A SYNTHETIC OVERVIEW OF THE SUSFISH...

Project[56]SUSFISHBurkinaFasoSustainableManagementofWaterandFishResourcesinBurkinaFaso(SUSFISH)ASYNTHETICOVERVIEWOFTHESUSFISHPROJECTSocietyMeetsEcology

JanSendzimir,GabiSlezak,RaymondOuedraogo,MouminiSavadogo,PhillipeCecchi,ColetteKabore,GustaveKabre,PiotrMagnuszewski,AdamaOueda,AimeNianogo,OttoMoog,FlorianPeloschek,LeonSavadogo,PatriceToe,HenriZerboandAndreasMelcherContributionsfrom:IdrissaKabore,TomKoblinger,KomandanMano,PaulMeulenbroek,TigaNeya,PhillipeSawadogo,SebastianStranzl,Vincent‐PaulSanon,DanielTraunerReportingperiod:November2011‐November2014FinalReportsubmitted:January,2015Financedby ImplementingOrganizations

Project [56] Final Report Synthesis 2014

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CurrentquestionsinsustainablewatermanagementandhighereducationEditorsandLayout:JanSendzimir,GabiSlezak,FlorianPeloschek,RaymondOuedraogo,MouminiSavadogo,andAndreasMelcherTobecitedas:SUSFISHConsortium(2015)SustainableManagementofWaterandFishResourcesinBurkinaFaso‐asyntheticoverviewoftheSUSFISHproject.SupportedbytheAustrianPartnershipProgrammeinHigherEducation&ResearchforDevelopment,http://susfish.boku.ac.at/download.htm.Copyright2015bySUSFISHConsortiumSUSFISH‐SustainableManagementofWaterandFishResourcesinBurkinaFasohttp://susfish.boku.ac.at/FundedbyAPPEAR(AustrianPartnershipProgrammeinHigherEducationandResearchforDevelopment)Project56.FinancedbytheAustrianDevelopmentCooperationCoordinators:Dr.AndreasMelcherUniversityofNaturalResourcesandLifeSciencesBOKU,Vienna,AustriaDr.RaymondOuedraogoMinistryofResearchandInnovation,Ouagadougou,BurkinaFasoAllpartsofthematerialareprotectedbythiscopyright.TheSUSFISHconsortiumisresponsibleforthecontent.


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Contents

Introduction1.KeyKnowledgeGainsunderSUSFISH

1.1.LessonsLearned1.1.1.BiophysicalSciences1.1.2.Social,EconomicandPoliticalSciences1.1.3.Gender1.1.4.Education1.1.5.Partnership

1.2.ImportantRemainingQuestions1.2.1.BiophysicalSciences1.2.2.Social,EconomicandPoliticalSciences

2.ImplicationsofSUSFISHResearchforScienceandPractice

2.1.ScenariosthatMeritFurtherScrutiny2.1.1.BiophysicalSciences

Scenario:Over‐fishingsoreducesaverageadultfishsizethatfisheryproductivityistrappedatminimumlevels.

2.1.2.Social,EconomicandPoliticalSciencesScenario:Multi‐levelGovernancerelatedtonaturalresourcemanagementatthelocallevel

2.2.SystemsAnalysisofBehaviorPatternsCriticaltoSustainability2.2.1.BiophysicalSciences2.2.2.Social,EconomicandPoliticalSciences

3.Discussion4.Conclusions5.Appendices

5.1Scenarios


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IntroductionTheSUSFISHprojectwasdesignedtostrengthenin‐countrycapacitiesforscience,policyandpracticetoestablishthebasisforbetterwaterqualityandsustainablefisheriesinBurkinaFaso.Thismeansbuildingscientificcapacitytomonitorandassessthedynamicsofreservoirecologicalservices(fish,water),theeducationalcapacitytotrainscientistsandtechniciansintheseconceptsandmethods,andthe institutionalcapacitiesinmanagementandpolicyformulationthatarelinkedwithresearchandeducationinthesphereofwaterandfisheriesinBurkinaFaso.Combiningtheseresearch,educationandpolicygoalsbooststhepotentialforsustainabledevelopmentinBurkinaFaso(seeFigure1).

Figure1–SUSFISHresearchproductsrelatedtofoodsecurity,sustainablefisheries,waterqualityboostthepotentialfordevelopmentandeducationinBurkinaFaso.

TheprojectwaslaunchedinNovember2011andisbeingundertakenbyaconsortiumofintotal 7 institutions of higher education and development in Burkina Faso and Austria,namely:

• Institute for Environment and Agricultural Research, Ministry of Research andInnovation,Ouagadougou,BurkinaFaso

• General Directorate for Fish Resources, Ministry of Animal and Fish ResourcesOuagadougou,BurkinaFaso


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• InternationalUnionforConservationofNatureanditsResources(IUCN),WestandCentralAfrica,ProgrammeBurkinaFaso

• PolytechnicUniversityofBobo‐Dioulasso,BurkinaFaso

• UniversityofOuagadougou,BurkinaFaso

• UniversityofVienna,Austria

• InternationalInstituteforAppliedSystemsAnalysis(IIASA),LaxenburgAustria

• BOKUUniversityofNaturalResourcesandLifeScience,Vienna,Austria

The work was also done in close cooperation with Dr. Piotr Magnuszewski, Centre forSystemsSolutionsWroclaw,PolandandProf.PhillipeCecchifromtheprogram‘IRDG‐eau’and APPEAR project “MEAMP Elements for a Burkina Faso national pharmacopoeia:monographsredactionandqualitycontrolofendangeredantimalarialmedicinalplants”andfinallybutnotleasttheInstitutFrançaisdeBurkinaFasoandVienne.

