A3: The Making of Nation States: Uniting Italy and Germany:

Italy 1852-70

What did Cavour do for Piedmont?

Cavour began to introduce modern farming methods on his estates in the 1840s and also encouraged the development of banking and railways. He supported the creation of a Piedmontese constitution, which the king granted in 1848. In 1850 he was the author of a Bill which reduced the power of the Catholic Church and abolished the Church courts.

In 1850 Cavour became a government minister for agriculture and commerce, but later also for the navy and finance. He raised taxes to build more railways. He arranged treaties with Austria, Britain and France and invited foreign banks to invest money in Piedmont.

In which changes was Cavour interested? Tick the column on the right.

The reform of the legal system

The foundation of an Italian republic

The reduction of the power of the Catholic Church

Cutting Piedmont off from outside influence

Introduction of modern farming methods

Foreign investment in Piedmont

The development of a modern banking system

The preservation of traditional agriculture

The development of a railway network

The introduction of constitutional government

Now use the information in the table to describe how Cavour wanted to change Piedmont.

Social changes

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Economic changes

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In 1852 Cavour became the Prime Minister of Piedmont. His main aim was to make Piedmont a strong, modern country and he largely succeeded. In 1848-9 there had been a revolt against the Austrian in Venice. Piedmont had declared war on the Austrians and had tried to drive them out of Italy, but the Piedmontese army had been disastrously defeated. It was obvious that if Italy was to be rid of the Austrians, Piedmont would need foreign help.

How did Cavour defeat Austria?

Cavour offered to support Britain and France in the Crimean War. The Piedmontese did not do very much and the British and French did not offer much in return. But Cavour’s speech at the peace conference in Paris was reported in French newspapers. He received a good deal of attention and a great deal of sympathy.

Cavour offered to support France and Britain in the Crimean War because

He wanted to gain territory from Russia

He hoped that Piedmont would receive international recognition

He believed that France and Britain were justified in attacking Russia

He wanted French support against Austria

He believed that the Piedmontese army would have a dramatic effect

He was a great admirer of the British army

In January 1858 an Italian called Orsini tried to assassinate Napoleon III, the Emperor of France. Cavour went out of his way to round up anyone who could have been involved in the plot. Napoleon III decided that he ought to help and invited Cavour to meet him in July. Cavour travelled in disguise, so that the meeting could be kept secret.

Napoleon offered to help Piedmont against Austria, providing that Cavour could come up with a good reason for French intervention. Piedmont would find a way of provoking the Austrians, France would intervene and would then receive Savoy and Nice in return for its troubles.

In March 1859 all Piedmontese army reserves were ordered to report for duty. The Austrians ordered Piedmont to stand down its army. Cavour rejected the ultimatum and the Austrians invaded Piedmont. French forces were sent to support the Piedmontese army and won two victories at Magenta and Solferino. The second battle was so bloody that Napoleon was horrified at the loss of life and decided to seek an armistice.

When news of the war had spread, the people in the Austrian duchies had driven out their rulers. Napoleon was concerned and met the Austrian emperor at Villafranca in July 1859. Lombardy was handed over, but Venetia would remain Austrian. In the duchies, the Austrian rulers would be reinstated. But when the rulers of the duchies tried to return in August and September 1859, they were rejected and all four duchies voted to be united with Piedmont. Cavour managed to persuade Napoleon to accept the decisions. Napoleon agreed, but demanded Nice and Savoy as a reward.

Was the Pact of Plombieres a success for Cavour?

Yes No

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Draw up a timeline of events in 1858-9. Where there are no dates you must decide what is to be included.

Date Event Importance

January 1858

July 1858

March 1859

July 1859

Aug-Sept 1859

By the end of 1859 Cavour would have been satisfied because

By the end of 1859 Cavour would have been angry because

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How did Garibaldi become involved?

In April 1860 there was a revolt against the king of Naples in Sicily. In Piedmont, Garibaldi decided to go to the support of the people of Naples. Garibaldi had planning to march to Nice to defend it against the French when he heard of the revolt in Sicily. Cavour almost certainly knew what was going on and did very little to stop Garibaldi sailing for Sicily. He was quite happy to take advantage of Garibaldi. Garibaldi set off with The Thousand who were all volunteers.

