A TRUE STORY In my mind I’ve returned to that scene many times, and each time the memory gains...

A TRUE STORYIn my mind I’ve returned to that scene many times, and each time the memory gains

weight and substance. I can see the cool pine trees, smell their fresh tarry breath, feel the lake’s algae-green water on my skin, taste Uncle Joe’s iced tea with fresh-squeezed lemon. But the death itself was always vague and unfocused. I never saw my mother’s body, and I could not imagine her dead. The last memory I have of my mother was her tiptoed visit the evening before her death, the quick hug, the whispered, “I love you.”It was some thirty years later that Elizabeth began to remember the details surrounding her mother’s death. While at her Uncle Joe’s ninetieth birthday party, Elizabeth learned from a relative that she had been the one to discover her mother’s body in Uncle Joe’s swimming pool. With the realization, memories that had eluded Elizabeth for decades began to come back.

The memories began to drift back, slow and unpredictable, like the crisp piney smoke from the evening campfires. I could see myself, a thin, dark-haired girl, looking into the flickering blue-and-white pool. My mother dressed in her nightgown, is floating face down. “Mom? Mom?” I ask the question several times, my voice rising in terror. I start screaming. I remember the police cars, their lights flashing, and the stretcher with the clean, white blanket tucked in around the edges of the body. The memory had been there all along, but I just couldn’t reach it.

As the memory crystallized, it suddenly made sense to Elizabeth why she had always felt haunted by her vague memories of the circumstances surrounding her mother’s death. And it also seemed to partly explain why she had always been so fascinated by the topic of memory.

However, several days later, Elizabeth learned that the relative had been wrong—it was not Elizabeth who discovered her mother’s body, but her Aunt Pearl. Other relative confirmed that Aunt Pearl had been the one who found Elizabeth’s mother in the swimming pool. Yet Elizabeth’s memory had seemed so real.The Elizabeth in this true story is none other the Elizabeth Loftus, a psychologist who is nationally recognized as the leading expert on the distortions that can occur in the memories of eyewitnesses. Even though Loftus is an expert on memory distortions and false memories, she wasn’t immune to the phenomenon herself. Loftus experienced firsthand just how convincing a false memory can be. In retrospect, Loftus can see how she actively created information in her own mind that corresponded to the inaccurate information that she had been the one to discover her mother’s body. As Loftus writes, “That elaborate but completely fabricated memory confronted me with its detail and precision, its utter lack of ambiguity.” (Loftus & Ketcham, 1994).

Chapter 9Chapter 9

MemoryMemory

The Phenomenon of The Phenomenon of MemoryMemory

Memory:Memory:

the persistence of learning over time the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of through the storage and retrieval of informationinformation

Clive Wearing, the man with no Clive Wearing, the man with no memorymemory

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OmkiMlvLKto&feature=mr_meh&list=PL1DA172C40AC3B362&playnext=0



3-3’s of Memory3-3’s of Memory

1. Three Kinds/Types of 1. Three Kinds/Types of MemoryMemory

2. Three Processes of Memory2. Three Processes of Memory

3. Three Stages of Memory3. Three Stages of Memory

Three Kinds/Types of Three Kinds/Types of MemoryMemory

Episodic Memory: Episodic Memory:

A memory of a specific eventA memory of a specific event

Flashbulb Memory: A vivid, Flashbulb Memory: A vivid, detailed memory of a detailed memory of a surprising, emotional eventsurprising, emotional event

These animals all have flashbulb memories of when Bambi’s mother was shot

Episodic MemoryEpisodic Memory

Jill Price has perfect episodic Jill Price has perfect episodic memory.memory.

Would this be a blessing or a curse?Would this be a blessing or a curse?

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SoxsMMV538U




Generic/Semantic Memory:Generic/Semantic Memory:

General Knowledge that we General Knowledge that we have but don’t remember when have but don’t remember when we acquired it.we acquired it.


Procedural MemoryProcedural Memory

Consists of the skills or procedures we have Consists of the skills or procedures we have learned.learned.

Often a procedural memory consists of a Often a procedural memory consists of a complicated sequence of movements that complicated sequence of movements that cannot be described adequately in words.cannot be described adequately in words.

Once a procedural memory is formed it Once a procedural memory is formed it usually stays with you a long time– perhaps usually stays with you a long time– perhaps a lifetime.a lifetime.

Many activities require all Many activities require all types of memory.types of memory.

Example: Playing the game of tennisExample: Playing the game of tennisGeneric/Semantic Memory:Generic/Semantic Memory: Knowing Knowing

the rules of the game, knowing how the rules of the game, knowing how many sets it takes to win.many sets it takes to win.

Episodic Memory:Episodic Memory: Knowing who served Knowing who served last.last.

Procedural Memory:Procedural Memory: Knowing how to Knowing how to lob or volley the balllob or volley the ball

Now you try it.Now you try it.

Generic/Semantic Memory:Generic/Semantic Memory:

Episodic Memory:Episodic Memory:

Procedural Memory:Procedural Memory:

PEG is kind!PEG is kind!This is a memory cue for the three This is a memory cue for the three

kinds/types of memory.kinds/types of memory.

PP=Procedural=Procedural

EE=Episodic=Episodic

GG=Generic/Semantic=Generic/Semantic

KindKind=Kinds of Memory=Kinds of Memory

Information ProcessingInformation Processing Encoding:Encoding:

The processing of information into the The processing of information into the memory system, for example by extracting memory system, for example by extracting meaning.meaning.