Wewanttothankalldonors,partnersandpeoplewhosupportedandarestillsupportingourwork–especiallyMrs.GritschiKerlforsharingallherknowledgeandgreatexperiencewithus. We are grateful that the BOKU Center for International Relations (ZIB) funded theAustrian students stay in Burkina Fasowith a scholarship for short‐term scientificworkabroad(KUWI),awardeddirectlybytheUniversityofNaturalResourcesandLifeSciences.Furthermore,wewanttothanktheAustrianDevelopmentAgencyandAppearProgramme(Austrian Partnership Programme inHigher Education& Research for Development) forfinancing the SUSFISH Project (SustainableManagement ofWater and Fish Resources inBurkinaFaso),intheframeofwhichthisthesiswaswritten.

Dr.ZettelandespeciallyDr.JächfromtheNaturalHistoryMuseumViennawereveryhelpfuland patient with the identification of Hemiptera and Coleoptera, respectively. The samesupportwasgiven for fish identificationbyProf. JosSnoeksandhis teamfromtheAfricaMuseum in Tervuren, Belgium. Special thanks to the “Freunde des Haus des Meeres” inVienna.OurSUSFISHstudentPaulMeulenbroek´smasterthesison„fishhabitatuseinthevolta catchment“ was awarded with the Ferry‐Starmühlner‐Preis for the best thesis onfreshwater fish research in 2013. Prof. Ott from theUniversity of Vienna highlighted theenourmouseffortandcompetenceofbothAustrianandAfricanstudents.AtthefinalSUSFISHmeetingthisawardbenefitwillbesharedwiththeBurkinabecollegues.

In June 2013 a multi‐day workshop was organized in Vienna to show the potential forsustainable solutions that can emerge when a diversity of perspectives from social andnaturalsciences,fromacademia,governmentandinformedlaycommunityareintegratedinthepursuitofpolicyreform.

During thisworkshopmore than 100 visitors from 12 countries attendedmore than 30scientificpresentationsanddiscussions,alsopreparedforthepublic.OnehighlightwastheAustrian film premiere “Les grands Barrages en Afrique de l´Ouest” a documentary filmproducedby IUCNandECOWAS(EconomicCommunityofWestAfricanStates). Speakerscamefrom12differentscientificandpublicinstitutions,workingintheoryandpracticeon


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conceptsof life sciences,development research,biology,ecology, foodsecurity, sociology,anthropology,medicine,education,gender,systemanalysesandpoliticaltopics.Beyondthat,intensiveandfruitfuldiscussionsaboutpartnership,highereducation,participation,genderbutalsoclimatechange,humanimpactsecosystemserviceshelpedustounderstandeachotherbetter.

Overthreeyearstheprojectsuccessfullygeneratedadiversearrayofinformationusefulforsustainablefisheriesintheareasofaquaticecology,policiesandlegislation,socio‐economies,anthropology and gender in fisheries and water resources management. The project’sdemand‐drivenagendarequiresatitsendthatprojectpartnersgobacktothebeneficiaries(e.g stakeholders, scientists, fisherman, students) and share results, information andknowledgeco‐createdwithallofthem.

Thiswasthemainobjectiveofthe“SUSFISHFinalSymposium”thattookplaceattheCentreNationaldesArchivesinOuagadougou15‐16July2014.Thesecondaimofthesymposiumwastosupportfuturecooperationbetweenpartnerinstitutions.Itsspecificobjectiveswere(1) to oresent theproject results among researchers (research and education), (2) sharerelevantinformationwithdecisionmakersatotherstakeholdersand(3)todiscussfuturesteps.

About100personsattendedthesymposium:researchers,studentsandrepresentativesofinstitutions(government,NGOandeducation)thatareexpectedtouseandimplementtheSUSFISH results. Some twenty‐four presentationswere given (see the programme in theappendix).Themainfocuswasorientedtowardsthemostprominentresearchresults,thelessonslearnedandtheprospectiveareasforfurtherresearchandactivitiesinsustainablefisheriesandtheirsocioeconomiceffects.

Several recent developments and news remind us how complex and essential integratedapproachesare.Basedontheexperiencesofthepastyearsandnewfindings,wewanttoreflectonwhethersustainablesolutionsarepossibleonregional,nationalandinternationallevel.Today’sdevelopmentchallengesdemandintegratedapproachesthatallowleveragingonsynergiestoobtainmultiplebenefitsconcurrently.

InSUSFISHitisalsotheaimtointegrategenderissuesatallstagesofresearch.Thisapproachrequiresnewnetworks,newformsofcooperationtoaccordequalstatustobothgenders,andtarget women explicitly as important actors. During reporting period the project teamdecidedtofocusonthischallengeandtousegendersensitivityinordertocontributetoabetter understanding of social practice, complex interrelations of power relations andstrategiesofin‐andexclusioninthefisheriesandwatersectors.

MainfindingsfromSUSFISHactivitiesandresearch

Morethan75fishspeciesand61familiesofmacro‐invertebrateshavebeenidentifiedandtheirspatialdistributiondescribed.Auchenoglanisgen.andHydrocynusgencouldbeusedas sentinel genera. Clarias sp and Sarothorodon sp increasewith pressures, unlike otherspecies, e.g. Alestes sp and Schilbe sp., which are sensitive and decrease in number aspressuresrise.


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Thereareimportantdifferencesbetweenthecommunitiesofbenthicinvertebratesinriversand in reservoirs.Water plant habitats exhibit a higher taxa richness and diversity thansedimenthabitats.

BiologicalassessmentofwaterbodiesinBurkinaFasoisfeasible.Twopossiblewaysareconsidered1)adaptinganexistingmethodor2)developinganownmethodology

Definition of reference sites in typologically similar rivers and areas; larger data setcomprising good, moderate and bad sites in different areas is necessary for futureinvestigations

Habitatandhumanpressuresinfluencebiodiversity Increase knowledge about Fish andBenthic Invertebrates – samplingmethod, taxonomy,

distribution,ecology,andconservationstatus.AdaptationofdeterminationkeysforBF

Development and implementation of a standardised monitoring system is necessary toprotectwatersandenvironment.

