A to Z personality theories - A complete guide to human behavior

Personality Theories

The term personality is derived from the Latin

word persona meaning a mask.

1. The total of one's nature

• self, oneself, being;

2. Individual characteristics

• disposition, nature, temper, temperament;

3. A notable person

• celebrity, star, cynosure;

Synonyms for personality (noun)

“Personality is the dynamic organization within the

individual of that psychophysical system that

determines his unique adjustment to his

environment.”

- Gordon Allport

Personality is the sum total of

ways in which an individual

reacts and interacts with

others.

“Personality is I We get a good idea of what personality is by listening to what we say when we use

"I". When you say I, you are, in effect, summing up everything about yourself - your likes and dislikes, fears and virtues, strengths and

weaknesses. The word I is what defined you as an individual, as a person separate from all others.”

Adams (1954, cited in Schultz & Schultz, 1994)

• Trait and type approaches.

• Trait Theories

• Type Theories

• Dynamic approaches.

• Psychoanalytical theories

• Learning and behavioral approaches.

• Behaviorist theories.

• Social learning theories.

• Cognitive theories.

• Humanistic approaches

Approaches to personality

Trait theories

On the play ground, 6 year old Sam pushes little Samantha off

her tricycle and rides away on it.Why?

SAMSAMANTHA

TraitsAggressive

Hot TemperedUndiscipline

d

personality traits are "enduring patterns of perceiving, relating to,

and thinking about the environment and oneself that are exhibited in a wide range of social and personal

contexts."

A trait is what we call a characteristic way in which an individual perceives, feels,

believes, or acts.

Theorists generally assume

1. Traits are relatively stable over time,

2. Traits differ among individuals

3. Traits are also bipolar and

4. Traits influence behavior.

Three trait theory

In 1936, psychologist Gordon Allport found that one

English-language dictionary alone contained more than

4,000 words describing different personality traits. He

categorized these traits into three levels.

Three trait theory

1. Cardinal Traits: Traits that dominate an individual’s whole life, often to the

point that the person becomes known specifically for these traits. Freudian,

Machiavellian, narcissism, Don Juan, Christ-like, etc.

2. Central Traits: These are the general characteristics that form the basic

foundations of personality. Terms such as intelligent, honest, shy and anxious

are considered central traits.

3. Secondary Traits: These are the traits that are sometimes related to

attitudes or preferences and often appear only in certain situations or under

specific circumstances. Some examples would be getting anxious when

speaking to a group or impatient while waiting in line.

16 personality factor theory

Trait theorist Raymond Cattell reduced the number of main

personality traits from All port’s initial list of over 4,000 down to

16 by means of a statistical technique called factor analysis.

16 personality factor theory1. emotional, easily upset vs. calm, stable

2. Intelligent vs. unintelligent3. suspicious vs. trusting4. reserved, unfriendly vs. outgoing, friendly5. assertive, dominant vs. not assertive, humble6. sober, serious vs. happy-go-lucky7. conscientious vs. expedient8. shy, timid vs. venturesome9. tender-minded vs. tough-minded10.practical vs. imaginative11.shrewd vs. forthright12.self-assured, placid vs. apprehensive13.conservative vs. experimenting14.group oriented vs. self-sufficient15.undisciplined vs. self-disciplined16.Relaxed vs. tense, driven

Universal trait theoryBritish psychologist Hans Eysenck developed a model of personality based upon just three universal traits were sufficient to describe human personality. Differences between Cattell and Eysenck emerged due to preferences for different forms of factor analysis, with Cattell using oblique, Eysenck orthogonal rotation to analyze the factors that emerged when personality questionnaires were subjected to statistical analysis.

1. Introversion/Extraversion: Introversion involves directing attention on inner

experiences, while extraversion relates to focusing attention outward on other people

and the environment. So, a person high in introversion might be quiet and reserved,

while an individual high in extraversion might be sociable and outgoing.

2. Neuroticism/Emotional Stability: This dimension of Eysenck’s trait theory is

related to moodiness versus even-temperedness. Neuroticism refers to an individual’s

tendency to become upset or emotional, while stability refers to the tendency to

remain emotionally constant.

3. Psychoticism: Later, after studying individuals suffering from mental illness, Eysenck

added a personality dimension he called psychoticism to his trait theory. Individuals

who are high on this trait tend to have difficulty dealing with reality and may be

antisocial, hostile, non-empathetic and manipulative.