Garibaldi soon defeated the king’s forces and by the end of July he had driven them out of Sicily. In August he decided to follow them onto the Italian mainland. Within two weeks Garibaldi’s men had taken the city of Naples and the king fled. He now planned to march north, take control of the Papal States and then possibly attack the Austrians in Venetia.

Why did Garibaldi invade Sicily?

Tick the correct answers

Garibaldi wanted to stop Sicily being given to France

Garibaldi had an army ready for action

There was a revolt in Sicily

Garibaldi wanted to establish a Kingdom of Italy

Garibaldi wanted to force Cavour to annex Sicily

Garibaldi wanted to embarrass Cavour

Sicily had been invaded by the King of Naples

Garibaldi wanted to set up a republic in Sicily

Why did Cavour intervene?

Cavour knew that Garibaldi was loyal to the kingdom of Piedmont and so had not been concerned when he overran Sicily and Naples. But if Garibaldi attacked Rome, the French would almost certainly intervene. In September 1860, Cavour ordered the Piedmontese army to invade the Papal States and march south to meet Garibaldi.

Garibaldi was quite happy, however, to hand over all of his conquests to Victor Emmanuel, the king of Piedmont. Most of the Papal States broke away from the Pope and voted for union with Piedmont. Naples and Sicily did the same. The kingdom of Piedmont was more than twice as big than it had been at the beginning of the year. Victor Emmanuel became the first King of Italy.

Complete these paragraphs

Cavour would have been pleased with Garibaldi’s actions because ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Cavour would have been angry at Garibaldi’s actions because________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Which of these statements about Garibaldi are true?

True False

Garibaldi wanted to set up an Italian Republic

Garibaldi was loyal to King Victor Emmanuel

Garibaldi opposed the cession of Nice and Savoy to France

Garibaldi refused to accept the authority of Cavour

Garibaldi had taken part in the 1848 revolution

Garibaldi fought in the Piedmontese Army

Garibaldi was not born in Italy

Garibaldi refused to hand over Naples to Cavour

Garibaldi did not recognise Victor Emmanuel as King of Italy

Garibaldi co-operated with Cavour against the Papal States

How did Venice and Rome become part of Italy?

In May 1866 Italy signed a treaty with Prussia. The following month the Prussians declared war on Austria. The Austrians wanted to keep the French out of the war and so they agreed to hand over Venetia whatever happened in the war. The Italians also declared war on Austria in support of Prussia. The Prussian army defeated the Austrian very easily, but the Italians were defeated in battles on land and at sea. Nevertheless, the Austrians had to hand over Venetia and it became part of Italy. Now only Rome was left.

In 1870 France declared war on Prussia and the French troops were withdrawn from Rome. After a short battle, the city was occupied by the Italian army and became part of Italy in October. It was immediately proclaimed the capital. Italy was now a united country for the first time since the Roman Empire.

Match up the parts of Italy with the ways that they became united

1 Lombardy They were ceded after popular risings and votes to reject their rulers. Napoleon III agreed under pressure from Cavour.

2 The Duchies This was ceded in 1866 after the Austrian defeat in the war with Prussia. Bismarck had agreed that it would be handed over.

3 Sicily This was occupied by Piedmontese forces in 1870 when French troops were withdrawn during the Franco-Prussian War

4 Naples This was occupied after the battles of Solferino and Magenta and the cession was agreed at the Treaty of Villafranca.

5 Papal States This was invaded by Garibaldi after an uprising against the king. He was able to defeat the royal army

6 Venetia They were invaded by Garibaldi and the Piedmontese army. They were quickly overrun and voted to become part of Italy.

7 Rome Garibaldi invaded under the protection of the Royal Navy. He quickly defeated the royal forces and then marched north.

Germany 1862-90

What was realpolitik?

In 1862 the Prussia government had put forward plans to reform the army. But they had run into trouble. The opposition in the Prussian parliament had blocked the taxes that would be needed to pay for the changes. Bismarck’s solution to the problem was to try to arrange a compromise. But when the opposition refused to reach an agreement, he decided to suspend parliament and go ahead and collect the taxes anyway.