Adequate biological assessmentmethod enables policymakers andmanagers to enforceappropriatemanagementplanswillhelptoraisepublicawarenessfortheprotectionofwaterbodies

An official (IUCN red) list of fish species and invertebrates, a national database of metainformation on existing biophysical characteristics of fisheries, the diversity andconservation status of fish species and benthic invertebrates, the pressures on fishpopulations andmethods ofwater assessment based on fish andmacroinvertebrates areunderdevelopment

Thepopulationofdirectfisheriesstakeholdersisestimatedatabout32700persons(14%are women and 82 % men), 3 000 fishmongers (54% are woman). Between groups ofstakeholderssomedisparitiesintheaccesstofishresourcesarenoticeable:manvs.women,allochthon vs autochthons, youth vs. elderly. As a consequence preliminary results showunequalrepresentationindecision‐makingcommitteesandrestrictedaccesstoinformationaboutlaws,regulationsandrightsinthefisheriesamongthosegroupsofsociety.

TheSUSFISHProjectaimstointegrategenderissuesatallstagesofresearch.Thisapproachrequiresnewnetworks,newformsofcooperationtoaccordequalstatustobothgenders,andtargetwomenexplicitlyasimportantactors.Duringthereportingperiodtheprojectteamdecidedtofocusonthischallengeandtousegendersensitivityinordertocontributetoabetter understanding of social practice, complex interrelations of power relations andstrategiesofin‐andexclusioninthefisheriesandwatersectors.

Theresultsofsocialscienceresearchshowfirst,thatmacro‐levelpoliciesandlegislationarenotknownat regionaland local levels.Thenationalorganization in chargeof fisheries isunknownaswellbecausenotangibleactivityisundertakeninthefieldortotargetthedirectstakeholders. The field police fisheries officers (foresters) are not inclined to work onfisheriesintheareasofmonitoring,surveillanceandcontrol.Asaresult,prohibitedfishingmethods are increasingly used. Second, both “republican” e.g. European democratic, andtraditionalinstitutionsmakerelativelyimportantcontributionstothegovernanceofwaterandfishresources.Butthetwosystemshavetobeharmonized

WeobservedthatinBurkinaFaso,fishintakecontributestoimprovingfoodandnutritionsecurity.Incomefromfishsalesalsohelpsimprovethehouseholdfoodandnutritionsecurity.


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Asforcapacitybuildingandeducationstrengthening,about23students(2doctoral)and more than 20 masters) have been involved in SUSFISH. Several others areexpectedtobeassisted.

The following sections of this report describe how different facets of SUSFISH built thefoundationsofthesecapacitiesforfisheriesscience,policyandpractice.Aspreviouslynoted,thecoremissionoftheSUSFISHprojectwastodeliver informationthat includesandcutsacrossdisciplinaryboundaries.Assuch,alltheinformationreportedbelowwasdonebothfor thebiophysical sciences aswell as thenon‐biophysical sciences, e.g. social, economic,politicalandanthropologicalsciences.Section1.1reportsonthespecificfindingsoffactthatSUSFISH research established. Section 1.2 describes the key questions that remainoutstandingwith thecompletionof theSUSFISHproject. Section2examinessomeof theimportantimplicationsraisedbySUSFISHresearch.Section2.1reportsonwhatkeyexpertsandstakeholdersinBurkinaFasoconsiderareimportanttrendsandpossiblescenariosofconcerngrowingoutofcurrentconditions.Therelevantfactorsthatoughttobeinvestigatedinordertoexplorewhatrelationshipsmightproducesaidscenariosarelisted.AlongwiththequestionsraisedinSection1.2,thesearemeanttoinformeffortstodesignfutureresearchagendasforBurkinaFasofisheries.Section2.2givestwoexamplesofconceptualmappingexercisestoillustratehowsuchsystemsanalysiscanelucidatewhataresomeofthespecifickindsofrelationships,e.g.webs,chains,feedbackloops,thatcouldproducethescenariosinquestion.


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Section1.KeyKnowledgeGainsunderSUSFISH1.1LessonsLearnedEventhoughreservoirfisheriesandthesciencebehindthemarerelativelyyoung,theknowledgebaseassociatedwiththeactivitiesandthesocial‐ecologicalsystemsofinlandfisheriesisalreadyprodigiousandgrowing.ThefollowingsectionnarrowsthefocuswithinthisknowledgebasetothefactsthatSUSFISHresearchgeneratedinthebiophysicalandnon‐biophysicalsciences.Theemphasisonlessonslearnedhighlightsthefactthatatthisearlystagemanykindsofinformation,e.g.data,concepts,ideas,cancontributetoestablishingandmaintainingsoundscience,policyandpracticeforinlandfisheriesinBF.1.1.1.BiophysicalSciencesThissectionreportsonfindingsoffactgeneratedbyfieldmeasurementsandknowledgeelicitation.TheseresearchactivitieswereperformedbySUSFISHpartners,e.g.students,supervisingprofessors,governmentagents,toaddressSUSFISHresearchquestionsrelatedtothebiophysicalsciences,e.g.biology,chemistry,andecology.Table1.1–CriticalLessonsLearnedbyBiophysicalScienceResearchunderSUSFISHNo. LessonLearnedfromBiophysicalScienceResearchinBurkinaFaso

1.1 Fishsize,abundanceanddiversityarerelatedtothequalityoffisheriesandhabitat

management

1.2 Fishpresenceanddiversityareloweredbyanthropogenicpressures

1.3 Benthicinvertebratepresenceanddiversityareaffectedbyanthropogenicpressures

1.4 Fishtaxacanbeusedasbio‐indicatorsofanthropogenicpressuresinBurkinaFasocatchments

1.5 Despiteanthropogenicpressuresfishpresenceanddiversityremainshigherifhydrologicalconnectivityoftheregionalsurfacewaternetworkismaintained,allowingfishmigrationtoreplenishlocalpopulationdeclines.

