A THEORETICAL OVERVIEW OF THE MAJOR CONSTRUCTS...
Transcript of A THEORETICAL OVERVIEW OF THE MAJOR CONSTRUCTS...
CHAPTER 11
A THEORETICAL OVERVIEW OF THE MAJOR CONSTRUCTS
USED IN THE STUDY
2.1 Process Approach in the Teaching of Science
2.1.1 Significance of Process Approach in the Teaching of Science
2.1.2 Theoretical Framework of Scientific Processes
2.1.3 Historical Retrospect of the Development of Science Processes
2.1.4 Classification of Science Processes
2.1.5 Process Models
2.1.6 Major Curricular Innovations in Science
2.1.7 Proress Approach: Educational Implications
2.2 Personalit) Variables
2.3 Personal Variables
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A THEORETICAL OVERVIEW OF THE MAJOR CONSTRUCTS USED IN THE STUDY
The present study is conceived basically around personality correlates
and process outcomes in basic science. The constructs have acquired precise
scientific meanings in modern psychological and educational literature.
An attempt has been made here to examine the theoretical basis behind the
major constructs with a view to obtaining a better understanding of the nature
of the variables.
2.1 PROCESS APPROACH IN THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE
Learning of Science is not merely acquiring scientific knowledge. Nor it
is blindly accepting what is stated in the book and keeping the knowledge in
memory alone. Instead the students are to be made able to acquire scientific
knowledge by the processes of thinking, analysing and interpreting observed
facts.
In other words, the students have to go through the thinking process as
the original investigator did. Going by the same rule, it is apparent that
teaching of science is nt,t merely pouring down knowledge into the intellect of
the students. A new approach capable of triggering the processes of thinking,
analysing and inferring in the students' mind is needed. Process approach is
designed to attain these objectives in teaching science. Or. process approach
presents the instruction in science in intellectually stimulating and scientifically
authentic way. Here emphasis is given to the ways of acquiring knowledge
rather than to the content. This is a shift from the traditional approach. As a
result, outlook on different aspects of instructional practice in science teaching,
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the designing of instructional objectives and the instructional strategies has
changed totally, as also the method of evaluating the resultant of these
processes, i.e. the process outcomes of science-teaching.
Since man is a thinking animal, the important goal of instruction in
science is to develop the potent skills in the students. Process approach
demands of the students to utilize their intellect and apply their ability to
engage themselves in thinking and reasoning more dynamically.
What is actually attained by the process approach is that the students
are initiated into being scientific investigators themselves. It is also expected
to help the students become better consumers of scientific knowledge. Further
it would enable them to make original scientific contributions to science.
2.1.1 Significance of Process Approach in the Teaching of Science
The vast explosion of scientific knowledge has forced science educators
to be highly choosy in respect of what is to be taught and the behavioural
outcomes expected. The hundreds of nev: developments which occur in
different scientific disciplines make it difficult or impossible to give them
adequate representation in any science curricula. What is today acct pted as
the latest scientific knowledge soon gets outdated or gets replaced by radically
new assumptions and principles.
In many countries attempts have been made to reorient the curriculum,
so as to give due importance to processes in science education. The major
goals of these curricular innovations can be classified as
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a. The development of curricular materials and science programmes that
are consistent with current knowledge of science.
b. The development of curricular materials and science programmes
which provide the student with an understanding of the process of
science (AAAS. 1994).
The process approach has many-sided significance. It stimulates
autonomous recognition of relationship, broadens the background knowledge
for current and future use, reinforces the skills and motivates the pupils
towards self-education. Wellington (1990) argued that science education
should focus on the 'what', 'how' and 'why' of knowledge. .
a. Knowledge of 'what' focuses on fads, happenings and phenomena.
b. Knowledge of 'how' focuses on skills, processes and abilities.
c. Knowledge of 'why' focuses on explanations, models, analogies,
theories etc.
Donelly (1985) suggests the conditions for having a practical,
theoretical role for science processes in the science curricula and its
implementation. They are:
a. The processes must be defined at some minimum level of coherence.
b. Their connection if any, with pupil's intellectual skills must be
ascertained.
c. Method for the development of the relevant skills must be explored.
Some science educators (Simpson, 1987) raise strong arguments for a
process-led science curriculum (Bhatt, 1988). They question the relevance of
the teaching of facts in the situation where information is generated in gigantic
amounts. Human beings are information processors rather than information
absorbers, and active learning involves the processing of new information
according to the learners' previous experiences, needs, preconceived ideas,
knowledge and hypotheses. So in addition to the information skill, previous
ideas, experiences and hypotheses should be present in the learners' cognitive
structure.
A critical view on the major curricular innovations reveals that, for
effective teaching and learning of science, what is needed is a learning
method in which the processes and products are combined rather than
polarized. The knowledge of the product is useful in understanding the
processes of science and for concretizing the processes for pedagogical use.
But understanding of the processes is useful both for daily life as well as in
furthering scientific knowledge.
2.1.2 Theoretical Framework of Scientific Processes
The approach based on process may be somewhat new to school level
programme objectives, but its precursors have existed for sometime. Though
most of the refer( nces to test the construction are taken from the period of
1960s and 1970s, the assessment of the process or problem solving
component of science learning can be traced back much further. Champagne
and Nopfer (1977) reviewed reports and description of process oriented
problem solving that begins as early as 1916. In these early studies attempts to
measure knowledge of problem solving or the methods of science appear to
combine test of specific skills (e.g. arranging data in sequence) and of
scientific practice (e.g. suspending judgement). Theoretical analyses done by
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Pearson (1911) Negal (1961) and Khun (1962) throw a significant light on the
understanding of the processes of science. Dressel ef a/. (1949) included
'scientific thinking', measured by a comprehensive examination on biological
sciences as an important component of objectives. The four elements of
scientific thinking were :
a. recognise and solve problems
b. recognise hypotheses and select methods for testing them
c. critically evaluate experimental procedures, data conclusions and
implications and
d. appraise real situations
One of the most accepted analyses of the thinking process is due to
Dewey (1910). He formulated his well known five steps in the process of
thinking, given below:
a. A felt difficulty
b. Its location and definition
c. Suggestions of possible solution
d. Development by reasoning of the bearings of sr ggestion
e. Further observations and experiments leading to its acceptance or
rejection.