Universal trait theory

Big five modelBoth Cattell’s and Eysenck’s theory have been the subject of considerable research, which has led some theorists to believe that Cattell focused on too many traits, while Eysenck focused on too few. As a result, a new trait theory often referred to as the "Big Five" theory emerged. This five-factor model of personality represents five core traits that interact to form human personality. Lewis Goldberg proposed a five-dimension personality model, nicknamed the Big five.

Big five model

1. Openness to Experience: the tendency to be imaginative, independent, and

interested in variety vs. practical, conforming, and interested in routine.

2. Conscientiousness: the tendency to be organized, careful, and disciplined vs.

disorganized, careless, and impulsive.

3. Extraversion: the tendency to be sociable, fun-loving, and affectionate vs.

retiring, somber, and reserved.

4. Agreeableness: the tendency to be soft-hearted, trusting, and helpful vs.

ruthless, suspicious, and uncooperative.

5. Neuroticism: the tendency to be calm, secure, and self-satisfied vs. anxious,

insecure, and self-pitying.

HEXACO model

Michael Ashton and Kibeom Lee , in 2008, proposed a six dimensional HEXACO model of personality structure. Ashton and Lee especially emphasize the Honesty-Humility (H) factor as differentiating the HEXACO model from other personality frameworks. Specifically, the H factor is described as sincere, honest, faithful/loyal, modest/unassuming, fair-minded, VERSUS sly, deceitful, greedy, pretentious, hypocritical, boastful and pompous. The H factor has been linked to criminal, materialistic, power-seeking and unethical tendencies.

HEXACO model

1. Honesty-Humility

2. Emotionality

3. Extraversion

4. Agreeableness

5. Conscientiousness and

6. Openness to Experience .

Criticisms of trait theories

1. being purely descriptive and offering little explanation of the underlying

causes of personality

2. Lead some people to accept oversimplified classifications

3. Underestimate the effect of specific situations on people's behavior.

4. Poor predictors of behavior.

Type theories

SAMSAMANTHA

TypeType A

Choleric

Types Vs Traits

Personality type refers to the psychological classification of different types of people

Personality trait refers to psychological classification of different levels or degrees

For example, according to type theories, there are two types of people, introverts and extroverts. According to trait theories, introversion and extroversion are part of a continuous dimension, with many people in the middle.

4 Temperament theory

Temperament theory has its roots in the ancient four humors theory. It may have origins in ancient Egypt or Mesopotamia, but it was the Greek physician Hippocrates (460–370 BC) who developed it into a medical theory. Next, Galen (AD 131–200) developed the first typology of temperament. The word "temperament" itself comes from Latin "temperare", "to mix". In the ideal personality, the complementary characteristics or warm-cool and dry-moist were exquisitely balanced.

Temperament theory

Blood

Yellow bile

Black bile

Phlegm.

Sanguine (pleasure-seeking and sociable)

Choleric (ambitious and leader-like)

Melancholic (introverted and thoughtful)

Phlegmatic (relaxed and quiet)

4 Temperaments

4 humors


Sanguine (pleasure-seeking and

sociable)

Choleric (ambitious and leader-

like)

4 Temperaments


5 Temperament theoryFive temperaments is a theory in psychology, that expands upon the Four Temperaments proposed in ancient medical theory. The development of a theory of five temperaments begins with the Two-factor models of personality and the work of the late William Schultz, and his FIRO-B program. It is a measure of interpersonal relations orientations that calculates a person's behavior patterns based on the scoring of a questionnaire. Although FIRO-B does not speak in terms of "temperament," this system of analysis graded questionnaires on two scales in three dimensions of interpersonal relations. When paired with temperament theory, a measurement of five temperaments resulted

5 Temperament theory

Blood

Yellow bile

Black bile

Phlegm.

Sanguine (pleasure-seeking and sociable)

Choleric (ambitious and leader-like)



5 Temperaments

4 humors

Supine (Low self esteem)



Choleric (ambitious and leader-

like)

Supine(Low Self esteem)

Sanguine (pleasure-seeking and

sociable)

Type A and Type B theory

Type A personality behavior was first described as a potential risk factor for heart disease in the 1950s by cardiologists Meyer Friedman and Ray Rosenman. After a ten-year study of healthy men between the ages of 35 and 59, Friedman and Rosenman estimated that Type A behavior doubles the risk of coronary heart disease in otherwise healthy individuals.[

Type A and Type B theory

Ambitious, rigidly organized, highly status

conscious, can be sensitive, care for other

people, are truthful, impatient, always try

to help others, take on more than they can

handle, want other people to get to the

point, proactive, and obsessed with time

management. People with Type A

personalities are often high-achieving

"workaholics" who multi-task, push

themselves with deadlines, and hate both

delays and ambivalence.