1.6 BenthicMacro‐Invertebratetaxacanbeusedasbio‐indicatorsofanthropogenicpressuresinBurkinaFasocatchments.

1.7 BenthicMacro‐Invertebratetaxacanbeusedasbio‐indicatorsofwaterbodytypology,andrivermorphologyandstructureinBurkinaFasocatchments.

1.8 Usingfishandinvertebratetaxatodevelopabio‐monitoringprograminBurkinaFasoisbothfeasibleandnecessary.


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1.9 WaterqualityinBFcanbemonitoredusingabiotic(Conductivity,WaterQuality)andLandUse‐LandCover(HabitatType)parameters.

1.10 Fishproductivity,abundanceanddiversityrelatedtowatertemperature.

1.11 ThemostimportantanthropogenicthreatstoaquaticbiodiversityinBurkinaFasoare:Habitatlossordegradation>pollutionofwaterbodies>>drought.

1.12 Fishbiodiversitystatus:asignificantfraction(56%)offishspeciesinBurkinaisthreatened

Lesson1.1:Fishingactivitywaspresentinallstudysites,butanthropogenicpressureonfisheriesvariesaccordingtohowmuchfisheriesmanagementoccurs.Ourresultsconfirmthatfishsizeandfishcommunitydiversityareassociatedwiththedegreeandqualityofmanagement,bothoffisheriesdirectlyandofthehabitatsurroundingthefishery.Forexample,theNazingasitehasrelativelyunimpactedhabitat(landmanagement)andhasaclosedfishingseasonthatiswell‐regulated(fisheriesmanagement),andithassignificantlylargerfishandahighershareinadultfishthananyothersamplingsite.Furthermore,bothfishandBMIdiversityarehigherinprotectedareasthanothers,e.g.Nazinga,MareauxHippo.Justasimportantasthelegalcontentofpolicy,justasimportanttobiodiversityconservationisitsexecutionattheappropriatelevel(subsidiarity)bywell‐organizedandledlocalactors.Forexample,inMoussodougouthefisheriesaredirectlycontrolledbyalocalassociationthateffectivelyenforcesrules.SituationswitheffectivemanagementareassociatedwithanincreasedbiomassesandabundancewithlargefishspecimensLesson1.2.Increasingintensityofanthropogenicpressureleadstodeclinesin:1.Diversity;2.Some(potentialindicator)speciesandalsofamilies;3.Trophiclevel(thetrophicleveldroppedfrom3to2.5athighlyimpactedsites.),and4.Densityandbiomassofintolerantspecies.ThenumberoffishgenerafounddeclineswithnumberofpressuresAnthropogenicpressuresonfisheriesmostlyoccurinmultipleform(clusters)andcorrelateamongsteachothertocreate“cumulativeeffects.”Agriculturalpressureswerepresentin87%ofoursites.70%ofallsitesexhibitedbadwaterquality(expertopinion).50%hadconnectivitypressures(GIS),streammorphologyismostlystillok(SS)IntheNakambecatchmentonly13%ofthearearemainedasnaturalvegetation,76%iscultivatedlandand11%isbaresoil,waterholdingcapacityhasdecreased33%in30years.Lesson1.3.Benthicinvertebratesampledatareflectwaterqualityandsurroundinglanduse.Sometaxarespondpositivelytoanthropogenicpressures.Forexample,thehighestdensitiesandabundanceofsnailswerefoundintheinvestigationsiteswithintenseagricultureandlivestock’s.SomeBItaxaclearlyrespondednegativelytoanthropogenicpressures.Thetotalnumberoftaxaandthenumberof“sensitive”taxa,e.g.Ephemeroptera(Mayflies)andTrichoptera(CaddisFlies),declinedastheamountofpressureincreases.Thehierarchyofresponsestoanthropogenicpressuresasindicatedbybenthicinvertebratedataisasfollows:OuagadougouRes.2<KoubriAncien=Bagre‐SW<Ziga<Nazinga‐Naguio.