Karl Pearson's (1937) steps of scientific inquiry include many of the
science processes. They are listed below:
a. the problem is identified,
b. observations pertinent to the problem are gathered
c. a hypothesis based on the observations is developed and stated
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d. testable predictions of other related observable phenomena are
developed from the hypothesis
e. the hypothesis is tested through observations
f. as a result of empirical observations, the hypothesis is supported,
rejected or modified.
Good (1945) described the scientific method as a plan or procedure in
which a difficulty or situation is recognised, a survey made of available
information relative to the problem, a hypothesis set up concerning possible
solutions to difficulty, the hypothesis tested experimentally under controlled
conditions, the results collected, evaluated and verified, their implications
reviewed and the hypothesis either accepted or rejected. (In the latter event, a
new hypothesis may be formulated and the entire operation repeated).
In the early 1950s, Burmester (1953) developed a test focussing on
"some of the inductive aspects of scientific thinking" with the following
separate abilities:
Recognize problem, hypotheses, experimental conditions, and
conclusions
Delimit problems
Understand experimental methods
Organize data
Understand the relation of the facts to the selection of a problem
Interpret data and plan experiment to test a hypothesis
Evaluate conclusions in terms of reasonableness, sufficiency and
pertinent data; and
Make generalizations and assumptions.
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After a brief period of germination, these objectives reappeared under
the label of "science processes."
Oburn (1956) consider that scientific investigation is directly or
indirectly concerned with problem solving, which consists of the following
steps:
a. sensing and defining problem
b. collecting evidence on problem
c. organising evidence on problem
d. interpreting evidence on problem
e . selecting and testing hypothesis
f . formulating conclusions
Burton eta/. (1960) provide a detailed analysis of the characteristics of
a person who thinks critically in problem solving. The steps in this process are:
a. recognises and defines problem
b. formulates adequate hypothesis
c. makes pertinent selections
d. draws valid conclusions
e. applies conclusions
A major factor in popularising the goals of the teaching of science has
been the development of the elementary school science programmeScience-
A Process Approach by the American Association for the Advancement of
Science (AAAS, 1968). They have given a classification of the basic and
integrated processes in science in terms of thirteen scientific skills with a brief
definition of each (details in classification of science processes).
As an aid to constructing examinations for Biological Science
Curriculum Study (BSCS) high school curriculum materials, Klinckmann
(1963) developed the BSCS Test Grid categories. One of these categories was
labelled "ability to use skills involved in understanding specific problems' with
eight sclence process subcategories.
Another major influence on the further curricular development in
science process goals was the classic National Science Teacher Association
(NSTA) of USA document-Theory into Action (1964), which placed
'processes' at par with 'conceptual schemes' as a framework on which science
curriculum should be based. Subsequently, National Assessment of Education
Progress (NAEP, USA, 1969) has included process goals as one of the four
major objectives of science programmes.
Anderson ef a/. (1970) describe science as 'an accumulation of
systematised facts'. The operational definition of science, they state, is as
follows: "It is the activity through which scientists solve problems by using
scientific method." The main steps of this activity are: a problem is stated; a
hypothesis is formulated; an experiment is conducted; data are collected; and
a conclusion is drawn.
According to Hurd (1971) science is an intellectual activib, which arises
from personal experience and takes place in the mind of man. There are
certain operational schemes in the field of science characterising its
investigative nature e.g. inquiry skills or processes of science. The processes
represent the intellectual means by which man inquires into nature, i.e.,
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organises his observation; establishes data; focuses it on a problem: and this
seeks to interpret or explain the rational event.
Kneller (1971) considers that the actual process of scientific
investigation is based on a method, observation-hypothesis-deduction-check'.
Tennenbaum (1971) developed an instrument to assess the
achievement and diagnose the weakness in the use of scientific processes by
students in the seventh, eighth and ninth grades entitled 'Test of Science
Process' (TOSP). The test is based on the eight processes: observing,
comparing, classifying, quantifying, measuring, experimenting, inferring and
predicting.
UNESCO (1971) referring to process approach in science, makes the
following comments:
a. An emphasis on process implies a corresponding de-emphasis on
specific science content.
b. What is taught to children sf,ould resemble what scientists do - the
processes that they carry out in their scientific activities.
c. Processes are in a broad sense 'ways of processing information' -
intellectual skills. The processes are: observing, classifying, using
numbers, measuring, using space time relationship, communicating,
predicting, inferring, defining operationally, formulating hypothesis.
~nterpreting data, controlling variables and experimenting.
Klopfer (1971) presented a very exhaustive classification of the
objectives of science education based on categories of factual knowledge and
comprehension. process of scientific inquiry, application of scientific
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knowledge and methods, manual skills, scientific attitudes and interests and
orientation. The major processes of scientific inquiry are: observing and
measuring, seeing a problem and seeking ways to solve it, interpreting data
and formulating generalisations, building, testing and revising a theoretical
model.
Another classification by Nay ef a/. (1971) conceives of scientific
inquiry as consisting of five major steps. They are: initiation, collecting of data,
processing of data, conceptualization of data and open endedness. They
classified process into seventeen main sub divisions and many minor sub
divisions. They included so many affective attributes and mental operations
such as communication, logical thought, critical attitude, creativity, intuition
etc.
Riley (1972) developed the Test of Science Inquiring Skills (TSIS) for
Vth grade students. The TSIS measured the skills of identifying and controlling
variable, interpreting data. predicting and inferring as defined by the science
curriculum study elementary science programme.
According to Streven and Kothari (1972) a number of conceptual
processes are involved in learning science. The processes are classifying,
measuring space-time relations, communicating. inferring, observing,
quantifying, abstraction making, model making, hypothesis making, listing,
theorising, predicting, replicating, extrapolating, generalizing etc.
According to Harry (1972), the process skills are observation,
description, classification, analysis, inference, measurement, prediction and
communication.
