are dependent on a
combination of the physical and chemical properties of the workpiece material and cutting
tool material, cutting conditions as well as the cutting tool geometry.
Figure 2.8: Source of heat generated in orthogonal cutting process (Komanduri & Hou,
2001).
Thermal consideration of hard machining processes is very important for tool wear
mechanisms and heat penetration into the subsurface layer. This would lead to the
formation of the white layers as well as determining the distribution of the residual
stresses. It is strongly agreed by various researchers that the cutting temperature in hard
machining depends not only on the cutting conditions but also on the hardness of the
workpiece material. There is a close relation between the tool temperature and the
hardness of the work material used. Thus, the cutting speed would cause a substantial
increase of the temperature. For a higher range of hardness, an increase of the material
hardness leads to an increase of the cutting force. With the increase in cutting force, the
cutting energy becomes higher and this would result in elevated temperatures.
As shown in Figure 2.9, as the cutting speed increases, a larger proportion of the
heat generated is carried away by the chip. Thus, less heat goes into the workpiece. When
20
cutting speed increases, the time in which the heat fluxes into the workpiece and the tool
is shortened (Grzesik & Nieslony, 2004). For example, at the cutting speed of 150 m/min,
75-80% of heat is transported by the chip, 10-15% is conducted into the tool, and the
remaining 5-10% is conducted into the workpiece. As a result at extremely high cutting
speeds characteristic for high speed machining, the majority of the heat being generated
is evacuated with chips and the cutting temperature diminishes substantially.
Figure 2.9: Percentage of the heat generated going into the workpiece, tool and
chip, as a function of cutting speed (Grzesik & Nieslony, 2004)
2.3.3 Surface Roughness
The surface roughness is related to all those irregularities which form surface relief. They
are conventionally defined within the area where deviations of form and waviness are
eliminated. It is also defined as a parameter that shows the surface finish quality of the
workpiece or tool. The setup of cutting parameter such as cutting speed, Vc, depth of cut,
d and feed rate, fr can affect the surface finish of a machined workpiece. When tool wear
reaches a certain value, increasing the cutting force, vibration and cutting temperature
would deteriorate the surface integrity. Thus, there would be greater dimension error than
the tolerance (Qehaja et al., 2015). The selection of tools also gives an impact on surface
roughness. Surface roughness is the most frequently investigated characteristic of hard
21
machining processes, mainly due to the continuous competition between hard turning and
grinding, as well as various appropriate data which can be found in numerous references
(Klocke & Kratz, 2005).
These data deal with different grades of hardened steels (alloy, bearing, tool and
cold-work steels) are mostly used in the automotive and die/mould industries. In
machining operation, the surfaces which are fine and smooth as well as without any
unwanted surface condition are preferred. The surface roughness of the workpiece can be
measured by a device called surface finish tester. This device will scan the surface of the
workpiece using a highly sensitive sensor to check the surface texture (Hashimoto et al.,
2006).
The measurement and interpretation of surface roughness can be quite complex
and sometimes controversial. Two surfaces may have the same roughness value, as
measured by a profilometer, but their topography may be different. However, surface
roughness can be measured by various parameters of indices. The various parameters
which collectively assist to build up an accurate picture of the surface is shown in Figure
2.10. In this work, the index, Ra was used to measure the surface roughness of the
machined surface. It is described as Ra (centre line average), which is also known as the
centre line average, CLA (British) and AA, arithmetic average (American). Based on the
schematic illustration which is as shown in Figure 2.9, Ra is the arithmetic mean of the
departures “Y “of the profile from the mean line. It is normally determined as the mean
results of several consecutive sampling lengths “Ls ". Ra presented in the formula below
is in micron meter.
𝑅𝑎 = 1
𝐿𝑠∫ |𝑌|𝑑𝑋
𝐿𝑠
0 (2.2)
22
Figure 2.10: Common surface roughness parameters
Ra (centre line average)
Rv (Lowest valley from the mean line)
Rp (highest peak from mean line)
Rt (maximum peak to valley height within assessment length)
There are many factors that influence the surface finishing in end milling. During
machining, there are several machine variables that play important roles which could
influence the outcome of the machining. One of the variables is cutting speed. At low
cutting speeds, the shear angle is low and thus, cutting forces are high (Marinov, 2001).