Example: If you were trying to memorize the Example: If you were trying to memorize the definition of a key term that appears on a text definition of a key term that appears on a text page you would visually encode the patterns page you would visually encode the patterns of the lines and dots on the page as of the lines and dots on the page as meaningful words that can be retained by meaningful words that can be retained by your memoryyour memory

Information ProcessingInformation Processing

Storage:Storage:

The maintenance of encoded The maintenance of encoded information over time. information over time.

(Keeping it in your memory)(Keeping it in your memory)

Information ProcessingInformation Processing

Retrieval:Retrieval:

The process of getting information The process of getting information out of memory.out of memory.

A library is an analogy of A library is an analogy of the three processes of the three processes of

memorymemoryEncoding:Encoding: Acquiring the books Acquiring the books

Storage:Storage: Cataloging the books and Cataloging the books and

keeping them on the shelfkeeping them on the shelf

Retrieval:Retrieval: Making it available to the Making it available to the useruser

A computer is another A computer is another analogyanalogy

Encoding:Encoding:

Storage:Storage:


Now you try it. Come up with Now you try it. Come up with your own analogy. Be your own analogy. Be

creative!creative!Encoding:Encoding:

Storage:Storage:


What is a good memory cue What is a good memory cue to help remember the Three to help remember the Three

Processes of Memory? Processes of Memory?

Three Stages of MemoryThree Stages of Memory

Sensory Memory:Sensory Memory:

Consists of the immediate, initial Consists of the immediate, initial recording of information that recording of information that enters through our senses.enters through our senses.

After a few secondsAfter a few seconds or less, the or less, the information fadesinformation fades

Solve the following Solve the following problem without writing problem without writing

anything down.anything down.

765765

x 4x 4


Short-Term/Working Memory:Short-Term/Working Memory:

Holds a few items (7 plus or minus Holds a few items (7 plus or minus 2) briefly (about 20 seconds) before 2) briefly (about 20 seconds) before the information is either stored or the information is either stored or forgotten.forgotten.

The items need not be discrete The items need not be discrete elements, it could be for chunkselements, it could be for chunks


Short-Term/Working Memory:Short-Term/Working Memory:Although information is encoded both Although information is encoded both visually and acoustically into STM visually and acoustically into STM acoustic encoding seems to dominateacoustic encoding seems to dominate

Evidence?Evidence?

Also, information encoded acoustically Also, information encoded acoustically tends to last longer than information tends to last longer than information that is encoded visuallythat is encoded visually

Figure 9.11 Short-term memory decayMyers: Psychology, Eighth EditionCopyright © 2007 by Worth Publishers

http://www.freegames.ws/games/kidsgames/simon/mysimon.htm



Three Stages of MemoryThree Stages of Memory Long-Term Memory:Long-Term Memory:

This memory system is presumed to be This memory system is presumed to be without limit, both in capacity to store without limit, both in capacity to store information and in duration of that information and in duration of that which is stored.which is stored.

In order to get information into long-In order to get information into long-term memory you must rehearse the term memory you must rehearse the informationinformation..

STIMULUS

SENSORY REGISTERSMemory system that holds incoming information long Enough to be processed further

FORGOTTEN

PROCESSED

FORGOTTEN

LONG-TERM MEMORYCapacity and Duration seem to be limitless

SHORT-TERM/

WORKING MEMORY

Holds 7+/- 2 items/ chunks for approximately 18-20 seconds

REHEARSED

REHEARSED

ENCODED

RETRIEVED

Acquiring New Memories

3 Stages of Memory

(Atkinson-Shiffrin Theory)

Sally Sings Loudly on StageSally Sings Loudly on Stage

Sensory MemorySensory Memory Short-term/working MemoryShort-term/working Memory Long Term MemoryLong Term Memory

Are Stages of MemoryAre Stages of Memory

3 3s of Memory3 3s of Memory 3 Kinds/Types of Memory3 Kinds/Types of Memory

11 22 33

3 Processes of Memory3 Processes of Memory 11 22 33

3 Stages of Memory3 Stages of Memory 11 22 33

How We EncodeHow We Encode Automatic Processing:Automatic Processing:

Unconscious process of encoding Unconscious process of encoding certain information without effort.certain information without effort.

Some forms of processing, such as Some forms of processing, such as learning to read or drive, require learning to read or drive, require attention and effort when we first attention and effort when we first perform them, but with practice perform them, but with practice become automatic.become automatic.