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Lesson1.4.Fishtaxacanbeusedasbio‐indicatorsoftheimpactsofanthropogenicpressureseitherinthepositiveornegativesense.Forexample,Auchenoglanisgen.andHydrocynusgen.couldbeusedassentinelgenerabecauseitisnotfoundinareasofhighanthropogenicimpact.Clariassp.andSarothorodonsp.increasewithpressures,unlikeotherspecies,e.g.Alestessp.andSchilbesp.,whicharesensitiveanddecreaseinnumberaspressuresrise.Hemichromisand,especially,Tilapia,correlatepositivelywithhydro‐morphologicalpressure,buttheyrespondnegativelytochemicalimpacts.Lesson1.5.Studysitesthatareunderanthropogenicpressurebuthaveintactconnectivity,e.g.fishcanmigratetootherpartsofthewaternetwork,haveahigherdiversitythanfragmentedones.Thismayberelatedtoourobservationthatabout50%ofallcaughtspeciesarepotamodromous,andthereforenormallymigrateforspawning.Connectivityisseverelyimpactedbyhydrographmodificationandreservoirdams.Morethanninetypercent(90%)oftheannualdischargeintheNakambebasinisheldbackbydams,causingmassivehydrographicalmodification.Approximatelyeighty‐ninepercent(89%)ofallsitesinthisstudywereregardedasunderinfluenceofhydrographicalchangesorresidualflow.Lesson1.6.VariousparametersofBenthicInvertebrate(BI)communities,e.g.BiodiversitycanbeusedasBio‐IndicatorsofanthropogenicpressuresinBurkinaFasocatchments.BIdatacanthereforebeusefultopre‐classifyhumanimpacts.OurdataindicatesthatlanduseaffectswaterqualityandresultsinachangedBItaxacomposition.Therefore,asimpleapproachtodistinguishdifferentlandusescanbeusedtoenvisagewaterquality.Especiallytheintensityofagriculturallanduseisastrongpredictorofthebiota’sreaction.Lesson1.7.VariousparametersofBenthicInvertebrate(BI)communities,e.g.BiodiversitycanbeusedasBio‐Indicatorsofwaterbodytypology,andrivermorphologyandstructureinBurkinaFasocatchments.Ourresearchconfirmedthatwaterbodiesofdifferentlydegradedmorphologyarecolonizedbydifferentbenthicassemblagesandthatstructureslikedifferentwaterplants(macrophytes)showatwotothreetimeshighertaxarichnessthansamplescollectedinsedimenthabitats.BIcommunitiesalsoreflecttheirsurrounding“waterbodytype”.Thishasbeenshownatthe“local”scales.Forexample,benthicinvertebrateassemblagesofrunningwaterscanbeclearlyseparatedfromthecommunitiesinponds.Flowconditions(e.g.stagnant,lentic,lotic)havebeenverifiedastheprominentecologicalpredictoroftheBIspeciescomposition.Thisalsohasbeenshownatthebroaderscalesof“eco‐regions,”e.g.analysesof17reservoirsshowedthatdifferenteco‐regions/bioregionshavedistinctlydifferentBIcommunities.Weconcludethatforwatermanagementpurposesthismeansthattheaccordingconceptsandmeasuresmustbeseparatelydevelopedforstandingandrunningwaterbodiesindifferenteco‐regions.Thereareindicationsthatamongrunningwatersatypologicaldistinctionmustbemadebyseparatingintermittentandperennialstreams(streamsections).ThesefindingsclearlyshowthatinBFareferenceconditionsbasedassessmentmethodologytoevaluatetheecologicalqualityofwaterbodiescanbedeveloped.ThusBFwouldhaveafutureassessmentmethodologythatfulfillsthehighestlevelofthestateofarts.Lesson1.8.Certainfishandinvertebratespeciescanbeusedasbio‐indicatorstoassesstheecologicalstatus(waterquality)ofaquatichabitatsinBurkinaFaso(seeLessons1.1to1.7).


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ThereisaclearneedtodevelopanewmonitoringsystembasedsolelyonBFdata.OurresearchonhistoricdatashowsthatscreeningandsamplingmethodscurrentlyinuseelsewhereinAfricaandtheworlddonotgeneratereliablestatisticswhenappliedinBFwaterbodies.TechnicaldevelopmentandapplicationofabiologicalassessmentofwaterbodiesinBurkinaFasoisfeasibleasathreetiersystemwithincreasingaccuracyandprecisioncanbeestablished:level1:arapidfieldmethodology;level2:aBioticScore;andlevel3:aMultimetricApproach.ABioticScoreprovidesavalidandsoundbut–comparedtotheMultimetricapproach‐alesssophisticatedbiomonitoringtoolforassessingtheecologicalqualityofawaterbody.AlthoughbasedononlyafewsamplingsitestheMastersthesisofKoblinger&Trauner(2014)gaveclearevidencethataBioticScorecanbedevelopedinBF.Lesson1.9.Humaninfluencesandurbanizationcause,amongotherparameters,increasedconductivitylevelsandhighoxygendemand.Ourresearchinrunningwatersshowsacorrelationbetweenconductivityandecologicalwaterquality:thelowertheSASS‐ASPTscore,thehighertheconductivityvalue.Watercolumnconductivityvariesbetweendifferentmeso‐habitatsamplingpoints,butstillisanappropriateparameterforwaterqualitybecausea)itcorrelatessufficientlywellwithanthropogenicimpacts,andb)itiseasyandcost‐efficienttomeasure.Critical“tippingpoints”orthresholdsforbiodiversitywereshownwhendiversityrapidlydecreasedwhenconductivitysurpassed120uScm‐1orwhenoxygensaturationsurpassed120%.AllareasexceptforNazinga(protectedarea)haveO2saturationsabovethisvalue.ThelowerpressuresiteshaveanO2Median>80%<100%andthemoreimpactedsiteshaveamedianO2saturationvalue>50%<75%.Lesson1.10.Withincreasingambienttemperatureofthewatercolumn,productivityofawaterbodyincreasesaswell,resultinginhigherabundancesandmorediversespeciesrichness(Figure10,Ref.:8).Abundanceandrichnessreachamaximumbetween29‐31°Candthesuddendropofabundanceandspeciesrichnessindicatesthemaximumtoleranceofsomeofthelocalfishspecies.Reservoirscanreinforcethistrendoftheheatingupofthewaterbodies.Lesson1.11.Broadly,inBurkinaFasothepresence,diversity,trophiclevel,densityandbiomassofcertainfishandbenthicinvertebrategeneraandspeciesrespondnegativelytoarangeofanthropogenicpressures.Theseimpactsincludeoverfishing,hydrologicalalteration,agriculture,waterquality,migrationbarriers,morphologicalalterationandlossofhabitat(Stranzl2014).

Table1.2–AnthropogenicthreatstoAquaticSpeciesinWestAfricanCatchments(Smithetal.IUCNRedListofWestAfricanSpecies) PercentofAquaticSpeciesThreatened

AnthropogenicThreat EndangeredSpecies AllSpeciesHabitatLossorDegradation 88 50

Agriculture 48 32Mining 28 08WoodHarvest 54 23HumanSettlement 20 06Dam 11 04

InvasiveAlienSpecies 04 08


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Harvesting 05 07PollutionofWaterBodies 55 20

Agriculture 24 12Domestic 12 03Commercial/Industrial 31 08OilSlicks 07 02Sediment 25 08

Drought 07 17HumanDisturbance 04 02Unknown 01 27

Lesson1.12.Atthenationallevel,apreliminaryredlistingofthefishspeciesshowsthat24.6%ofthe152evaluatedspeciesareCriticallyEndangered,8.4%Endangeredand22.5areVulnerable.Comparingthebiodiversityof4mainsamplingsites(Nazinga,Bagre,KoubriandKougri)