Furthermore, each section of the workpiece is in contact with the cutting tool for a
relatively long period of time. Both these conditions would encourage built up edge which
may lead to tearing and galling (König & Erinski, 1983). Thus, surface finishing would
decrease at low cutting speed. Due to an increase in temperature and consequently
decrease of frictional stress at the rake face at higher cutting speed, the tendency towards
built up edge formation weakens. This effect is beneficial for surface finish. At a relatively
small cutting speed, the built-up edge does not form on account of the cutting temperature
when it is too low. As the speed increased, conditions become more favorable for
formation of built-up edge. However, when the cutting speed is increased further, the
built-up edge size starts decreasing owing to increased tool temperature. Finally, at a
sufficiently high speed, the built-up edge disappears altogether and surface finish becomes
almost insensitive to cutting speed.
Other than cutting speed, feed also plays an important role to produce a smooth
surface. The ideal surface roughness is mainly dependent on feed. It is found that surface
roughness would increase with the increase of feed (Alauddin et al., 1996) (Alauddin, El-
Rt
Rp
Rv
23
Baradie, & Hashmi, 1996). The height of roughness (height of the peaks and the depth of
valleys of feed marks) are proportional to the square of the feed per insert. Thus, if the
feed per insert is reduced by half, roughness will be reduced by 1/4 of its previous value.
It is well known that if axial depth of cut increases, then cutting forces would also increase.
Therefore, there is a tendency for deflection, vibration and chatter in the work-tool system.
Previous researchers have shown that surface roughness would increase as the axial depth
of cut increases (Kumar, 2013). Surface error profiles have been studied in end milling as
a function of axial depth of cut where it is shown that an increase in depth of cut would
cause deflections of the cutter. Thus, surface profile would deteriorate due to the
deflection of the cutter. Therefore, an increase in axial depth of cut tends to increase the
surface irregularities.
2.3.4 Tool Wear
The damages of a cutting tool are influenced by the stress state and temperature of the
tool surfaces, which in turn would depend on the cutting mode. For example, in turning,
milling or drilling processes, the cutting conditions and the presence of cutting fluid and
its type would affect the tool wear. In machining, the tool damage mode and the rate of
damage are very sensitive to changes in the cutting operation and the cutting conditions.
To minimise machining cost, it is necessary to find the most suitable tool and
combination of work materials for a given machining operation. It is important to predict
the tool life as well. Tool damages can be classified into two groups which include wear
and fracture, by means of its scale and how it progresses.
Unfortunately, in practice these two groups of tool damage are not clearly
distinguished. Wear is the loss of material which usually progresses continuously on an
asperity or micro-contact, or smaller scale that could be down to molecular or atomic
removal mechanisms. As for fracture (failure), it is a continuous spectrum of damage
scales from micro-wear (for example, micro-chipping) to gross fracture (catastrophic
failure).
Tool wear would lead to tool failure. According to several authors, the failure of
cutting tool occurs as premature tool failure (i.e. tool breakage) and progressive tool wear.
24
Generally, the wear of cutting tools depends on the tool material and geometry, workpiece
materials, cutting parameters (i.e. cutting speed, feed rate and depth of cut), cutting fluids
and characteristics of machine-tool. Normally, wear is undesirable and should be
minimised. Tool wear occurs when the machine surfaces rub together and the loss of
material from one or both surfaces would result in a change of the desired geometry in the
system (Shaw, 2005). Tool wear adversely affects tool life as well as the quality of the
machined surface and its dimensional accuracy. Consequently, the economics of cutting
operation is affected. Figure 2.11 illustrates several types of failures and wears on cutting
tools.
Figure 2.11: Type of failures and wears on cutting tool
Wear on the flank of the cutting tool is caused by the friction between the newly
machined workpiece surface and the contact area on the tool flank. Due to the rigidity of
the workpiece, the worn area which is referred as the flank wear land, must be parallel to
the resultant cutting direction. The width of the wear land is usually taken as a measure
of the amount of wear and can be readily determined by means of toolmaker’s microscope
(Boothroyd and Knight, 2006). Tool wear often leads to tool failure. Generally, wear of
the cutting tools would depend on the tool material and geometry, workpiece materials,
89
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