How We EncodeHow We EncodeWe automatically process information about:We automatically process information about:

Space:Space: Where in your notes you wrote a particular definitionWhere in your notes you wrote a particular definition

Time:Time: What you did before you studied for psychologyWhat you did before you studied for psychology

Frequency:Frequency: How many times a teacher says a particular How many times a teacher says a particular

wordword

How We EncodeHow We Encode

Effortful Processing:Effortful Processing:Encoding that requires attention Encoding that requires attention and conscious effortand conscious effort

Generally, encoding into long-Generally, encoding into long-term memory is the result of term memory is the result of effortful processing involving effortful processing involving semantic encodingsemantic encoding

Effortful ProcessingEffortful Processing

RehearsalRehearsal::The conscious repetition of The conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for consciousness or to encode it for storagestorage

RehearsalRehearsal

Ebbinghaus:Ebbinghaus: Studied Studied

memory and forgetting, memory and forgetting,

using himself as a subjectusing himself as a subject

and nonsense syllablesand nonsense syllables

as the materialas the material

RehearsalRehearsal

Ebbinghaus studied the “Ebbinghaus studied the “method method of savings” of savings” by computing the by computing the difference the number of difference the number of repetitions needed to learn a list repetitions needed to learn a list of items initially and the number of items initially and the number of repetitions needed to relearn it of repetitions needed to relearn it after some time has elapsedafter some time has elapsed

RehearsalRehearsal

Maintenance Rehearsal:Maintenance Rehearsal:

Involves merely repeating an Involves merely repeating an item over and over. This is good item over and over. This is good for remembering information for for remembering information for short periods of time. (i.e. The short periods of time. (i.e. The phone number for the pizza phone number for the pizza place)place)

RehearsalRehearsal

Elaborative Rehearsal:Elaborative Rehearsal: Involves thinking about how new Involves thinking about how new

information is related to material already information is related to material already stored in memory. Examples include self-stored in memory. Examples include self-referencing and visual imageryreferencing and visual imagery

Elaborative rehearsal is more effective Elaborative rehearsal is more effective than maintenance rehearsal because the than maintenance rehearsal because the material is processed in more depth than material is processed in more depth than when one uses maintenance rehearsalwhen one uses maintenance rehearsal

Spacing EffectSpacing Effect Massed practice:Massed practice:

When practice sessions are run togetherWhen practice sessions are run together

Distributed Practice:Distributed Practice:

Practice sessions are separated by rest Practice sessions are separated by rest periodsperiods

*Distributed practice is more effective *Distributed practice is more effective than massed practicethan massed practice

“The mind is slow in unlearning what it has been long in

learning”

Serial PositionSerial Position Serial Position Effect:Serial Position Effect: Our tendency to Our tendency to

remember best the first and last items in remember best the first and last items in a lista list

Primacy and Recency Effect:Primacy and Recency Effect: Primacy EffectPrimacy Effect

The tendency to recall the initial items in a The tendency to recall the initial items in a series of items better than the middle series of items better than the middle items.items.

Recency EffectRecency Effect The tendency to recall the last item in a The tendency to recall the last item in a

series of items better than the middle series of items better than the middle items.items.

How Can you use your How Can you use your knowledge of the primacy and knowledge of the primacy and recency effect to maximize the recency effect to maximize the

effort you put into your effort you put into your studying?studying?

Ways to Encode Ways to Encode InformationInformation

Visual Encoding:Visual Encoding:

the mental representation of the mental representation of information as information as picturespictures

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a8YXZTlwTAU

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a8YXZTlwTAU


Acoustic Encoding:Acoustic Encoding:The mental representation of The mental representation of information as a information as a

sequence of sequence of soundssounds


Semantic Encoding:Semantic Encoding:

The mental representation of an The mental representation of an experience by its general meaningexperience by its general meaning


Transfer-Appropriate Process:Transfer-Appropriate Process: This model suggests that our This model suggests that our

memory is better when the encoding memory is better when the encoding process matches up with what we process matches up with what we are trying to retrieveare trying to retrieve

For instance, if we encode material For instance, if we encode material semantically then our memory is semantically then our memory is better if we try to retrieve it better if we try to retrieve it semantically rather than acousticallysemantically rather than acoustically

Recognizing Factors in Memory EncodingCheck your understanding of various factors at work in memory encoding by

identifying each of the vignettes below as an example of one of the following:

(A) semantic encoding (C) visual imagery (B) elaboration (D) attention_____1.As Zach reads the next chapter in his psychology textbook for the first

time, he stops whenever he comes across a word he doesn’t understand and looks it up in a dictionary. In addition, at the end

of each paragraph he stops and quizzes himself to determine whether he understands what he’s just read._____2.On the bus riding home from work, Zeon relaxes by reading books about baseball. He’s really interested in learning the intricacies of baseball strategy. It’s a more challenging subject than he thought, so he really has to concentrate on shutting out the noise and other

distractions that go along with riding a bus during rush hour._____3. Zelda has discovered that many of the foreign-sounding vocabulary terms in her anatomy and physiology course are similar to common English words. Furthermore, she has realized that if she forms mental pictures of the objects these English words remind her of, she is often better able to remember the meaning of the vocabulary terms._____4. While Dr. Riley is lecturing on theories of motivation, Zoe is thinking of examples in her own life of each of the concepts Dr. Riley is introducing.


Levels of Processing Model:Levels of Processing Model: This model tells us that the most This model tells us that the most

important determinant of important determinant of memory is how extensively memory is how extensively information is encoded or information is encoded or processed when it is first processed when it is first receivedreceived

Visual EncodingVisual Encoding

Imagery:Imagery: Mental pictures (being able to Mental pictures (being able to

picture a word will be a powerful picture a word will be a powerful aid to process it)aid to process it)

Visual EncodingVisual Encoding Mnemonic Devices:Mnemonic Devices:

Catchwords, jingles, acronyms, or phrases Catchwords, jingles, acronyms, or phrases to help you recall a particular factto help you recall a particular fact

Examples: ROY G. BIV (to remember the Examples: ROY G. BIV (to remember the visual spectrum and descending visual spectrum and descending wavelengths)wavelengths)

EncodinEncodingg, Storag, Storagee, Retrieva, Retrievall (LEG) (LEG)

(Which device is better? Why?)(Which device is better? Why?)