This action was an example of what has become known as ‘realpolitik’. This is a difficult word to translate. It is probably best explained as ‘the end justifies the means’. Bismarck believed that all Prussians should be prepared to make sacrifices for the good of their country. He was determined to make Prussia a powerful and united country. Even more important was the way that Bismarck tried to force France to declare war in July 1870.

In July 1870, Bismarck was sent a telegram by King Wilhelm telling him about a meeting with the French ambassador. Bismarck deliberately changed the wording of the telegram so that it appeared that the king had insulted the ambassador. He then published the telegram in Prussian newspapers. In France people were furious and the government was almost forced to declare war on Prussia by the national press.

Why was Bismarck appointed Minister-President of Prussia in 1862? Tick the correct reasons.

Bismarck had a reputation for being outspoken

Bismarck was an experienced minister in the Prussian government

The Prussian parliament had refused to increase taxes

Bismarck was completely loyal to the Prussian crown

The Prussian parliament had demanded the resignation of the government

Bismarck was prepared to override opposition

The army reforms had run into opposition

Which of these are correct explanations of realpolitik?

Breaking the law can be justified if it produces the right results

Ministers should act in the best interests of their country

People can be arrested and executed without trial

The state is more important than individual people

The government can do whatever it likes

Results are more important than the way that they are achieved

Political success is more important than good behaviour

The government can act illegally in times of crisis

Now complete these paragraphs

Bismarck’s handling of the army reforms was an example of realpolitik because

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The Ems telegram was an example of realpolitik because

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The creation of the German Empire

The Zollverein was set up in 1834 and eighteen states joined. Seven more states had joined by the early 1850s. Most of these states were in northern Germany. The Zollverein was simply an area in which goods could be traded without any customs duties. By the 1860s the Zollverein was so important that Austria tried to join, but Bismarck would not allow it.

Choose the correct statements about the Zollverein

True FalseAt first the Zollverein was mostly made up of states in northern Germany

The Zollverein included Austria

Although the Zollverein was economic at first, it became politicalThe Zollverein became more important that the German Confederation

The members of the Zollverein had to follow orders from Prussia

The Zollverein linked states in Germany to Prussia

The failure to join the Zollverein left Austria isolated

Austria never wanted to join the Zollverein

The Zollverein brought German people closer together

The Zollverein had no political clauses

After the wars against Denmark and Austria, only four southern states remained independent, but they all joined the German Empire when it was announced in January 1871 after the Franco-Prussian War.

What part did Bismarck play?

The German Empire was created by Bismarck. He persuaded all of the rulers of the German states to accept King Wilhelm as the Emperor. He also designed the way in which the Empire was to be run.

How was the German Empire organised?

Use the information below to complete the table on the next page. Fill in the boxes explaining the powers of each organisation.

The Empire could only raise income through indirect taxation, such as a sales tax.

The German Empire had a parliament, the Reichstag, which was elected on universal suffrage.

The Reichstag had to pass laws put forward by the Chancellor.

Bismarck soon realised that it was more important to be Minister-President of Prussia, than it was to be Chancellor of Germany.

Prussia supplied the army and much of the finance. Bismarck also made sure that as many as possible of the senior officials in the Imperial government were Prussian.

In practice it was Prussia that really counted. Each state retained control over education, justice, agriculture, direct taxation and local government.

Imperial ministers did not have to do what the Reichstag wanted and the Reichstag could not propose laws.

Bismarck became Chancellor of the German Empire, but also remained Minister-President of Prussia.

How was the German Empire organised?

Imperial government State governments

Imperial government Reichstag

Imperial government Prussia

Describe three ways in which Bismarck tried to control the Empire

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Why did Bismarck come into conflict with the Catholics?

From 1871 almost 40 percent of the people of the Empire were Catholics. Universal suffrage allowed Catholic voters to create the Centre Party. Bismarck tried to get the Catholic Church to withdraw support from the Centre Party, but when it refused, he decided to try to limit the influence of the Church. Bismarck was not really being anti-Catholic. He wanted to make sure that the Empire survived. He was prepared to take action against any groups that were attacking it.

List three reasons why Bismarck Catholics became important in the German Empire after 1871.

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How did Bismarck attempt to limit the power of the Catholic Church?