2.8
Esler (1973) describes the process of science as 'that which scientists
and children must d o to conduct scientific inquiry. An investigator must be a
good observer, he must be able to classify objects and ideas. The investigator
must be able to measure, to communicate his data to others, and to predict
from his data. He must name the variable, i.e. control variables in the
experiment. Other more sophisticated skills of this category are formulating
hypothesis and interpreting data'.
The nature of scientific research has also been analyzed by science
educators. One such analysis is due to Kerlinger. According to Kerlinger
(1973) scientific research is a process of reflective inquiry. Scientists go
through the different steps to solve a problem. The steps are troubled
situation, hypothesis, reasoning and deduction, observation test and
experiment. Kerlinger is of the view that the steps of scientific approach cannot
be neatly fixed.
Doran et a/. (1974) define the processes of science as observation:
measurement, classification, experiment, communication, prediction and
formulation of hypotheses, theories, laws and models.
Poppy and Wilson after an exhaustive scrutiny of the procedures used
in the various physical sciences, come to a broad generalization that scientific
method comprises of the following steps:
a. Defining the problem
b. Gathering controlled observation
c. Classifying and generalizing facts
d. Forming and testing the hypothesis
e. Forming theories from tested hypothesis (Bader, 1975)
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Loretta and George (1976) describe the process abilities for lower
school grades (for 41h, 5th and 6th grades) as classification, inference, prediction
and hypothesis formation
Dowing (1978) identifies the elements of scientific thinking on the
following lines: purposeful observation; analysis-synthesis: selective recall;
hypotheses: verification by inference and experiment; reasoning (by different
models) and judgement.
Bhandula ef a/. (1979) suggest five processes as characterizing scientific
skills for primary classes. They are: observing, classifying, measuring,
communicating and recognising number relations.
Andrew (1980) classifies the abilities of scientific processes into six
skills:
a. Recognising and defining a problem
b. Formulating hypothesis
c. Collecting data
d Interpreting data
e. Evaluating hypothesis
f . Formulating generalizations
He again classifies these six skills into sixteen sub skills
Poulose (1987) describes three major components in scientific process
skills: initiation. manipulation and open-endedness. He also mentions its
seven process categories and 17 process sub categories for students entering
into the university.
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Bhatt (1988) arranges the processes from observation to prediction in a
hierarchical pattern and he identifies that processes are cumulative in nature,
i.e. each process category is included in the next succeeding category.
Shepardson (1990) identifies student behaviour behind each phase of
the problem solving. These are:
a. Problem finding and refining phase
b. Research designing phase
c. Data collecting phase
d. Data analysing phase
e. Evaluating phase
UNESCO (1992) summarises the process skills of primary school
children as:
Observing
Raising questions
Hypothesizing
Predicting
Finding patterns and relationships
Communicating effectively
Designing and making
Devising and planning investigations
Manipulating materials and equipments effectively
Measuring and calculating
_ . . ,. .,
. ,, . ., ,. 1
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2.1.3 Historical Retrospect Science . . Processes
The assessment of techniques available for measuring the skills of
students with the processes of science has resulted in the development of
various theories and also the development of many new sophisticated
instruments for measuring scientific processes.
Many tests have been developed to measure the scientific process skills.
The details of various tests developed in the area are given in Table 1.
TABLE 1
H~storical Retrospect of the Development of Science Processes
Personfinstitution Year Level Description
developed
1911 Pearson not stated : Theoretical analysis of processes of science
1915 Stevens 8'" grade Introductory physical science programme
1935 Karl Pearson Secondary Steps in scientific inquiy school
1949 Dressel Secondary Elements of scientific thinking processes school
1949 Dunning I year college Certain aspects of scientific thinking Physics
Burmester
Monaghan
Cooley & Klopper
Klinckmann
Kastrinos
Watson & Glaser
Butts
Welch
Not stated
Not stated
Graduate level
Seconda y school
Seconday school
Not stated
Not stated
loth, i l l h and 12"' grade
I ~ductive aspects of scientific thinking
lhinking ability in science objective test
Test on understanding of science
BSCS Process Of Science Test (POST) 8 categories of understanding science problem
Critical thinking test. Relationship of methods of teaching advanced biology
Watson and Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal (WGCTA)
Evaluation of problem solving in science
Science Process Inventory (SPI) 90 items statement 'agree' or 'disagree'
PersodInstitution Year developed
Level
1 2 3
1967 Wisconsin Not stated
1967 Woodburn Secondary school
1968 Korth Not stated
1968 Walbesser H. H. Elementary school
1969 Hungerford & Junior H. S. Miles
1969 NAEP Not stated
1969 Wallace C. Not stated
1970 Diets & George For Gr.. 1, 11 & 111
1970 Weibesser & Carter Not stated
1971 Beard J. Not stated
1971 Klopfer Secondary school
1971 Morgan Middle school
1971 Nay, et al. Not stated
1971 Poel Secondary
1971 Tannenbaum 7 , 8 , 9
1972 Burns Teachers
1972 Riley 5'11
1973 IEA not stated
1975 Jacknicke Not stated
1975 Ludeman Elementary school
1975 McLeod Elementary school
1975 Van Bever 7"' grade
Description
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Wiscosin inventory of science process. 9 3 items
An examination: Methods and procedures of science
Life Science Process Test (LSPT), 36 items MC.4
Process skill test with Science: A Process Approach
Scientific Observation and Comparison Skills (SOCS)
Science objectives: 10 abilities and skills in the procedure of science
ERIC science process test
Problem solving skills
Format of four integrated processes
Achievement test for two basic processes of AAAS
Elaborate table of specifications of scientific inquiry.
Science test for evaluation of process skills. 86 items diagnostic test
An inventoy of process in scientific inquiry
Critical thinking skilk as related to PSSC and non PSSC physics students
Test of science processes. 8 skills
Science process skills for teachers
Test of Science Inquiry Skills (TSIS)
Test in many science subjects - nature and method of science
Students outcomes in science content. process skill
Scientific process
4 processes group test
Mastery of selected science process skills
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Description Person'lnstitution
developed ~
Y
Level
Welding Junior high school
4, 5. 6 grades
Scientific process of classification
Moliter & George Science Process Skill Test (SPST) skills of inference and verification - 18 items
To measure knowledge of PS or methods of science
Not stated
Nelsoi~ & Abraham Not stated Higher order science objectives in inquiry skills
Bowyer & Lin
Perez
Not stated
6''' grades
Four process tasks outcome study. SCIS
Perez Test of Science Process (PTSP) 8 processes 60 m. c. 60 minutes.