Type A

Live at a lower stress level and

typically work steadily, enjoying

achievements but not becoming stressed

when they are not achieved. When faced

with competition, they do not mind losing

and either enjoy the game or back down.

They are often reflective, thinking about

the outer and inner worlds. Furthermore,

Type B personalities may have a poor

sense of time schedule and can be

predominately right brained thinkers.

Type B

Type D theory

Type D personality, a concept used in the field of medical psychology, is defined as the joint tendency towards negative affectivity (e.g. worry, irritability, gloom) and social inhibition (e.g. reticence and a lack of self-assurance). The letter D stands for 'distressed'. Johan Denollet, professor of Medical Psychology at Tilburg University, Tilburg, The Netherlands, developed the construct based on clinical observations in cardiac patients, empirical evidence, and existing theories of personality.

Type D theory

1. Individuals with a Type D personality have the tendency to experience

increased negative emotions across time and situations and tend not to

share these emotions with others, because of fear of rejection or

disapproval.

2. The prevalence of Type D personality is 21% in the general population and

ranges between 18 to 53% in cardiac patients.

3. Type D is associated with a 4-fold increased risk of mortality, recurrent

myocardial infarction (MI), or sudden cardiac death, independently of

traditional risk factors, such as disease severity.

Myers Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

This was one of the more influential ideas originated in the theoretical work of Carl Jung as published in the book Psychological Types. The original developers of the personality inventory were Katharine Cook Briggs and her daughter, Isabel Briggs Myers. these two, having studied extensively the work of Jung, turned their interest of human behavior into a devotion of turning the theory of psychological types to practical use.

Enneagram of Personality

The Enneagram of Personality (or simply the Enneagram, from the Greek words ennea [nine] and gramma [something written or drawn]) is a model of human personality which is principally used as a typology of nine interconnected personality types. Principally developed by Oscar Ichazo and Claudio Naranjo, it is also partly based on earlier teachings of G. I. Gurdjieff. The typology defines nine personality types which are represented by the points of a geometric figure called an enneagram.

Enneagram of Personality

Men Are from Mars, Women Are from Venus

Men Are from Mars, Women Are from Venus is a book written by American author, and relationship counsellor, John Gray. The book asserts that most of common relationship problems between men and women are a result of fundamental differences between the genders, which the author exemplifies by means of the book's eponymous metaphor: that men and women are from distinct planets – men from Mars and women from Venus – and that each gender is acclimated to its own planet's society and customs, but not those of the other.

Men Are from Mars, Women Are from Venus

1. When men are stressed, they withdraw until they find a solution to the

problem. When women are stressed their natural reaction is to talk about

issues (even if talking does not solve the problem).

Psychoanalytical Theories

SAMSAMANTHA

Thoughts Feelings

Displaced Anger

Unconscious

• Psychoanalytic theories explain human behaviour in terms of the interaction of

various components of personality.

• Sigmund Freud was the founder of this school.

• Freud drew on the physics of his day (thermodynamics) to coin the term psycho-

dynamics.

• Based on the idea of converting heat into mechanical energy, he proposed

psychic energy could be converted into behaviour.

• Freud's theory places central importance on dynamic, unconscious psychological

conflicts.

Psychoanalytical Theories

Structural model of personality

The founder of psychoanalytic theory was Sigmund Freud. The

term psychoanalysis is used to refer to many aspects of Freud’s work

and research, including Freudian therapy and the research

methodology he used to develop his theories. Freud relied heavily

upon his observations and case studies of his patients when he

formed his theory of personality development.


According to Freud the mind can be divided

into two main parts:

• The conscious mind includes everything

that we are aware of. This is the aspect of our

mental processing that we can think and talk

about rationally.

• The unconscious mind is a reservoir of

feelings, thoughts, urges, and memories that

outside of our conscious awareness. Most of

the contents of the unconscious are

unacceptable or unpleasant, such as feelings

of pain, anxiety, or conflict.

Stages of Psychosexual DevelopmentAccording to Sigmund Freud, personality is mostly established by

the age of five. Early experiences play a large role in personality development and continue to influence behavior later in life. Freud's theory of psychosexual development is one of the best known, but also one of the most controversial. Freud believed that personality develops through a series of childhood stages during which the pleasure-seeking energies of the id become focused on certain erogenous areas. This psychosexual energy, or libido, was described as the driving force behind behavior.