Numberofexclusivefishspeciesforeachofthemainsamplingsites,showsthelocaldiversity

1.1.2.SocialSciencesThissectionreportsonfindingsoffactgeneratedbyfieldmeasurementsandknowledgeelicitation.TheseresearchactivitieswereperformedbySUSFISHpartners,e.g.students,supervisingprofessors,governmentagents,toaddressSUSFISHresearchquestionsrelatedtothenon‐biophysicalsciences,e.g.sociology,economics,policyandanthropology.Table2–CriticalLessonsLearnedbySocialScienceResearchunderSUSFISHNo. LessonLearnedfromSocial,EconomicandPoliticalScienceResearchinBurkina

Faso


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2.1 Becauseofmultiplekindsoflegalandadministrativestatusesforfisheriesaccordingtoreservoirtype(largeorsmallscale),therearegapsbetweenNationalandlowerlevelsofgovernance.

2.2 Alinkbetweenlawandpracticestomonitorfisheriesismissing(lawisnotadoptedtopractice).Thereforelittleeffectivepolicemonitoringorenforcementoffishingpracticesatthelowerlevels,e.g.smaller‐scalefisheries.

2.3 EffectivemanagementoffisheriesisblockedbyfailuretoharmonizeRepublicanandTraditionalinstitutions.

2.4 Lackofhistoricaldataandstatisticshamperseffortstomeasureprogressandmanagepolicyandfisheriespracticesaccordingly.

2.5 Fisheriesresourcesarenotequallyaccessibletoallactors.

2.6 Creationandenforcementoffisheriespolicyishamperedbythefrequencyofshiftsofgovernanceresponsibilities(institutionalnomadism)forfisheriesmanagementatthenationalLevel(AdministrativeFlux).

2.7 Illegalequipmentandpracticesareincreasinglyusedinfisheries.

2.8 Thelong‐termsustainabilityoffisheriesishamperedbyfailuretomaintainfisheriespost‐harvestinfrastructure.

2.9 Progressinimprovingfishingmethodsisblockedbylackofcapacitytolearnortoorganize.

2.10 Currentinstitutionalmechanismsareinsufficienttoimplementandimprovefisheriespolicies.

2.11 FishplayanincreasingroleintheeconomyanddietofBurkinaFaso,butlocal

productionstagnates,andfishconsumptionisonly30%ofWHO

recommendations.

2.12 Theroleoffishinprotectinghealthincludesanincreasingcontributiontoprotein

andenergyintake(dependingonfishqualityandhygienicconditionsintermsoffishprocessing(conservation).

2.13 Traditionalinstitutionsstillplayarole,butrepublicanlawispreeminentinfisheriespolicyandmanagement.

2.14 Traditionalinstitutionsplayvitalroleofreaffirmingidentityofcommunitiesreliantonaquaticecosystemsandtherebybroadlyinfluencewaterandfishmanagement.


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2.15 Theimportanceofthedivisionoflabour,financing,responsibilitiesbetweenmaleandfemaleactorsinfisheriesisnotfullyconsideredbythosewhomakeand/orenforcepolicyinBurkinaFaso.

2.16 Theintegrationofagendersensitiveapproachinfisheriespolicyandmanagementneedsaninter‐ministerialcrosssectorcooperation.

2.17. Discriminatingpracticestowardswomenareanchoredinstructuraldisparities.

2.18. Genderdisparitiesinsocio‐ecologicalresearchresultsinfluence(manipulate)strategicplanningatpolicymakinglevelforsustainablefisheriesmanagementinBurkinaFaso.

Lesson2.1.Atthelowergovernancelevelsbelowthenationallevel,e.g.regionalandlocal,thestructuraldifferencesoffisheriesmanagementinBFtakeeffect.Forinstance

institutions,suchasmacro‐levelpoliciesandlegislationorthenationalorganizationin

chargeoffisheries,arenotknownbecausenotangibleactivityisvisiblyundertakeninthe

fieldortheactivitiesdonottargetthedirectstakeholders.Accordingtoourfindingsincase

ofthefourlargestreservoirs(Ziga,Bagre,Kompienga,Sourou)thereisgoodcommunicationbetweenthenationalandlowerlevelsandmanagementatthatlevelisgood.But

communicationisnotsogoodformanagementorgansdevotedtosmallerreservoirs,except

forfourfishingconcessionsgiventotheassociationsofthelocalfishermen(Bapla,Moussodougou,Tandjari,Lera)wherethecommunicationandmanagementisgood.Bylawtherearetwokindsofstatusoffisheriesbasedonmanagementtype:concessionandPHIE(PerimetreHalieutiqued’IntérêtEconomique),i.e.afisherythatimpactsthenationaleconomy.Butactually,therearethreecategoriesoffisheriesmanagement:verylarge

reservoirsthatneverdryoutandfishingcontinuesformuchoftheyear(PHIE),and

concessions,and“others”thathavenolegalstatus.Note:subsistencefisheriesexistinallthreecategoriesmentionedabove.Besidesthis,bylawtherearefourcategoriesoffisheries

definedaccordingtotheuseofthecatch:commercial,subsistence,sport,andscientific.

AccordingtoSUSFISHfindingsthiscategorizationdoesnotreflectthestatusquo.Besides

subsistencefisheriesallothercategoriesarenotrepresentedsignificantly.