Other Examples of Mnemonic Other Examples of Mnemonic Devices?Devices?

HOMES (for remembering the Great HOMES (for remembering the Great Lakes)Lakes)

Righty Tighty, Lefty LooseyRighty Tighty, Lefty Loosey

My Very Elegant Mother Just Served Us My Very Elegant Mother Just Served Us NOTHING!!! (for remembering the NOTHING!!! (for remembering the planets and their distance from the planets and their distance from the sun)sun)

Disadvantages of Mnemonic Disadvantages of Mnemonic Devices?Devices?

They may be too time consuming to They may be too time consuming to develop.develop.

If you rely solely on the mnemonic If you rely solely on the mnemonic device you may make errors.device you may make errors.

Visual EncodingVisual Encoding Mnemonic DevicesMnemonic Devices

Method of LociMethod of Loci (Latin for physical (Latin for physical place)place)

A mnemonic strategy in which the A mnemonic strategy in which the items to be remembered are items to be remembered are converted into mental images and converted into mental images and associated with specific positions associated with specific positions or locations.or locations.

Visual EncodingVisual Encoding Mnemonic DevicesMnemonic Devices

Peg-Word System: Peg-Word System: A Mnemonic A Mnemonic strategy used to remember lists, in strategy used to remember lists, in which each item is associated in which each item is associated in imagination with a number-word imagination with a number-word rhyming pair.rhyming pair.

Visual EncodingVisual Encoding

Example of Peg-Word SystemExample of Peg-Word System1 = bun2 = shoe3 = tree4 = door5 = hive6 = sticks7 = heaven8 = gate9 = vine10 = hen

Imagine the list of items you want to remember are items you need to buy at the grocery store such as: milk, eggs, bread, butter… You would visualize the first item (milk) with a bun (imagine a soggy bun in a bowl of milk). Then visualize the second item (eggs) with shoe (imagine a giant shoe stepping on a carton of eggs). Next you may imagine slices of bread hanging on a tree

Organizing Information Organizing Information for Encodingfor Encoding

ChunkingChunking The process by which the mind sorts The process by which the mind sorts

information into small, easily digestible information into small, easily digestible units (chunks) that can be retained in units (chunks) that can be retained in short term memory.short term memory.

Chunking occurs so naturally that we Chunking occurs so naturally that we often take it for grantedoften take it for granted

(414) 604-3200(414) 604-3200

Sensory MemorySensory Memory

Iconic MemoryIconic Memory

(visual sensory memory)(visual sensory memory) The perceptual experience of briefly The perceptual experience of briefly

retaining an image of a visual retaining an image of a visual stimulus beyond the cessation of the stimulus beyond the cessation of the stimulus stimulus

It usually lasts less thanIt usually lasts less than

one secondone second

G H R

W B N

M K S

Sensory MemorySensory Memory

Echoic Memory:Echoic Memory: (auditory sensory memory)(auditory sensory memory)

The persistence of auditory stimulation The persistence of auditory stimulation in the nervous system for a brief period in the nervous system for a brief period after the end of the stimulus. It lasts after the end of the stimulus. It lasts about 3-4 secondsabout 3-4 seconds

Working/Short-Term Working/Short-Term MemoryMemory

The stage of memory that can The stage of memory that can hold 7 plus or minus 2 items for hold 7 plus or minus 2 items for 18-20 seconds18-20 seconds

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KuvF113uty4

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KuvF113uty4

Long-Term Memory

The stage of memory that can The stage of memory that can hold an unlimited amount of hold an unlimited amount of information for an unlimited information for an unlimited amount of timeamount of time

“He can remember when Hannibal crossed the Alps. But when it comes to my birthday- forget it!”

Storing Memories in the Storing Memories in the BrainBrain

Karl Lashley found that Karl Lashley found that memories are not localized in memories are not localized in one specific region of the brain, one specific region of the brain, but, instead are distributed but, instead are distributed throughout large areas of brain throughout large areas of brain tissuetissue

Synaptic ChangesSynaptic Changes

Acetylcholine:Acetylcholine: Plays a prominent role in memoryPlays a prominent role in memory A shortage has been linked with A shortage has been linked with

Alzheimer’s DiseaseAlzheimer’s Disease Drugs that reduce the amount of Drugs that reduce the amount of

acetylcholine in the brain impair memoryacetylcholine in the brain impair memory Drugs or dietary supplements that Drugs or dietary supplements that

increase the amount of acetylcholine in increase the amount of acetylcholine in the brain can improve memorythe brain can improve memory


As the sequence of neurons that As the sequence of neurons that represents a particular memory fires represents a particular memory fires repeatedly, the synapses between these repeatedly, the synapses between these neurons become more efficient, a process neurons become more efficient, a process known as known as long-term potentiation. long-term potentiation. Learning and memory stimulate the Learning and memory stimulate the neurons to release chemicals (primarily neurons to release chemicals (primarily serotonin) at the synapses, making it serotonin) at the synapses, making it easier for the neurons to fire again in the easier for the neurons to fire again in the future.future.