Sigmund Freud defined libido as the instinct energy or force, contained in what Freud called the id, the largely unconscious structure of the psyche. Building on the work of Karl Abraham, Freud developed the idea of a series of developmental phases in which the libido fixates on different erogenous zones

Defence Mechanisms

The term got its start in psychoanalytic therapy, but it has slowly worked its way into everyday language. In Sigmund Freud's topographical model of personality, the ego is the aspect of personality that deals with reality. While doing this, the ego also has to cope with the conflicting demands of the id and the superego. The id seeks to fulfil all wants, needs and impulses while the superego tries to get the ego to act in an idealistic and moral manner. What happens when the ego cannot deal with the demands of our desires, the constraints of reality and our own moral standards?

Defence Mechanisms

According to Freud, anxiety is an unpleasant inner state that people seek to avoid.

Anxiety acts as a signal to the ego that things are not going right. Frued identified

three types of anxiety:

• Neurotic anxiety is the unconscious worry that we will lose control of the

id's urges, resulting in punishment for inappropriate behavior.

• Reality anxiety is fear of real-world events. The cause of this anxiety is

usually easily identified. For example, a person might fear receiving a dog bite

when they are near a menacing dog. The most common way of reducing this

anxiety is to avoid the threatening object.

• Moral anxiety involves a fear of violating our own moral principles.

In order to deal with this anxiety, Freud believed that defense mechanisms helped

shield the ego from the conflicts created by the id, superego and reality.

Defence Mechanisms

• Denial - Denial is an outright refusal to admit or recognize that something

has occurred or is currently occurring. Drug addicts or alcoholics often deny

that they have a problem, while victims of traumatic events may deny that

the event ever occurred.

• Repression - Repression acts to keep information out of conscious

awareness. However, these memories don't just disappear; they continue to

influence our behavior. For example, a person who has repressed memories

of abuse suffered as a child may later have difficulty forming relationships.

• Suppression - Sometimes we do this consciously by forcing the unwanted

information out of our awareness, which is known as suppression. In most

cases, however, this removal of anxiety-provoking memories from our

awareness is believed to occur unconsciously.

Defence Mechanisms

• Displacement - Displacement involves taking out our frustrations, feelings

and impulses on people or objects that are less threatening. Displaced

aggression is a common example of this defense mechanism.

• Sublimation - Sublimation is a defence mechanism that allows us to act

out unacceptable impulses by converting these behaviours into a more

acceptable form. For example, a person experiencing extreme anger might

take up kick-boxing as a means of venting frustration.

• Projection - Projection is a defense mechanism that involves taking our

own unacceptable qualities or feelings and ascribing them to other people.

For example, if you have a strong dislike for someone, you might instead

believe that he or she does not like you

Defence Mechanisms• Intellectualization - Intellectualization works to reduce anxiety by thinking

about events in a cold, clinical way. For example, a person who has just been

diagnosed with a terminal illness might focus on learning everything about the

disease in order to avoid distress and remain distant from the reality of the

situation.

• Rationalization - Rationalization is a defense mechanism that involves

explaining an unacceptable behavior or feeling in a rational or logical manner,

avoiding the true reasons for the behavior. For example a student might blame

a poor exam score on the instructor rather than his or her lack of preparation.

• Regression - When confronted by stressful events, people sometimes

abandon coping strategies and revert to patterns of behavior used earlier in

development. For example, an individual fixated at an earlier developmental

stage might cry or sulk upon hearing unpleasant news.

Criticisms

• The theory is focused almost entirely on male development with little

mention of female psychosexual development.

• His theories are difficult to test scientifically. Concepts such as the

libido are impossible to measure, and therefore cannot be tested.

• Future predictions are too vague. How can we know that a current

behavior was caused specifically by a childhood experience? The length of

time between the cause and the effect is too long to assume that there is

a relationship between the two variables.

• Freud's theory is based upon case studies and not empirical

research. Also, Freud based his theory on the recollections of his adult

patients, not on actual observation and study of children.

Behaviorist theories

SAMSAMANTHA

Learned Behavior

Previous aggressive behavior rewarded

Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I'll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select -- doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors.

--John Watson, Behaviorism, 1930

a. Behavioral psychology, also known as behaviorism, is a theory of learning based

upon the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning.

b. Advocated by famous psychologists such as John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner,

behavioral theories dominated psychology during the early half of the twentieth

century. Today, behavioral techniques are still widely used in therapeutic settings

to help clients learn new skills and behaviors.

c. The school of behaviorism emerged in the 1910s, led by John B. Watson.

d. Unlike psychodynamic theorists, behaviorists study only observable behavior.

e. Their explanations of personality focus on learning.

f. Skinner, Bandura, and Walter Mischel all proposed important behaviourist

theories.