Andrew Seconday school
7 through 12
Process outcomes of seconda y school children
Dillashaw & R. Okey
Test of Integrated (science) Process Skills (TIPS), group test, m. c., 9 outcomes, 36 items, 25 minutes
Tobin & Capie Middle school,
College
Test of Integrated Science Process - 24 items (TISP)
Bhargava Higher secon- d a y classes
Cognitive process in science learning
Cox
Ross & Mev~~es
High school
Not stated
Science Process Competency Test (SPCT)
Seven experimental problem solving skills rn. c.
Shaw 6"' graders Integrated process, m. c. 4 Reliability coefficient K. R. 20 = 0.924
Hur Not stated 20 science process categories evaluating inquiy teaching approach
Sharmann et a1 Elementary teachers
Process Orientation Towards Science Scale (POTSS)
Khalwania
Pouiose
High school process skill test
University entrants
Test of Process Outcomes in Physics
Suresh Secondary school - 9"' standard
Test of Process Outcomes in Biology
UNESCO Primary school children
Process skills of primary school children
Celine Joseph 9"' standard Test of Process Outcomes in Physics
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2.1.4 Classification of Science Processes
Process outcomes are the resultant effects of the processes adopted in
teaching whereas process is a series of activities performed to attain a specific
goal. In clearer terms the science process outcomes are the intellectual skills
attained by the students which help them perform scientific investigation.
These are attained as a result of the learning of science.
In fact process outcome is a measure of the efficacy of the processes.
It follows that by examining a class of outcomes the investigator would get a
better insight into the nature of the processes. So this investigator examined
some of the important classifications attempted by experts in the field, which
are given below.
2.1.4.1 Kjopfer 'k Cjassification of Outcomes in Science
Klopfer (1971) was an expert in the field. The investigator selected his
classification for the purpose of examining process outcomes. The bases for
his classification were categories of factual knowledge and comprehension,
process of scientific enquiry, application of scientific knowledge and methods,
manual skills, scientific attit Ides and interests, and orientation. This is given
below in terms of the categories and subcategories.
Table of Specification for Science Education
A.O. Knowledqe and Comprehension
A. 1. Knowledge of specific facts
A.2. Knowledge of scientific terminology
A.3. Knowledge of concepts of science
A.4.
A.5.
A.6.
A.7.
A.8.
A.9.
A.lO.
A . l l .
8 .0 .
B.1.
B.2.
8.3.
B.4.
B.5.
C.O.
C.1.
C.2.
C.3.
C.4.
D.O.
Knowledge of conventions
Knowledge of trends and sequences
Knowledge of classifications, categories and criteria
Knowledge of scientific techniques and procedures
Knowledge of scientific principles and laws
Knowledge of theories or major conceptual schemes
Identification of knowledge in a new context
Translation of knowledge from one symbolic form to another
Process of Scientific Enquiry I: Observina and Measuring
Observation of objects and phenomena
Description of observations using appropriate language
Measurement of objects and changes
Selection of appropriate measuring instruments
Estimation of measurements and recognition of limits in accuracy
Process of Scientific Enquiry 11: Seeinq a Problem and Seekina Wavs io
Solve it
Recognition of a problem
Formulation of a working hypothesis
Selection of suitable tests of a hypothesis
Design of appropriate procedure for performing experiments
Process of Scientific Enquiry 111: Interpretins Data and Formulatinq
Generalisations
Processing of experimental data
Presentation of data in the form of functional relationship
Interpretation of experimental data and observations
D.4. Extrapolation and interpolation
E.O. Process of Scientific Enauirv IV: Buildina, Testinq and Revisins a
Theoretical Model
E.1. Recognition of the need for a theoretical model
E.2. Formulation of a theoretical model to accommodate knowledge
E.3. Specification of relationships satisfied by a model
E.4. Deduction of a new hypothesis from a theoretical model
E.5. Interpretation and evaluation of tests of a model
E.6. Formulation of revised, refined, extended model
F.O. Aoplication of Scientific Knowledae and Methods
F.1. Application to new problems in the same field of science
F.2. Application to new problems in a different field of science
F.3. Application to problems outside of science (including technology)
G.O. Manual Skills
G.I. Development of skills in using common laboratory equipments
G.2. Performance of common laboratory techniques with care and safety
H.O. Attitudes and Interests
H. 1. Manifestation of favourable attitudes towards science and scientists
H.2. Acceptance of science enquiry as a way of thought
H.3. Adoption of scientific attitudes
H.4. Enjoyment of science learning experiences
H.5. Development of interests in science and science-related activities
H.6. Development of interest in pursuing a career in science
1.0. Orientation
1.1. Relationship among various types of statements in science
1.2. Recognition of the philosophical limitations and influence of scientific
enquiry
1.3. Hutorical perspective: Recognition of the background of science
1.4. Realization of the relationship among science, technology and
economics
1.5. Awareness of the social and moral implication of scientific enquiry and
its results
2.1.4.2 Processes of Science (Nay et al.)
Classification by Nay et al. (1971) conceives of scientific inquiry as
consisting of five major steps with seventeen main subdivisions and many
minor subdivisions.
I. Initiation
1 . Identifying and formulating a problem
a. Speculating about a phenomenon
b. Idenl'fying variables
c. Noting and making assumptions
d. Delimiting the problem
2. Seeking relevant background information
a. Recalling relevant knowledge and experiments
b. Doing literature research
c. Consulting people
3. Predicting
4. Hypothesising
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5. Design for collection of data through field work and/or experimentation
a. defining the independent and control variables in operational
terms.
b. defining the procedure and sequencing the steps
c. identifying needed equipment, materials and techniques
d. indicating safety precautions
e. devising the method for recording data.