The tracks formed in your brain are almost like a trail balazed through deep snow from a cabin to the woodpile. With each repeated trip, the trail becomes easier to follow.


Long-term potentiation (LTP):Long-term potentiation (LTP): An increase in a synapse’s firing potential An increase in a synapse’s firing potential

after brief, rapid stimulation.after brief, rapid stimulation. Long-term potentiation is believed to be a Long-term potentiation is believed to be a

neural basis for learning and memoryneural basis for learning and memory Drugs that block LTP interfere with learningDrugs that block LTP interfere with learning After LTP occurs, passing an electric current After LTP occurs, passing an electric current

through the brain won’t disrupt old memory, through the brain won’t disrupt old memory, but will disrupt recent memories that have but will disrupt recent memories that have not had time to consolidate into long-term not had time to consolidate into long-term memorymemory

Long-Term Potentiation

Stress-Hormones and Stress-Hormones and MemoryMemory

The naturally stimulating hormones that The naturally stimulating hormones that humans and animals produce when excited or humans and animals produce when excited or stressed make more glucose energy available stressed make more glucose energy available to fuel brain activity, signaling the brain that to fuel brain activity, signaling the brain that something important has happened. The something important has happened. The amygdala, an emotion-processing structures in amygdala, an emotion-processing structures in the brain’s limbic system, arouses brain areas the brain’s limbic system, arouses brain areas that process emotion. The emotion-triggered that process emotion. The emotion-triggered hormonal changes boost learning and hormonal changes boost learning and retention. Emotionless events mean weaker retention. Emotionless events mean weaker memories.memories.

Storing Implicit and Explicit Storing Implicit and Explicit MemoriesMemories

AmnesiaAmnesia Retrograde Amnesia:Retrograde Amnesia: loss of memory for loss of memory for

events and experiences events and experiences

that occurred before the that occurred before the

onset of the amnesiaonset of the amnesia


AmnesiaAmnesia Anterograde Amnesia:Anterograde Amnesia: loss of loss of

memory for events that occurred after memory for events that occurred after the onset of amnesiathe onset of amnesia


Implicit Memory Implicit Memory ((nondeclarative memorynondeclarative memory)):: Retention independent of conscious Retention independent of conscious

recollection. It is incidental, recollection. It is incidental, unintentional remembering, the unintentional remembering, the unintentional influence of prior unintentional influence of prior experienceexperience

Implicit memory is largely unaffected by Implicit memory is largely unaffected by amnesia, age, the administration of amnesia, age, the administration of certain drugs (such as alcohol), the certain drugs (such as alcohol), the length of the retention intervallength of the retention interval


Explicit Memory Explicit Memory ((declarative memorydeclarative memory)):: The processThe process in which people intentionally in which people intentionally

try to remember something and are try to remember something and are consciously aware of doing soconsciously aware of doing so

Explicit memory is affected by amnesia, Explicit memory is affected by amnesia, age, drugs, the length of retention age, drugs, the length of retention interval, etcinterval, etc

Explicit memory can be best assessed with Explicit memory can be best assessed with recall or recognition measure of retentionrecall or recognition measure of retention


By the time you reach adulthood, you By the time you reach adulthood, you may have no explicit memories of the may have no explicit memories of the interaction you had in early childhood interaction you had in early childhood with friends from different ethnic with friends from different ethnic groups. Research suggests, however, groups. Research suggests, however, that your implicit memories of such that your implicit memories of such experiences could have an unconscious experiences could have an unconscious effect on your attitudes toward and effect on your attitudes toward and judgments about members of those judgments about members of those groupsgroups


Hippocampus: Hippocampus: a neural center a neural center that is located in the limbic system that is located in the limbic system and helps process explicit memories and helps process explicit memories for storage. Even though your ability for storage. Even though your ability to form explicit memories is to form explicit memories is compromised due to damage to the compromised due to damage to the hippocampus, your ability to form hippocampus, your ability to form implicit memories is still intact.implicit memories is still intact.


A woman with organic amnesia was unable A woman with organic amnesia was unable to recognize the physician. Each day he to recognize the physician. Each day he needed to reintroduce himself. One day, needed to reintroduce himself. One day, after reaching for his hand, she yanked hers after reaching for his hand, she yanked hers back because the physician had pricked her back because the physician had pricked her with a tack he had in his palm. The next day with a tack he had in his palm. The next day he reintroduced himself and stretched out he reintroduced himself and stretched out his hand to shake hers. She refused to his hand to shake hers. She refused to shake his hand but couldn’t explain why. shake his hand but couldn’t explain why. She had implicit memory of the painful She had implicit memory of the painful pinprick despite damage to her hippocampuspinprick despite damage to her hippocampus


Cerebellum:Cerebellum: this part of the brain this part of the brain plays a key role in forming and plays a key role in forming and storing the implicit memories created storing the implicit memories created by classical conditioning. Damage to by classical conditioning. Damage to this structure makes it impossible to this structure makes it impossible to develop conditioned responsesdevelop conditioned responses

RECOGNIZING VARIOUS TYPES OF MEMORYCheck your understanding of the various types of memory discussed in this chapter by matching the definitions below with the following: (A) Episodic Memory,(B) Explicit Memory, (C) Implicit Memory, (D) Long-Term Memory, (E) Procedural Memory, (F) Semantic Memory, (G) Sensory Memory, or (H) Short-Term Memory._____1. An unlimited capacity store that can hold information over lengthy periods of time._____2. The preservation of information in its original sensory form for a brief time, usually only a fraction of a second._____3. Type of memory apparent when retention is exhibited on a task that does not require intentional remembering._____4. Chronological, or temporally dated, recollections of personal experiences._____5. The repository of memories for actions, skills, and operations._____6. General knowledge that is not tied to the time when the information was learned._____7. A limited-capacity store that can maintain unrehearsed information for about 18 seconds.