Behaviourist Theories

1. Learning occurs through interactions with the environment.

2. The environment shapes behavior and

3. Taking internal mental states such as thoughts, feelings and emotions

into consideration is useless in explaining behavior.

Assumptions of behaviorism

Classical Conditioning

Ivan Pavlov was a noted Russian physiologist who went on to

win the 1904 Nobel Prize for his work studying digestive processes.

It was while studying digestion in dogs that Pavlov noted an

interesting occurrence – his canine subjects would begin to salivate

whenever an assistant entered the room.

Classical Conditioning

1. The Unconditioned Stimulus - The unconditioned stimulus is one that

unconditionally, naturally, and automatically triggers a response.

2. The Unconditioned Response - The unconditioned response is the

unlearned response that occurs naturally in response to the unconditioned

stimulus.

3. The Conditioned Stimulus - The conditioned stimulus is previously

neutral stimulus that, after becoming associated with the unconditioned

stimulus, eventually comes to trigger a conditioned response.

4. The Conditioned Response - The conditioned response is the learned

response to the previously neutral stimulus.

Classical ConditioningBehaviorists have described a number of different phenomena associated with

classical conditioning.

1. Acquisition - Acquisition is the initial stage of learning when a response is first

established and gradually strengthened.

2. Extinction - Extinction is when the occurrences of a conditioned response

decrease or disappear.

3. Spontaneous Recovery - Spontaneous Recovery is the reappearance of the

conditioned response after a rest period or period of lessened response.

4. Stimulus Generalization - Stimulus Generalization is the tendency for the

conditioned stimulus to evoke similar responses after the response has been

conditioned.

5. Discrimination - Discrimination is the ability to differentiate between a

conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that have not been paired with an

unconditioned stimulus.

Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning was coined by behaviourist B.F. Skinner. As

a behaviorist, Skinner believed that internal thoughts and

motivations could not be used to explain behavior. Instead, he

suggested, we should look only at the external, observable causes of

human behavior.

"The consequences of behavior determine

the probability that the behavior will occur

again"

-B. F. Skinner


1. Skinner used the term operant to refer to any "active behavior that

operates upon the environment to generate consequences.”

2. Reinforcement is any event that strengthens or increases the behavior it

follows. There are two kinds of reinforcers:

a. Positive reinforcers are favorable events or outcomes that are

presented after the behavior. In situations that reflect positive

reinforcement, a response or behavior is strengthened by the addition of

something, such as praise or a direct reward.

b. Negative reinforcers involve the removal of an unfavorable events or

outcomes after the display of a behavior. In these situations, a response

is strengthened by the removal of something considered unpleasant.


1. Punishment, on the other hand, is the presentation of an adverse event or

outcome that causes a decrease in the behavior it follows. There are two

kinds of punishment:

a. Positive punishment, sometimes referred to as punishment by

application, involves the presentation of an unfavorable event or

outcome in order to weaken the response it follows.

b. Negative punishment, also known as punishment by removal,

occurs when an favorable event or outcome is removed after a behavior

occurs.


1. In operant conditioning, schedules of reinforcement are an important component of the

learning process. When and how often we reinforce a behavior can have a dramatic

impact on the strength and rate of the response.

a. Continuous Reinforcement - In continuous reinforcement, the desired

behavior is reinforced every single time it occurs. Generally, this schedule is best

used during the initial stages of learning in order to create a strong association

between the behavior and the response. Once the response if firmly attached,

reinforcement is usually switched to a partial reinforcement schedule.

b. Partial Reinforcement - In partial reinforcement, the response is reinforced

only part of the time. Learned behaviors are acquired more slowly with partial

reinforcement, but the response is more resistant to extinction.

Operant ConditioningThere are four schedules of partial reinforcement:

1. Fixed-ratio schedules are those where a response is reinforced only after a

specified number of responses. This schedule produces a high, steady rate of

responding with only a brief pause after the delivery of the reinforcer.

2. Variable-ratio schedules occur when a response is reinforced after an

unpredictable number of responses. This schedule creates a high steady rate of

responding. Gambling and lottery games are good examples of a reward based on a

variable ratio schedule.

3. Fixed-interval schedules are those where the first response is rewarded only after

a specified amount of time has elapsed. This schedule causes high amounts of

responding near the end of the interval, but much slower responding immediately after

the delivery of the reinforcer.

4. Variable-interval schedules occur when a response is rewarded after an

unpredictable amount of time has passed. This schedule produces a slow, steady rate of

response.