11. Collection of data
6 . Procedure
a. collecting, constructing and setting up the apparatus or
equipment
b. doing field work andlor performing the experiment
c. identifying the limitation of design (as a result of failures, blind
alleys etc. and modifying the procedure (often by trial and error).
d. repeating the experiment, for rsproducibility, to overcome the
limitations of initial design etc.)
e. recording data (describing, tabulating, diagramming,
photographing etc.)
7. Observing and observations
a . obtaining qualitative data (using senses, etc.)
b. obtaining semi-quantitative and quantitative data (measuring,
reading scales, calibrating, counting objects or events,
estimating, approximating etc.)
c. gathering specimens
d. obtaining graphical data (charts, photographs, films etc.)
e. noting unexpected or accidental occurrences. (serendipity)
Ill.
8.
f . noting the precision and accuracy of data
g. judging the reliability and validity of data
Processing of data
Organizing the data
a. ordering to identify regularities
b. classifying
c. comparing
Representing the data graphically
a . drawing graphs, charts, maps, diagrams etc.
b. interpolating, extrapolating etc.
Treating data mathematically
a . computing (calculating)
b. using statistics
c. determining the uncertainty of the results
Conceptualization of data
Interpreting the data
a. suggesting an explanation for a set of data
b. deriving an inference or generalization from a set of data
c. assessing validity of initial assumptions, predictions and
hypotheses
Formulating operational definitions
a . verbal
b. mathematical
Expressing data in the form of mathematical relationship
Incorporating the new discovety into the existing theory (developing a
'Mental Model').
V. Open-endedness
15. Seeking further evidence to
a. increase the level of confidence in the explanation or
generalization
b. test the range of applicability of the explanation or generalization
16. Identifying new problems for investigation because of
a . the need to study the effect of new variable.
b. anomalous or unexpected observations
c. incompleteness (gaps) and inconsistencies in the theory
17. Applying the discovered knowledge.
2.1.4.3 The AAAS Classification of Science Skills
The American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS,
1971) presents thirteen skills (scientific skills) together with a brief definition of
each. They are as follows:
I. Basic processes
1 . Observing
2 . Using spaceltime
Relationship
3. Classifying
4. Using numbers
5. Measuring
Using the five senses to obtain information.
Describing spatial relationships and their
change with time.
Imposing order and collecting of objects or
events.
Identifying quantitative relationships in
nature.
Measuring length, area. volume, weight.
temperature, force and speed.
4 1
6. Communicating : Expressing ideas with oral and written
words, diagrams, maps, graphs,
mathematical equations and various kinds
of visual demonstrations.
7. Predicting : Making specific forecasts of what a future
observation will be.
8. Inferring : An explanation of an observation.
11. lntegratedprocesses
9. Controlling variables : Studying the influence of changing
variables, the factors which influence one
another.
10. Interpreting data : Using data to make inferences, predictions
and hypotheses, the statistical treatments
given to such interpretations and the study
of probability.
11. Formulatinghypothesis : Making generalised statements of
explanations.
12. Defining operationally : Defining terms in the context of experience. -
13. Experimenting : Larger process of using basic and integrated
process.
2.1.4.4 Classification of Scientific Processes (Andrew)
Andrew (1980) classified the abilities of scientific processes into six skills
and sixteen subskills. They are:
1.0. Recognising and defining a problem
1.1. Recognise specific problem in a new situation
1.2. Isolate the single major idea of problem
1.3. State problem as definite and concise questions
2.0. Formulating hypothesis
2.1. Suggest tentative solutions to the problem
3.0. Collecting data
3.1. Select a suitable test of the hypothesis
3.2. Design experiment
3.3. Selecting equipments for experiment
3.4. Observe objects and phenomena
3.5. Measure objects and changes
4.0. Interpreting data
4.1. Organise data collected
4.2. Identify rejationships
4.3. Interpret relationships
5.0. Evaluating hypothesis
5.1. Formulate conclusions on the basis of relationship found
5.2. Evaluate hypothesis in relation to data interpreted
6.0. Formulating generalizations
6.1. Apply conclusions to new situation
6.2. Formulate generalizations on the basis of relationships identified
and conclusions formed and applied
2.1.4.5 Gagne 's Hierarchy of Learning
Gagne formulated a model based on the hierarchy of Learning types.
On this model, the learning of more basic behaviour is a prerequisite for the
learning of the higher behaviour. This idea has been systematised by Gagne
(1977) in the form of a hierarchy of learning types.
1. Signal learning
2. Stimulus response Learning
3. Chain learning
4. Verbal associate learning
5. Multiple discrimination
6. Learning of concepts
7. Learning of principles
8. Problem solving
Gagne (1985) later modified this hierarchy of eight learning types. He
retained the first four in the same order and modified the latter four higher
types into five varieties of capabilities.
These capabilities are:
Intellectual skills are the most important types of capabilities learned by
human beings. They include successful handling of symbols for
communication with the environment. Intellectual skills consist of the following
categories:
a. multiple discrimination
b. concrete concept and defined concept
c. higher order principles or learning of rules
d. procedure
2. Cognitive strategies
Cognitive strategies are internally organised skills whose functioning is
to regulate or monitor the utilisation of concepts and rules. By acquiring and
44
using cognitive strategies the learners are able to regulate internal processes
such as.
a. attending
b. learning
c. remembering
d. thinking
e. problem solving
3. Verbal Information
The learner has to learn verbal information and retain it: so that, it is
immediately accessible. Information is thought of as verbal and capable of
being verbalised.
4. Mofor skills
Acquisition of motor skills is the organisation of movements to constitute a
total action that is smooth, regular and precisely limited.
5. Attitudes
Attitudes are a kind of group norms: The best way to develop
attitudinal learning is to develop appropriate group norms.
2.1.4.6 Classification of Science Processes (Poulose)
Poulose (1987) classified the science processes into three main
processes, seven major process categories and 17 process subcategories.