Retrieval: Getting Information Retrieval: Getting Information OutOut

Recall:Recall:

The learner has to reconstruct the The learner has to reconstruct the entireentire

stored materialstored material

Usually yields a lower amount than Usually yields a lower amount than recognitionrecognition

Examples:Examples:


Recognition:Recognition:

Identifying objects or events that Identifying objects or events that have been encountered beforehave been encountered before

It is the easiest of the memory tasksIt is the easiest of the memory tasks

Examples:Examples:


Relearning (Method of Relearning (Method of Savings):Savings):

A procedure for studying memory or retention A procedure for studying memory or retention in which the effort required to learn the in which the effort required to learn the material a second time is compared with the material a second time is compared with the effort needed on the initial learning experience.effort needed on the initial learning experience.

If it takes less time and effort to learn the If it takes less time and effort to learn the material a second time, then there must be material a second time, then there must be material that was retained in the memory material that was retained in the memory systemsystemExamples:Examples:

Retrieval CuesRetrieval Cues

Priming:Priming: the activation, often unconsciously, of the activation, often unconsciously, of

particular associations in memoryparticular associations in memory.

A technique called priming can demonstrate implicit memory. A person who sees the word yellow will be slightly faster to recognize the word banana as a word. This happens because the words yellow and banana are closely associated in memory.

Researchers sometimes envision a network of word meanings or semantic network somewhat like the diagram. The distance between words indicates the frequency with which the words are associated in everyday life. Because of these associations, activating one node of the network (showing the person one word) warms up or primes nearby words, speeding retrieval. This effect lasts about 30 minutes after exposure to the priming word.

Context EffectsContext Effects Context EffectsContext Effects

Retrieval is sometimes aided by returning to Retrieval is sometimes aided by returning to the original context in which we experienced the original context in which we experienced an event or encoded a thought. It can flood an event or encoded a thought. It can flood our memories with retrieval cues that lead to our memories with retrieval cues that lead to the target memory. Sometimes, being in a the target memory. Sometimes, being in a context similar to one we’ve been in before context similar to one we’ve been in before may trick us into unconsciously retrieving the may trick us into unconsciously retrieving the target memory. The result is a feeling that target memory. The result is a feeling that we are reliving something that we have we are reliving something that we have experienced before—a phenomenon known experienced before—a phenomenon known as “déjà vu”as “déjà vu”

Context EffectsContext Effects

déjà vu:déjà vu: the eerie sense thatthe eerie sense that “ “I’ve experienced this I’ve experienced this before” Cues from the before” Cues from the current situation maycurrent situation may subconsciously trigger subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier retrieval of an earlier experience.experience.

Mood and MemoriesMood and Memories State-Dependent MemoryState-Dependent Memory

When a person’s internal state can When a person’s internal state can aid or impede retrieval memoryaid or impede retrieval memory

State dependent effect are very State dependent effect are very weak and limited to free-recall tasksweak and limited to free-recall tasks

Example: College students Example: College students remember more positive incidents remember more positive incidents from their diaries or from their from their diaries or from their earlier life when they are in a earlier life when they are in a positive mood at the time of recallpositive mood at the time of recall

ForgettingForgetting

Three sins of forgetting:Three sins of forgetting:

1.1. Absent-mindednessAbsent-mindedness

2.2. TransienceTransience

3.3. BlockingBlocking“I said you forgot to feed the dog again”


Absent-mindedness:Absent-mindedness: If you want to remember vital information If you want to remember vital information

you have to keep your mind and your you have to keep your mind and your attention focused. (Example, our mind is attention focused. (Example, our mind is focused elsewhere as we lay down the car focused elsewhere as we lay down the car keys). So in class you should sit in the keys). So in class you should sit in the front of the room, ask questions, front of the room, ask questions, participate in the discussions, and look participate in the discussions, and look directly at the teacher. If you don’t focus directly at the teacher. If you don’t focus and properly encode the memory, you and properly encode the memory, you can’t retrieve it later.can’t retrieve it later.


TransienceTransience ““Use it or lose it” Not all memories are Use it or lose it” Not all memories are

permanent. Stored memories decay permanent. Stored memories decay over time (in 5 years time you may not over time (in 5 years time you may not remember your Spanish)remember your Spanish)


BlockingBlocking Blocking occurs when Blocking occurs when something has beensomething has been well encoded and retained in well encoded and retained in

memory but cannot be retrieved memory but cannot be retrieved (We are trying to remember a (We are trying to remember a particular actor in a movie and it is particular actor in a movie and it is on the tip of our tongue but we on the tip of our tongue but we cannot retrieve it)cannot retrieve it)


Three sins of distortionThree sins of distortion1.1. MisattributionMisattribution

2.2. SuggestibilitySuggestibility

3.3. BiasBias


MisattributionMisattribution Incorrectly identifying the time, Incorrectly identifying the time,

place or person responsible for place or person responsible for memorymemory

Example: Putting words in Example: Putting words in someone’s mouth, remembering a someone’s mouth, remembering a movie scene as an actual movie scene as an actual happeninghappening

"Most people, probably, are in doubt about certain matters ascribed to their past. They may have seen them, may have said them, done them, or they may only have dreamed or imagined they did so." --William James

ForgettingForgetting SuggestibilitySuggestibility

The sin of incorporating information The sin of incorporating information suggested by someone else into our suggested by someone else into our memory. This can easily happen because memory. This can easily happen because of misleading questions, comments, or of misleading questions, comments, or direct suggestions—particularly at the time direct suggestions—particularly at the time of retrieval.of retrieval.