Techniques in behaviorism

Some of the techniques used by behavior analysts include:

1. Chaining: This behavior techniques involves breaking a task down into smaller

components. The simplest or first task in the process is taught first. Once that task has

been learned, the next task can be taught. This continues until the entire sequence is

successfully chained together.

2. Prompting: This approach involves using some type of prompt to trigger a desired

response. This might involve issues a verbal cue, such as telling the person what to do,

or a visual cue, such as displaying a picture designed to cue the response.

3. Shaping: This strategy involves gradually altering a behavior, rewarding closer and

closer approximations of the desired behavior.

Stages to behavioural change

1. Behaviorism is a one-dimensional approach to understanding human behavior

and that behavioural theories do not account for free will and internal influences such

as moods, thoughts and feelings.

2. Behaviorism does not account for other types of learning, especially learning

that occurs without the use of reinforcement and punishment.

3. People and animals are able to adapt their behavior when new information is

introduced, even if a previous behavior pattern has been established through

reinforcement.

4. Behaviourist researchers often do animal studies of behavior and then generalize

their results to human beings. Generalizing results in this way can be misleading,

since humans have complex thought processes that affect behavior.

5. Behaviourists often underestimate the importance of biological factors.

6. By emphasizing the situational influences on personality, some social-cognitive

theorists underestimate the importance of personality traits.

Criticisms of behaviorism

Social Learning theories

Little boysOnly Little girls

All boys pushing samantha

Social Learning theory

social learning theory was proposed by Neal E. Miller and John Dollard in

1941. The proposition of social learning was expanded upon and theorized by

Canadian psychologist Albert Bandura from 1962 until the present. .

Bandura provided his concept of self-efficacy in 1977, while he refuted the

traditional learning theory for understanding learning.

1. Social learning theory, used in psychology, education, and communication, posits

that portions of an individual's knowledge acquisition can be directly related to

observing others within the context of social interactions, experiences, and

outside media influences.

2. In other words, people do not learn new behaviours solely by trying them and

either succeeding or failing, but rather, the survival of humanity is dependent

upon the replication of the actions of others.

3. People learn by observing others, with the environment, behavior, and

cognition all as the chief factors in influencing development. These three

factors are not static or independent elements; rather, they are all reciprocal

Social Learning theory

The main tenets of Albert Bandura’s

theory are that:

• people learn by observing others

• the same set of stimuli may provoke

different responses from different

people, or from the same people at

different times

• the world and a person’s behaviour are

interlinked

• Personality is an interaction between

three factors: the environment,

behaviour, and a person’s psychological

processes.

Concepts

Bandura proposed a four step conceptual scheme of the process involved in

observational learning:

• Step 1: This first step incorporates the attention processes that are involved

including certain model characteristics which may increase the likelihood of the

behaviour being attended to.

• Step 2: The second step refers to retention processes including the observer's

ability to encode, to remember and to make sense of what has been observed.

• Step 3: The third step refers to motor reproduction processes including the

capabilities that the observer has to perform the behaviours being observed.

• Step 4: The final step refers to motivational processes including external

reinforcement, vicarious reinforcement, and self-reinforcement. If a behaviour is to

be imitated, an observer must be motivated to perform that behaviour.

Observational learning

• According to Bandura, behaviour is influenced by multiple determinants.

• The concept of reciprocal determinism proposes that these factors have an

interactive effect on each other and that they exist in the environment as well as

within the individual in the form of affect, cognition, and constitutional disposition.

• External rewards and punishments, internal beliefs and expectancies all form part of

a complex system.

• Consistent with the principles of systems, a change in one aspect requires a change

in all others so that balance and equilibrium can once again be achieved.

Reciprocal Determinism

Bandura used the term self-efficacy to refer to a person's belief that he or she can

successfully carry "courses of action required to deal with prospective situations

containing many ambiguous, unpredictable, and often stressful elements“. Among the

sources of self-efficacy are:

• performance accomplishments: Past experiences of success and failure in

attempts to accomplish goals are the most important regulators of self-efficacy;

• vicarious experience: When individuals witness others' successes and failures,

they are provided with information which they can use as a basis for comparison for

their own personal competence in similar situations;

• verbal persuasion: Being told by others that one can or cannot competently

perform a particular behaviour can lead to increases or decreases in self-efficacy;

• emotional arousal: Levels of self-efficacy are also proposed to be Influenced by

the degree and quality of the emotional arousal an individual experiences when

engaging in a particular behaviour in a specific situation.

Self Efficacy

• Behaviour has been found to be more consistent than is argued by Bandura's

theory which focuses a great deal on the situation. Some researchers have argued

that the theory lacks attention to biological or hormonal processes.