Process
1, lnitiation
Maior Process Process Subcateqory Cateuorv
C 1. Recognition of problems
- 1. lnitiation 2. Observation of objects and
phenomena
3. Formulation of a working r hypothesis
L 2. Hypothesising 4. Selection of a suitable test of
hypothesis
L 5 Design of appropriate procedure for experimental test
6. Selection of proper instrument or material
r 3. Gathering of data t 7. Measuring objects and changes
2. Manipulation L 8. Estimation of measurement
r 9. Organi;ing and manipulation of data
t L 4. Processing of data 10. Preparation of graphs
11 .Interpolation and extrapolation
C 12.lnterpreting experimental data
i 5. Conceptualisation
13. Evaluation lf hypothesis
3. Open
endedness
14. Formulation of generalisation
6. Generalisation
15. Developing a mental model
16. Application of a discovered 7. Open endedness knowledge
17. Identification of a new problem for investigation
46
2.1.4.7 UNESCO's Classification of Science Processes
UNESCO (1992) source book for science in the primary school lists out
the indicators of process skills. They are summarised and given below:
I . Observing
Using the senses (as many as safe and appropriate) to gather
information.
ldentifying differences between similar objects or events.
ldentifying similarities between different objects or events.
Noticing fair details that are relevant to an investigation.
Recognising the order in which sequenced events take place.
Distinguishing from any observations those which are relevant to the
problem in hand.
2. Raising questions
Asking questions which lead to inquiry.
Asking questions based on hypotheses.
Identifying questions which they can answer by their own investigation.
Putting questions into a form, which indicates the investigation which
has to be carried out.
Recognising that some questions cannot be answered by inquiry.
47
3. Hypothesizing
Attempting to explain observations or relationships in terms of certain
principles or concepts.
Applying concepts or knowledge gained in one situation to help
understanding or solve a problem in another.
Recognizing that there can be more than one possible explanation of
an event.
Recognizing the need to test explanations by gathering more evidence.
Suggesting explanations, which are stable, even if unlikely.
4. Predicting
Making use of evidence to make a prediction (as opposed to a guess,
which takes no account of evidence).
Explicitly using patterns or relationships to make a prediction.
Justifying how a prediction was made in terms of present evidence or
past experience showing caution in making assumptions about the general
applicatior. of a pattern beyond available evidence.
Making use of patterns to extrapolate cases where no information has
been gathered.
5. Finding patterns and relationships
Putting various pieces of information together (from direct observations
or seconda~y sources) and inferring certain information from them.
Finding regularities or trends in information, measurements or
observations.
Identifying an association between one variable and another.
Realizing the difference between a conclusion that fits all the evidence
and an inference that goes beyond it
Checking an inferred association or relationship against evidence.
6. Communicating effectively
Using writing or speech as a medium of sorting out ideas or linking one
idea with another.
Listening to others' ideas and responding to them,
Keeping notes on actions or observations.
Displaying results appropriately using graphs, tables, charts etc
Reporting events systematically and clearly.
Using sources of information considering how to present information so
that it is understandable by others.
7. Designing and making
Choosing appropriate materials for constructing things. which have to
work or serve a purpose. Choosing appropriate materials for constructing
models.
Producing a plan or design which is a realistic attempt at solving a
problem.
49
Succeeding in making models that work or meet certain criteria.
Reviewing a plan or a construction in relation to the problem to be
solved.
8. Devising and planning investigations
Deciding what equipment, materials, etc. are needed for an
investigation.
Identifying what is to change or be changed when different
observations or measurements are made.
Identifyng what variables are to be kept the same for a fair test.
Identifying what is to be measured or compared.
Considering beforehand how the measuremetlts, comparisons, etc. are
to be used to solve the problem.
Deciding the order in which steps should be taken in an investigation.
9. Manipulating materials and equipment effectively
Handling and manipulating materials with c~ -e for safety and
efficiency.
Us~ng tools effectively and safely.
Showing appropriate respect and care for living things.
Assembling parts successfully to a plan.
Working with the degree of precision appropriate to the task in hand.
10. Measuring and calculating
Using an appropriate standard or non-standard measure in making
comparisons or taking readings.
Taking an adequate set of measurements for the task in hand.
Using measuring instruments correctly and with reasonable precision.
Computing results in effective way.
Showing concern for accuracy in checking measurements or
calculations.
A general discussion of the science processes given by various experts
reveal that, the science process skills have a hierarchical order. Some basic
skills are needed for the acquisition of higher order skills. One can infer an
overlap of many skills in a specific phase of a problem-solving task. There are
some commonalities among the various classification of skills, but some of
them lack the high degree of wholeness of the processes.
2.1.5 Process Models
Attempts have been made by educators to describe processes in terms
of models.
Anderson eta/ . (19701, for example, provides a model of process skills
as shown in Figure 1.
Carin and Sund's (1970) model of interrelationship between processes
and products is given below.
---
of phenomena in Scientific New scientific
Figure 2 Interrelationship between processes and produds (Carin and Sund, 1970)
r - -
Scientific Processes
Attitudes
Intense curiosity Humility
1 investiabon of Phenomena in _Nature
Objects Events Relationship etc
Determination
Open mindedness etc.
Methods
Identifying problems Observing
Hypothesizing Analysing Inferring
Gdrapolating
Synthesi .ing Evaluating
- -
New Scientific Products
Facts Concepts Generalizations Principles Theories Laws
Wilson (1974) presents a process model of scientific inquiry,
Empirical inquiy I I 1 Discrepant events: I 1 Curious events
Data gaps 1 Chance observations
I Empirical experiments: 1 I 1 Obsewation I Classification 1 Inferring ' Predicting I 1 Quantifying
Simplification I__-.-_-
I j New plrenomena. I / Objects, events
Obseivable relationships I Conelateci occurirnces
Conceptual inquiry I I I Discrepant attributes: I
Contradictoly phenomena Limit determination Theoy articulation
Conceptual experiments: I Attribute search 1 Symbolic representation Conceptual testing Idealization Analysis of cause
I ,
1 New explanations:
Paradigms, Modeis Relationships Principles, Theories Laws
Figure 3 Process model of scientific inquiry (Wilson, 1974)
Rachelson (1977) gives a model of process of scientific inquiry. The
model illustrates the relationship between testing and generating a hypothesis.
It presents scientific inquiry as a self-correlating revisionary system. The
revisionary element is critical, as it is the unique characteristic of scientific
inquiries.