A witness can falsely remember a suspect’s A witness can falsely remember a suspect’s face after being questioned in a leading face after being questioned in a leading manner, and a therapist’s comment about manner, and a therapist’s comment about “possible signs of sexual assault” may later “possible signs of sexual assault” may later become a client’s false memorybecome a client’s false memory

Child psychologist Jean Piaget, in his Plays, Dreams, and Imitation in childhood, related a personal story about the malleability of memory:

...one of my first memories would date, if it were true, from my second year. I can still see, most clearly, the following scene, in which I believed until I was about fifteen. I was sitting in my pram, which my nurse was pushing in the Champs Elysees, when a men tried to kidnap me. I was held in by the strap fastened around me while my nurse bravely tried to stand between me and the thief. She received various scratches, and I can still see vaguely those on her face. Then a crowd gathered, a policeman with a short cloak and a white baton came up, and the man took to his heels. I can still see the whole scene, and can even place it near the tube station. When I was about fifteen, my parents received a letter from my former nurse saying that she had been converted to the Salvation Army. She wanted to confess her past faults, and in particular to return the watch she had been given as a reward on occasion. She had made up the whole story, faking the scratches. I, therefore, must have heard, as a child, the account of this story, which my parents believed, and projected into the past in the form of a visual memory.


BiasBias Bias occurs when current knowledge Bias occurs when current knowledge

and beliefs distort our memory of the and beliefs distort our memory of the past. Most people believe that their past. Most people believe that their beliefs and attitudes have not changed beliefs and attitudes have not changed much over time, yet during a divorce, much over time, yet during a divorce, couples tend to only remember the bad couples tend to only remember the bad parts of their marriage. In contrast, parts of their marriage. In contrast, couples celebrating their 50couples celebrating their 50thth wedding wedding anniversary seem to remember “always anniversary seem to remember “always being in love”being in love”


One sin of intrusionOne sin of intrusion PersistencePersistence

Traumatic and extremely Traumatic and extremely emotional events can cause emotional events can cause memories to persist even when memories to persist even when we would like to forgetwe would like to forget

Encoding FailureEncoding Failure

One explanation for forgetting is One explanation for forgetting is that we fail to encode the that we fail to encode the information for entry into our information for entry into our memory system. Without memory system. Without effortful processing, much of effortful processing, much of what we sense we never notice or what we sense we never notice or processprocess

In the circle, draw the front side In the circle, draw the front side of a penny.of a penny.

Draw a picture of a pennyDraw a picture of a penny

Storage DecayStorage Decay

According to Ebbinghaus the According to Ebbinghaus the greatest amount of forgetting (60%) greatest amount of forgetting (60%) occurs in the first nine hours (with occurs in the first nine hours (with the most happening in the first hour) the most happening in the first hour) after learning and then the rate of after learning and then the rate of forgetting slows down considerably.forgetting slows down considerably.

Ebbinghaus’ Forgetting Ebbinghaus’ Forgetting CurveCurve

Storage DecayStorage Decay Barrick extended Ebbinhaus’ findings. He Barrick extended Ebbinhaus’ findings. He

examined the forgetting curve for Spanish examined the forgetting curve for Spanish vocabulary learned in school. Compare with vocabulary learned in school. Compare with those just completing a H.S. of college those just completing a H.S. of college Spanish course, people who had been out of Spanish course, people who had been out of school for 3 years had forgotten much of school for 3 years had forgotten much of what they had learned. However, after what they had learned. However, after roughly 3 years, their forgetting leveled off; roughly 3 years, their forgetting leveled off; what people remembered then, they still what people remembered then, they still remember in 25 and more years later, even if remember in 25 and more years later, even if they had not used their Spanish at allthey had not used their Spanish at all

Retrieval FailureRetrieval Failure

Interference: Interference: The interference The interference theory proposed that people forget theory proposed that people forget information because of information because of competition from other material. competition from other material. Interference does not push items Interference does not push items out of long-term memory, it just out of long-term memory, it just interferes with the retrieval of interferes with the retrieval of those items.those items.