Intowhatcategoryafisheryfallsisaquestionofprioritiesofnationalpolicies‐thePHIEare

“nationally‐important”reservoirs,whereasthelatteraremore“subsistence‐level”fishing

forlocalmarkets.Fortheformer,managementisorganizedataprofessionallevel:mostof

thefishermeninvolvedareprofessionalsandareawareofthelegislationorrules.However,

thereisalinkbetweeneducationandfisheriesmanagement.Asilliteracyiscommonamong

fishermenandfishprocessors,atalower,morelocal,levelawarenessofregulationsaswell

asaccesstoinformationonimprovingfishingmethodscanbeblocked.Atthelocallevels

(subsistencefisheries)whenofficialsignoreratherthanengage(nomonitoringor

enforcement)localproblems,thelackofengagementgiveslocalfishermennoopportunity


16

tolearnaboutfisheriespoliciesthroughrespondingtothem.Thustheyremainlargely

uninformedaboutlegislationandadministrativepolicy.Theydoknowsomeoftherules,

buttheyrarelyifeverobservethem.Lowerlevelagentsperceivenofunctionallinks(e.g.

communication)thattieGDFAstaffwithanyofthedecentralizedlowerlevelgovernment

layers.Therefore,mostlocalfishermenareunawareoftheGDFAorwhatitsfunctionsare.

Nationallegislationandpoliciesarenotknownbyanyofthedecentralizedlowerlevel

governmentlayers.Inclosingwemustcautionthatthisdatawasgatheredduringa

transitionalperiod(shiftingresponsibilitiesbetweenpeopleindifferentorganizations)

suchthatanyoneinterviewedwouldnotclaimresponsibility.

Lesson2.2.Theoretically,therearemanagementplans,thatincludemonitoringandimplementation,forthe4majorreservoirsandforthe4concessions,butfortheother1000

reservoirstherearemostlynoplans,nomonitoringorenforcement.Aspreviouslystated,in

someofthesesmallerfisheriesthatmonitoringislefttobyforestryagents,NGOsor

fishermen’sassociations.Thefieldpolicefisheriesofficers(foresters)arenotinclinedto

workonfisheriesintheareasofmonitoring,surveillanceandcontrol.Asaresult,

prohibitedfishingmethodsareincreasinglyused.

StafffromtheGeneralDirectorateforFisheriesandAquaculture(GDFA)

“Fisheriesmanagers”arerarelyifeverseeninthefieldmonitoringfishing.

Thisrelativeabsencecanbeexplainedbythetwoseparatestructuresoffisheries

managementinBurkinaFaso:hierarchicalandfunctional.(asexplainedinLesson2.1).

AsamatterofresourcesStaffofthedecentralizedlowerlevelgovernmentlayersdonot

investanytime,money,orequipmentinfisheriesmanagement.Professionalstaffof

nationalagencies,inthiscaseforesters,arenotinclinedtoexpandtheirdutiesfromforest

managementtosurveillanceandenforcementoffisheries.Thisreflectstheuncertainty

emergingfromresponsibilityoverlapaswellasfrominstitutionalnomadism.Thelawwas

notadjustedtotheactualsituation.Untilnowtheforestersshouldcontrolthefisheries,but

forestersareinthemeantimeintheMinistryofEnvironmentandthemanagementof

fisheriesisintheMinistryofAnimalResources.Inter‐agencyconflicts(agriculturalstaffvs.

foresters)makeitdifficulttodefinetheboundariesofagencyresponsibility,sowithouta

clearmandatefieldofficersarenotinclinedtomonitorfisheries.

Lesson2.3.Both“republican”,e.g.Europeandemocratic,andtraditionalinstitutionsmakerelativelyimportantcontributionstothegovernanceofwaterandfishresources.Butthe

twosystemshavetobeharmonized.Despitesuchchanges,e.g.Theon‐goingdevelopment

andrefinementofRepublicaninstitutionscanbeonereasonwhyaresurgenceof

traditionalpractices(sacrificebyfishermen,traditionalfishing)isrecentlynotedbythe

variousactors.Itisthecombinationofvariouselementsofgovernanceaccordingto

Balandiera“syncretism”oftraditionalandmodernsystems;”.Traditionalstress[conflict]


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managementseemstochangeorslipawayleavingsomeroomformodernmanagement.

Experiencesofparticipatorymanagementofnaturalresourcesshowanappropriatewayto

resolveconflictsinthetensionbetweenthelegitimacyoftraditionalandmodern

perspectives.However,thepatentfailureofgovernanceinstitutionstofunctionatalllevels

andsucceedinmanagingsustainablefisheriesunderminestrust,andthistrendis

exacerbatedbyemergentproblemslike“elitecapture”ofparticipatoryprocessesorthe

afore‐mentionedfailuretoharmonizetraditionalandrepublicaninstitutions.

Lesson2.4.Lackofdata(eitherabsenceorpoordataquality)deprivesanyagency,governmentorNGO,ofbaselineinformationaboutanyaquaticecosystem’shistory.Measuringprogressordeclineinfisheriesrequiressuchbaselineinformation.Thisappliesnotonlytodataonfisheryproduction(harvestandpost‐harvest)butalsotothenumberoffishingpersons,etc.Lesson2.5.Betweengroupsofstakeholderssomedisparitiesintheaccesstofishresourcesarenoticeableingeneral:manvs.women;allochthon(e.g.localindigenous)vsautochthons(foreignersfromothernationsorotherregions);youthvs.elderly;educated[French,modern]vs.noteducated;insidevs.outsidenetworksorlobbies;differentethnicgroups.Butourin‐depthstudiesshowedthatinthecaseofgender,wenotethat14%offishingpersonsarewomen,soexclusionisnottotal.Asaconsequencepreliminaryresultsshowinequitablerepresentationindecision‐makingcommitteesandrestrictedaccesstoinformationaboutlaws,regulationsandrights.Thisproblemisfurtherexacerbatedbyinstancesof“elitecapture,”where‐inmembersofpowerelitestakeoverdecision‐makingprocessestotheirfinancialandpoliticalbenefit.Lesson2.6.Responsibilityfordevelopingandadministeringwaterandfisherypolicyshiftedoftenbetweenministriesand,hence,betweendepartmentsandindividuals.Somefishermenclaimedsuchshiftspreventedsurveillancethatwouldhavehinderedthemfromusingsmallernetmeshsizes,atrenddrivingdownfishsize.Theimplicationsofsuchunpredictableshiftsinresponsibilityaregeneralfeelingsoffrustration,helplessnessandalackoftrustingovernance,whicharesustainedwhensuchnomadismperpetuatesastateofignorancebythoseofficiallyresponsibleformanagement.Iftheypayanyattention,suchofficialsmustbeeducated,soeachproblemisstartedandre‐startedsooftenthatitappearstrivialorisunsolvableandiseasilyignored.Thisalsoworksinreverse.Whenofficialschoosetoignoreratherthanengagelocalproblems,thelackofengagementgiveslocalfishermennoopportunitytolearnaboutfisheriespoliciesthroughrespondingtothem.Thustheyremainignorantoflegislationandadministrativepolicy.Lesson2.7.Historicalprecedentandthelackofeffectivemonitoringandenforcementaretwoimportantfactorsfortheincreaseofillegalfishingmethods.Forinstancetheuseofillegalfishinggear[togiveonlyoneexample:meshsize]iscommonandhasbeenthecaseforsolongthatithasbecomes“normal”or“business‐as‐usual”thatgivesunofficialsanctiontoillegalfishing.Theimplicationsofsuchopenanduncheckedillegalityarethattheuseofillegalequipmentisnolongeraconsciouschoice.Oneisnolongerawarethatonehas“crossedtheline”intoillegalitybecause“everyonedoesit.”