1 Result k- -1 Observable predictions
A Hypothesis
Generation of hypothesis through
intuitive acts
Formation of observable
L______J u Empirical testing of
prediction using empirical controls
Drawins conclusion
(R) - Revisionaly element
Figure 4 Process of scientific inquiry (Rachelson, 1977)
prediction
7
Bhatt (1988) arranged the processes from observation to prediction in a
hierarchical and cumulative pattern.
Figure 5 Cumulative nature of science processes (Bhatt, 1988)
The format of science process skills is given by UNESCO source book
for science in the primary school (1992).
Raising thesising questions
{ Predicting \ \ I / uoservlrly ( Comparing )
Figure 6 Science process skills (UNESCO. 1992)
5 7
2.1.6 Major Curricular Innovations in Science
Since 1960. the teaching of science has become a major concern that
has received global attention. This period is of intense and vigorous
development in the curriculum of science, marked by the publication of many
major projects. The major curricular innovations, launched as a revolt against
the traditional product led approach, stress the development of processes in
science teaching.
During the 1960s a number of projects for the improvement of science
curriculum were undertaken in a number of countries which gave more
emphasis on process approach. A list of major curricular innovations in
different countries is given below:
India
1. UNESCO planning mission of experts.
2. Indian Education Commission.
3. UNESCO-UNICEF assisted project in science.
4. Production of supplementary reading material.
5 . Ishwarbhai Pate1 Committee.
Thailand
1. Institute for the Promotion of Teaching Science and Technology (IPST).
United Kingdom
1. Nuffield Science Teaching Projects
United States of America
A. At the elementary level
1. Conceptually Oriented Program in Elementary Science
(COPES).
2. Elementary Science Study (ESS).
3. Science Curriculum Improvement Study (SCIS).
4. Science A Process Approach (SAPA).
5. Other projects such as MINNEMAST, ESSP, QAESS etc.
B. At intermediate level
1. Intermediate Science Curriculum Study (ISCS) .
2. Introductory Physical Science (IPS).
3. Biological Science Curriculum Study (BSCS).
4. Earth Science Curriculum Project (ESCP).
5. Secondary School Science Project (SSSP).
C. At the secondary level (stages 10-12)
1. Biological Science Curriculum Study (BSCS): There are three
versions of BSCS, viz. yellow, blue and green, each emphasising
a different approach.
2. Chemical education material study (chem. study).
3. Chemical Bond Approach (CBA).
4. The Project Physics Course (PPC).
5. Physical Science Study Committee (PSSC).
6. Harvard Physics project.
59
The curriculum projects are framed in such a way that children should
enjoy science through direct engagement in scientific activities and gain an
awareness of what scientists do and should be encouraged to pursue the study
of science at an advanced level. A critical evaluation of them reveals that, the
intensity of the role of processes in them is different, but they have some
uniqueness.
2.1.7 Process Approach: Educational Implications
Billeh and Malik (1977) pointed out that in order to understand
science, one should know the processes through which scientific knowledge is
acquired and developed. The same wine in another bottle is that involvement
of a learner in the scientific process is a must for meaningful learning in
science. Or the learner is to be placed in the role of an original investigator.
It follows hereof that no good science-teaching can take place or that
no teaching-learning will be ideal, without sufficient orientation of the learner
into the involvement of scientific processes. The learner's skills in going
through the processes are not only useful in learning science but also effective
in facing life situations. Science educators are of the belief that learners who
acquire process skills in science will be able to face the problems of life in a
better way and they can look at problems critically. Also they will be inclined
to handle problems analytically and to take decisions objectively. This is the
positive transfer value of acquisition of process skills. Process approach to
science teaching will also help learners to understand science with meaning.
A much earlier writer Gordan (1953) also had shown that the scientific
method had a definite transfer value. Teevan and Jandron (1953) opined
60
that perception and knowledge, the constituents of cognitive process are
necessary for learning with understanding.
For junior students of science, the lower level cognitive skills are to be
isolated for special treatment. This is true even while all types of cognitive
skills are important in science teaching. For achieving the appropriate process
outcomes of the level, curriculum and instructional methods are to be
designed accordingly. The reality is that scientific processes are not properly
inculcated in lower learning levels. The spirit to search, find and deduce is to
be emphasised on right from the beginning.
According to a UNESCO Committee (Lewis, 1972), "science education
is a continuing process from pre-school age to post-university training, . . . it
should focus attention on primary science education for developing the spirit
of inquiry and logical thought."
2.2 PERSONALITY VARIABLES
The major independent variables of the study are the personality
variables. Considering the specialized nature of t lese variables, an attempt
has been made to examine the concept of personality and also the particular
personality variables used in the study.
Definition of Personality
One of the most popular definitions of personality is by Allport (1961).
Allport defines personality as the dynamic organization within the individual
of those psycho-physical systems that determine his characteristic behaviour
6 1
and thought. Personality is something growing and changing and not fixed or
static.
According to Murphy (1947), "a personality is a structured organism's
environment field, each aspect of which stands in dynamic relation to each
other aspect. There is organisation within the organism and organisation
within the environments but it is the cross organisation of the two that is
investigated in personality research."
For Cattel (1950), "personality is concerned with the entire behaviour
of the individual both overt and inward."
Vernon (1957) approaches the term from a different angle by stressing
the affective side of behaviour. In his words, "we mean by personality, simply
what sort of a person is so and so, what he is like . . . While a man's
intelligence, his bodily strength and skills are certainly part of his personality.
yet the term refers chiefly to his emotional and social qualities, together with
his drives, sentiments and interest'. In this sense, construds like adjustment,
anxiety, interests etc. are major aspects of a person's personality."
Personality is considered to be a learned disposition to do certain
things in a certain situation. Interpreted in this manner, personality is bound
to have considerable influence in his performance. A person's educational
performance is bound to be affected by different traits of his personality. This
fact can be illustrated by isolating one aspect of personality, say 'science
interest'. A person who has a little or no interest in science need not be
expected to apply his mind fully to a study of science subject. This in turn will
be reflected to his achievement in science. He is in all probability not likely to
get high achievement in science subjects. This fact has been expressed more
technically by Pidgeon and Yates (1969) in their remark that the strength of
the child's interest in a school subject is an item of evidence which will help us
both to judge the effectiveness of the course of instruction and also to predict
the levels of attainment in future. This example can be extended to other
personality variables like examination anxiety, achievement motivation, etc.