• Probably of most significance is the criticism that the theory is not unified.

Concepts and processes such as observational learning and self-efficacy have been

highly researched but there has been little explanation about the relationship among

the concepts

Criticisms

Cognitive theories

She is weak

Other boys getting away with aggression

Perception

Memory

Thinking

1. The term "cognitive psychology" was first used in 1967 by American psychologist

Ulric Neisser in his book Cognitive Psychology.

2. According to Neisser, cognition involves "all processes by which the

sensory input is transformed, reduced, elaborated, stored,

recovered, and used.

3. It is concerned with these processes even when they operate in the absence of

relevant stimulation, as in images and hallucinations.

4. Given such a sweeping definition, it is apparent that cognition is involved in

everything a human being might possibly do; that every psychological

phenomenon is a cognitive phenomenon."

Cognitive theories

1. Unlike behaviorism, which focuses only on observable behaviors, cognitive

psychology is concerned with internal mental states.

2. Unlike psychoanalysis, which relies heavily on subjective perceptions, cognitive

psychology uses scientific research methods to study mental processes.

How is Cognitive Psychology Different?

Stages of Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget was born in Switzerland in 1896. After receiving his doctoral

degree at age 22, Piaget formally began a career that would have a profound

impact on both psychology and education. After working with Alfred Binet,

Piaget developed an interest in the intellectual development of children.

Based upon his observations, he concluded that children were not less

intelligent than adults, they simply think differently.

Stages of Cognitive Development

1. Sensorimotor Stage - The first stage of Piaget's theory lasts from birth to approximately age two and is centered on the infant trying to make sense of the world. During the sensorimotor stage, an infant's knowledge of the world is limited to his or her sensory perceptions and motor activities

2. Preoperational Stage - The preoperational stage occurs roughly between the ages two and seven. Language development is one of the hallmarks of this period. During the preoperational stage, children also become increasingly adept at using symbols, as evidenced by the increase in playing and pretending.

3. Concrete Operational Stage - The concrete operational stage begins around age seven and continues until approximately age eleven. During this time, children gain a better understanding of mental operations. Children begin thinking logically about concrete events, but have difficulty understanding abstract or hypothetical concepts.

4. Formal Operational Stage - The formal operational stage begins at approximately age twelve to and lasts into adulthood. During this time, people develop the ability to think about abstract concepts. Skills such as logical thought, deductive reasoning, and systematic planning also emerge during this stage.

1. Schemas - Schemas are categories of

knowledge that help us to interpret and

understand the world.

2. Assimilation - The process of taking

in new information into our previously

existing schema's,

3. Accommodation - Another part of

adaptation involves changing or altering

our existing schemas in light of new

information.

4. Equilibration – Mechanism by which

children try to strike a balance between

assimilation and accommodation.

Key Concepts

1. Problems With Research Methods - A major source of inspiration for the theory was Piaget's observations of his own three children. In addition to this, the other children in Piaget's small research sample were all from well-educated professionals of high socioeconomic status. Because of this unrepresentative sample, it is difficult to generalize his findings to a larger population.

2. Problems With Formal Operations - Research has disputed Piaget's argument that all children will automatically move to the next stage of development as they mature. Some data suggests that environmental factors may play a role in the development of formal operations.

3. Underestimates Children's Abilities - Most researchers agree that children possess many of the abilities at an earlier age than Piaget suspected. Recent theory of mind research has found that 4- and 5-year-old children have a rather sophisticated understanding of their own mental processes as well as those of other people. For example, children of this age have some ability to take the perspective of another person, meaning they are far less egocentric than Piaget believed.

Criticisms

General Intelligence

British psychologist Charles Spearman (1863-1945) described a concept he referred to as general intelligence, or the g factor. After using a technique known as factor analysis to examine a number of mental aptitude tests, Spearman concluded that scores on these tests were remarkably similar. People who performed well on one cognitive test tended to perform well on other tests, while those who scored badly on one test tended to score badly on others. He concluded that intelligence is general cognitive ability that could be measured and numerically expressed.