InterferenceInterference Proactive InterferenceProactive Interference

(forward-acting interference) the (forward-acting interference) the disruptive effect of prior learning disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new informationon the recall of new information

Retroactive InterferenceRetroactive Interference(backward-acting interference) the (backward-acting interference) the disruptive effect of new learning on disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old informationthe recall of old information

Motivated ForgettingMotivated Forgetting RepressionRepression

Motivated forgetting. In Freud’s Motivated forgetting. In Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings and anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings and memoriesmemories

More and more memory researchers are More and more memory researchers are thinking that repression barely, if ever, occurs. thinking that repression barely, if ever, occurs. Their skepticism is because research shows Their skepticism is because research shows that emotions and associated stress hormones that emotions and associated stress hormones strengthen memoriesstrengthen memories

Motivated ForgettingMotivated Forgetting

Memory ConstructionMemory Construction Memories are not stored as exact copies, Memories are not stored as exact copies,

and they certainly are not retrieved as and they certainly are not retrieved as such. Rather we construct our memories, such. Rather we construct our memories, using both stored and new information. In using both stored and new information. In many experiments around the world, many experiments around the world, people have witnessed an event, received people have witnessed an event, received or not received misleading information or not received misleading information about it, and then taken a memory test. about it, and then taken a memory test. Results show that people often Results show that people often misremembermisremember

Elizabeth Loftus experimentElizabeth Loftus experiment

Misinformation EffectMisinformation Effect

Misinformation EffectMisinformation Effect Incorporating misleading information Incorporating misleading information

into one’s memory of an eventinto one’s memory of an event

As people recount an experience, they As people recount an experience, they fill in their memory gaps with plausible fill in their memory gaps with plausible guesses. Other vivid retellings may also guesses. Other vivid retellings may also implant false memories. Even implant false memories. Even repeatedly imagining and rehearsing repeatedly imagining and rehearsing nonexistent events can create false nonexistent events can create false memoriesmemories

Misinformation EffectMisinformation Effect Example: Loftus’ study where subjects Example: Loftus’ study where subjects

who were asked how fast the cars were who were asked how fast the cars were going when they “smashed” into one going when they “smashed” into one another gave high speed estimates and another gave high speed estimates and a week later remembered seeing more a week later remembered seeing more glass at the scene then those who were glass at the scene then those who were asked how fast the cars were going asked how fast the cars were going when they “hit”when they “hit”

Source AmnesiaSource Amnesia

Source AmnesiaSource Amnesia (source (source misattribution)misattribution) Attributing to the wrong source an Attributing to the wrong source an

event we have experienced, heard event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined. about, read about, or imagined.

Source amnesia is at the Source amnesia is at the

heart of many false memoriesheart of many false memories

Discerning True and Discerning True and False MemoriesFalse Memories

Unreal memories feel like real memories. Unreal memories feel like real memories. Neither the sincerity nor the longevity of a Neither the sincerity nor the longevity of a memory signifies that it is real. The most memory signifies that it is real. The most confident and consistent eyewitnesses are confident and consistent eyewitnesses are often not the most accurateoften not the most accurate

Memories of imagined experiences are Memories of imagined experiences are usually limited to the gist of the supposed usually limited to the gist of the supposed event—the meanings and feelings we event—the meanings and feelings we associated with it. True memories contain associated with it. True memories contain more details than imagined ones.more details than imagined ones.

Children’s Eyewitness Children’s Eyewitness RecallRecall

A supporting argument for the reliability of A supporting argument for the reliability of these reports is that even very young children these reports is that even very young children can accurately recall events if a neutral person can accurately recall events if a neutral person talks to them in words they can understand, talks to them in words they can understand, asks nonleading questions, and uses the asks nonleading questions, and uses the cognitive interview technique. A challenging cognitive interview technique. A challenging argument is that preschoolers are more argument is that preschoolers are more suggestible than other children or adults, and suggestible than other children or adults, and they can be induced, through suggestive they can be induced, through suggestive questioning to report false events.questioning to report false events.

Repressed or Repressed or Constructed Memories of Constructed Memories of

AbuseAbuse Innocent people have been falsely convicted of abuse Innocent people have been falsely convicted of abuse that never happened, and true abusers have used the that never happened, and true abusers have used the controversy over recovered memories to avoid controversy over recovered memories to avoid punishment. Forgetting of isolated past events, both punishment. Forgetting of isolated past events, both negative and positive, is an ordinary part of life. Cued negative and positive, is an ordinary part of life. Cued by a remark or an experience, we may later recover a by a remark or an experience, we may later recover a memory. Controversy, however, focuses on whether memory. Controversy, however, focuses on whether the unconscious mind forcibly represses painful the unconscious mind forcibly represses painful experiences and whether they can be retrieved by a experiences and whether they can be retrieved by a therapist-aided technique. Memories “recovered” therapist-aided technique. Memories “recovered” under hypnosis or drugs are especially unreliable as under hypnosis or drugs are especially unreliable as are memories of things happening before age 3. are memories of things happening before age 3. Traumatic experiences are usually vividly Traumatic experiences are usually vividly remembered, not banished into an active but remembered, not banished into an active but inaccessible unconscious.inaccessible unconscious.

Improving MemoryImproving Memory OverlearnOverlearn Use elaborative rehearsalUse elaborative rehearsal Rehearse activelyRehearse actively Use mnemonic devicesUse mnemonic devices Capitalize on context effect and mood Capitalize on context effect and mood

congruencecongruence Study the material as close to when you Study the material as close to when you

learn it as possiblelearn it as possible Be able to not only recognize the Be able to not only recognize the

information but also recall itinformation but also recall it Remember the primacy and recency effectRemember the primacy and recency effect

A TRUE STORY In my mind I’ve returned to that scene many times, and each time the memory gains...

Documents

Transcript of A TRUE STORY In my mind I’ve returned to that scene many times, and each time the memory gains...