At first all schools in Prussia were removed from the control of churches placed under the supervision of the state. In 1872 the Reichstag banned the Jesuits from setting up any institutions in the Empire.

In 1873 the Prussian parliament passed the May Laws. Men who wanted to become priests to attend university for three years before they began their training. All church appointments could be vetoed by the state.

In 1874 Prussia introduced civil marriage. In 1875 these laws were extended to all of the other German states. In 1875, the Prussian government began to stop paying subsidies to the Church where the new laws were ignored. The laws were opposed by Catholics all over Germany.

But Bismarck soon needed support in efforts to sort out problems in the German economy. In 1879, when Bismarck did a deal with the Pope and the Church. The controls on the clergy and loss of subsidies were abolished, but civil marriage and the ban on the Jesuits were retained.

Draw up a timeline for Bismarck’s attacks on the Catholic Church

Complete the table using the information from the previous page and your own knowledge.

Date Changes Importance for Catholics

Catholics would not have been able to choose how their children were going to be educated

The Jesuits were banned from the German Empire

Men training to be priests would not just be educated by the Church. The Empire would be able to control appointments in the Church.

1874

This reduced the authority of the Church because marriage became a civil ceremony

Subsidies to the Church were withdrawn if laws were not observed.

How did Bismarck deal with the Liberals?

In the 1870s Bismarck relied on the support of the Liberals in the Reichstag. They were mostly wealthy, middle class businessmen and lawyers, who had made money out of trade and the Zollverein.

In the Empire the Liberals wanted power to be in the hands of the people who made Germany wealthy and who provided the income of the state. In the early 1870s the Liberals helped Bismarck to centralise the Empire. A uniform currency was set up. A Reichsbank was created.

In Prussia, some people objected very strongly to what was going on. In Prussia the ruling class was called the Junkers. To them, the reforms seemed to be undermining their influence and handing power over to the middle class. The Junkers main source of wealth was land.

In the late 1870s, the German economy began to suffer. Free trade had meant that imports could come into Germany freely and without any duties. Bismarck wanted to set tariffs that would have to be paid on foreign goods when they came into Germany. A Tariff Law was passed by the Reichstag in 1879. In future Bismarck became more conservative. He appointed conservative ministers and relied on the support of his fellow Junkers.

What were the differences between the Liberals and the Junkers?

Liberals Junkers

Power

Class

Economy

Trade

Empire

Explain three reasons why Bismarck was influenced by the Liberals in the early 1870s.

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Explain three reasons why Bismarck turned to the Junkers in the late 1870s.

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3

Revision

Explain the meaning of the following terms

Zollverein

Chancellor

Reichstag

Tariffs

Liberals

Junkers

Free Trade

Bismarck and the Socialists

In May 1878, there was an attempted assassination of Kaiser Wilhelm. Two shots were fired, both of which missed, and the man was arrested. Bismarck used this as an excuse to deal with the Socialists. The fact that the man was mentally unstable made no difference to Bismarck. This was an example of realpolitik. In 1879 Bismarck put an anti-Socialist Bill before the Reichstag. All socialist and communist meetings, organisations and publications were banned. The police could arrest and expel anyone who they considered to be a socialist agitator.

The number of votes for socialist candidates in the Reichstag fell from 493,000 in 1877 to 312,000 by 1880. But by 1884 it had risen to 550,000 and by 1890 it stood at well over 1,000,000. The number of deputies in the Reichstag rose continuously from 1880 to 1890. Bismarck had in fact given the Socialist Party a new lease of life. The Party also began to work from outside Germany. Bismarck had actually made it stronger.

Bismarck then did what the Socialists were after and gave medical insurance to 3,000,000 workers and their families. The cost would be met out of weekly payments by workers and employers. In 1883 accident insurance was introduced and was paid for entirely by employers. In 1886 accident and sickness benefit was introduced for 7,000,000 agricultural workers. In 1889 pensions were introduced at the age of seventy. Germany had the first welfare state anywhere in the world. Bismarck had done exactly what the Socialists had wanted.

Draw up a timeline of Bismarck’s dealings with the Socialists

1877

1878

1879

1880

1883

1884

1886

1889

1890

What did Bismarck actually achieve in his attempts to tackle the Socialists?

Bismarck’s Aims Results