Primary Mental Abilities

Psychologist Louis L. Thurstone (1887-1955) offered a differing theory of

intelligence. Instead of viewing intelligence as a single, general ability,

Thurstone's theory focused on seven different "primary mental abilities

Primary Mental Abilities

Thurstone's theory focused on seven different "primary mental abilities." The

abilities that he described were:

1. Verbal comprehension

2. Reasoning

3. Perceptual speed

4. Numerical ability

5. Word fluency

6. Associative memory

7. Spatial visualization

Multiple Intelligences

One of the more recent ideas to emerge is Howard Gardner's theory of

multiple intelligences. Instead of focusing on the analysis of test scores, Gardner

proposed that numerical expressions of human intelligence are not a full and

accurate depiction of people's abilities. His theory describes eight distinct

intelligences that are based on skills and abilities that are valued within different

cultures

Multiple Intelligences

The eight intelligences Gardner described are:

1. Visual-spatial Intelligence

2. Verbal-linguistic Intelligence

3. Bodily-kinesthetic Intelligence

4. Logical-mathematical Intelligence

5. Interpersonal Intelligence

6. Musical Intelligence

7. Intra personal Intelligence

8. Naturalistic Intelligence

Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Psychologist Robert Sternberg defined intelligence as "mental activity

directed toward purposive adaptation to, selection and shaping of, real-world

environments relevant to one’s life." While he agreed with Gardner that

intelligence is much broader than a single, general ability, he instead suggested

some of Gardner's intelligences are better viewed as individual talents.

Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Sternberg proposed what he refers to as 'successful intelligence,' which is

comprised of three different factors:

1. Analytical intelligence: This component refers to problem-solving

abilities.

2. Creative intelligence: This aspect of intelligence involves the ability

to deal with new situations using past experiences and current skills.

3. Practical intelligence: This element refers to the ability to adapt to a

changing environment.

Gestalt Laws of Perceptual Organization

Gestalt psychology was founded by German thinkers Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang

Kohler and Kurt Koffka and focused on how people interpret the world. The Gestalt

perspective formed partially as a response to the structuralism of Wilhelm Wundt, who

focused on breaking down mental events and experiences to the smallest elements.

Max Wertheimer noted that rapid sequences of perceptual events, such as rows of

flashing lights, create the illusion of motion even when there is none. This is known as

the phi phenomenon

Gestalt Laws of Perceptual Organization

Humanistic theories

Quest for personal competence

Achievement

Self Esteem

As matures, finds ways of enhancing his self without hurting others

Humanistic Theories

1. In humanistic psychology it is emphasized people have free will and they

play an active role in determining how they behave.

2. Humanistic psychologists try to see people’s lives as those people would

see them. They tend to have an optimistic perspective on human nature

3. Accordingly, humanistic psychology focuses on subjective experiences of

persons as opposed to forced, definitive factors that determine behavior.

4. Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers were proponents of humanistic

view

Humanistic Theories

The humanistic approach states that the self is composed of concepts unique to

ourselves. The self-concept includes three components:

• Self worth – what we think about ourselves. Rogers believed feelings of

self-worth developed in early childhood and were formed from the

interaction of the child with the mother and father.

• Self-image – How we see ourselves, which is important to good

psychological health. Self-image includes the influence of our body image on

inner personality.

• Ideal self – This is the person who we would like to be. It consists of our

goals and ambitions in life, and is dynamic – i.e. forever changing. The ideal

self in childhood is not the ideal self in our teens or late twenties etc.

Hierarchy of needs

Psychologist Abraham Maslow first introduced his concept of a hierarchy

of needs in his 1943 paper "A Theory of Human Motivation" and his

subsequent book Motivation and Personality. This hierarchy suggests that

people are motivated to fulfil basic needs before moving on to other, more

advanced needs.

Person centered theory

Carl Rogers (1902-1987) was a humanistic psychologist agreed with most of

what Maslow believed, but added that for a person to "grow", they need an

environment that provides them with genuineness (openness and self-

disclosure), acceptance (being seen with unconditional positive regard), and

empathy (being listened to and understood).

Person centered theory

Rogers identified five characteristics of the fully functioning person:

• Open to experience: both positive and negative emotions accepted. Negative feelings

are not denied, but worked through

• Existential living: in touch with different experiences as they occur in life, avoiding

prejudging and preconceptions. Being able to live and fully appreciate the present, not

always looking back to the past or forward to the future

• Trust feelings: feeling, instincts and gut-reactions are paid attention to and trusted.

People’s own decisions are the right ones and we should trust ourselves to make the right

choices.

• Creativity: creative thinking and risk taking are features of a person’s life. Person does

not play safe all the time. This involves the ability to adjust and change and seek new

experiences.

• Fulfilled life: person is happy and satisfied with life, and always looking for new

challenges and experiences.

You are different

Stop hiding behind the mask

Don’t confuse yourself with the mask

Drop the mask…

Be yourself..

Prepared by

Manu Melwin JoyResearch Scholar

SMS, CUSAT, KeralaPhone – 9744551114

Mail – [email protected]

A to Z personality theories - A complete guide to human behavior

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