We will now examine in some detail the particular personality variables
used in the study.
2.2.1 Personal Adjustment
Personal adjustment is defined as a state of being in which the
individual is in harmonious relationship with a given social situation. It is also
defined as the process of attaining such a state (Fairchild, 1944).
Lowrey (1947) looks upon personal adjustment as "having inner
emotional security, feeling personal adequacy and of being successful,
happiness in personal relations, a relative evaluation of self and adaptabilily
and acceptance of one's limitations."
According to Carr (1955) it is a balance between a person and his
environmental situations.
A variety of techniques are at present employed to appraise personal
and social adjustment. The following are some of the techniques:
a ) self-descriptive inventories or personal reports
b) rating scales of personal and social conduct
c) observational and anecdotal records
d) free association and projective methods
e) autobiographies
f 1 interviews
g) sociometric techniques
h ) situational tests
Inventories like Bell Adjustment Inventory, California Test of
Personality, Heston Personal Adjustment Inventory and Minnesota Personality
Scale are some of the important tools used to evaluate personal adjustments.
The present scale consists of the following dimensions
a. Self reliance
b. Sense of personal worth
c. Sense of personal freedom'
d. Feeling of belonging
e. Withdrawing tendencies (freedom from)
f . Nervous symptoms (Freedom from)
2.2.2 Social Adjustment
The tern is vey close to personal adjustment and v e y often they are
defined and measured together.
Encyclopaedia of Psychology (Eysensck eta]., 1972) defines the term
social adjustment as "a process or state resulting from that process of physical,
socio-systematic or organisational changes in group-specific behaviour or
relations, or a specific culture."
64
Dictionary of Education (Good, 1945) defines the term as follows:
1) The process whereby the individual attempts to maintain or further his
security. comfort, status, or creative inclinations in the face of ever
changing conditions and pressures of his social environment or the
state or condition attained through such efforts.
2 ) The pattern or the modes of response built up by the individual with
respect to his social environment and evaluated in terms of standards of
his culture groups as acceptable, desirable or successful.
Dictionary of Sociology (Fairchild, 1944) defines the term as follows:
1) Those types of relationships between personalities, groups, culture
elements and culture complexes which are harmonious and mutually
satisfactory to the personalities and groups involved.
2 ) Those processes which tend to produce such relationships.
In modern sociology, social adjustment has been attributed a
sociological meaning that highlights the interactive, striving, accommodative,
associative and normative dimensions of the term.
The present scale consists of the following dimensions:
a. Social standards
b. Social skills
c. Anti-social tendencies (freedom from)
d. Family relations
e. School relations
f. Community relations
65
2.2.3 Examination Anxiety
Dictionaty of Psychology (Warron, 1962) defines 'anxiety' as "an
emotional attitude or sentiment concerning the future characterised by an
unpleasant alternation or mingling of dread and hope (mixing)."
Good (1973) defines examination anxiety as the fear of taking
examination; unpleasant emotional reaction elicited by anticipation of a
testing situation may have an effect on the test performance of the subject.
Anxiety is a reflection of internal tension whereas fear is a mechanism
for dealing with external and presumably more realistic dangers.
Examination anxiety is the mental distress and fear experienced by
pupils, when they have to face examinations of any type or any of its related
activities.
2.2.4 Achievement Motivation
Achievement motivation is an important determinant of aspiration,
efforts and persistence when an individual expects that his personality and his
achievements in life will be evaluated in relation to some standard of
excellence. Such a behaviour is called achievement motivation.
Achievement motivation is a hypothetical construct designed to explain
inter and intra individual differences in the orientation. intensity and
consistency of achievement behaviour. In terms of content, achievement
motivation may be characterised as the tendency to maintain and increase
individual proficiency in all areas in which standard of quality is taken as
binding (Eysenck ef a/., 1972).
66
Achievement motivation refers to a pattern of actions and feelings
connected to striving to achieve some internalized standard of excellence in
performance (Vidler, 1977). Atkinson and Feather (1966) provide clear
presentation of the expanded theory of achievement motivation.
Achievement oriented behaviour is seen to be a function of a number of
factors including the motive to succeed, the motive to avoid failure, the
perceived probability of success, and the incentive value of success. Atkinson
and McClelland (1965) view motivation as an unconscious drive or need that
is socialized early in a child's life. This view closely aligns motivation with the
study of personality.
2.2.5 Science Interest
Interests are accepted as important dimensions of personality.
According to Pidgeon and Yates (1969) interest is "a tendency or disposition
to pay attention to particular phenomena or to select a given activity wt-ken
choice is given." According to Anderson (1976) "a person's interests are
reflected in his tendencies to seek or avoid certain kinds of activities."
Bhatacl arya (1972) considers that interest is a behaviour tendency
which is an expression of satisfaction of certain needs innate or acquired in
the course of adjustment to the environment.
Eysenck et a/. (1972) define interest as a tendency to behaviours
oriented towards certain objects, activities or experience, which tendency
varies in intensity (and generality) from individual to individual.
Vernon (1965) points out that interests are close to attitudes. Guilford
et a/. (1954) and his associates found over twenty interest factors, most of
which reflect general personality styles. 'Science interest' can be defined as
interest for science and allied area of work. It may be defined as a positive
feeling attached to the abstract and concrete aspects of scientific activity,
which manifest in the fonn of acceptance for and a satisfaction in all activities
and movements connected with science. According to Super (1957) "science
interest involves a desire to understand the why and how of biological and
physical processes, the desire to add to the new store of such knowledge, and
the desire to put such knowledge to use."
Interest is usually measured using self-report techniques. Most popular
measures of ihterests are the Kuder preference records, the strong vocational
interest bank, Thurstone interest schedule, the occupational interest inventory
and the Allport-Vernon study of values.
2.3 PERSONAL VARIABLES
The constructs of the three other variables of the study, viz. sex
(boyslgirls), school location (ruraVurban) and the type of school management
(government/private) are sufficiently commonplace and hence they have been
excluded from the present discussion.