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Lesson2.8.Infrastructure(fishponds,refrigerators,fish‐weighingscales,fishshops)areinstalledbuteithernotmaintainedandallowedtodecayorconvertedforprivateuse.Suchpatentfailuresunderminetrustinthegovernmentinstitutionsthatestablishandexecuteprograms,projectsandpoliciestodevelopinfrastructure.Lesson2.9.Ofthemanyfactorsthathamperlearningnewfishingmethods,onecouldbeilliteracy,whichiscommonamongfishermenandfishprocessors.Thisblocksawarenessofregulationsaswellasaccesstoinformationonimprovingfishingmethods.Butitisalsoaquestionofadequatetrainingmodulesforthetargetgroups.Forinstance,sometrainingcourseshavebeendeveloped,buttheyarenotspecializedforfishing.Rathertheyareframedforagricultureingeneralwithafewsessionsforfishingandaquaculture.Furthermore,thistrainingisnotgenerallyavailableacrossallBF,andnotcomprehensiveordetailedenoughtoreallymakeadifference.Learningnewmethodsisfurtherhamperedbyinsufficientcredibleexpertadvice.In13regionsthereisnoexpertinfisheriesandaquacultureavailabletoadviselocalfishermenseekingtolearnnewpractices.Thismandatesthatfisheriesconsultanciesshouldbeestablishedatthelocal,regionalandnationallevels.Thespreadofinformationaboutnewmethodsisalsohamperedbylackoforganization.Mostofthefishermenandfishprocessorsarenotorganizedinprofessionalgroupsinwhichaccessislimitedtothoseintheprofession.Whentheyare,thefunctioningofsuchgroupsisquestionable(elitecapture).Indeedconflictsofleadershipareoftennoticeableevenwhentheassociationfunctionsmoreorlesswell.Thislackoflocalorganizingcapacityhinderseffortsforbottom‐upleadershipinfisheriesmanagementtofillthegapleftbyfailurefromthetop,thenationallevel.Veryfewifanylocalsustainabilityinitiativesarestarted,oftenblockedbytheperceptionthattheylackresources,usuallymoney.Lesson2.10.Failureinfourareashinderseffortstoadministerandimprovefisheriespolicies.1.Failuretointegratelocalknowledge:Policyformulationandimplementationreflectslocalrealitiesonlypartially.Thisisbecauseinputbylocalpeopletopolicycreationoradministrationisblockedbylackofcapacitytoconstructivelyparticipate.Thereasonsforthislackofcapacityaremultiple:lackoffundingtosupportparticipation,lackofexperienceortraininginparticipation(people),lackofeffectiveprocessesofparticipativedemocracy(governance).SuchgovernancebreakdownsasEliteCaptureareespeciallydamaginginthisregard.2.Thislackofinclusivenessisreinforcedbychronicfailuretoevaluatepoliciesperiodicallyandimprovethem.Suchperiodicpolicyreviewrequiresrigorousmeasurementofpolicyimpactsandcouldidentifywherelackoflocalinvolvementharmspolicycreationoradministration.3.Evenintheabsenceoflocalparticipation,nationallevelpolicymakershavefailedtomakenationalvisionoffisheriesoperative.Anational“vision”hasbeenrecorded,butitremainstheoryonpaper,notapractical,workingvisionthatinformspolicyandimplementation.Theimplicationsofsuchfailuresofleadershipisthatlackofavisionmeansthatlocalaswellasregionalandnationalactorshavenoparadigmoffisheries


19

developmenttorallyaroundanduseasabaselineagainstwhichtomeasurepolicyperformance.4.Failuretocohereandharmonizepoliciesofdifferentministrieshinderseffortstoimprovepolicy.Fisheriessustainabilitydependsonintegrationofpoliciesgoverningarangeofdiverseactivities,e.g.water,agriculture,forests,mining,tourism.Institutionalnomadismcontributestothisfailuretocreatecompatiblepoliciesorintegratethem.Thisfailuretoharmonizepoliciesacrossdifferentgovernancelevelsislinkedtoorineffectiveeffortstodecentralizepowertoregionswhilemaintainingafunctioninggovernancestructurethatworksacrossalllevels.Lesson2.11.Fisheconomy:FishconsumptionroseinBFwhenfinancialandeconomiccrises,e.g.devaluationin1994,drovelivestockexportationupasmuchas94%,increasingthemeatprice.Thisshiftwasalsodrivenbyimprovementsinlivelihoods,especiallyincreasesinincomeinurbanareas.FishLandings:Whilereliabledataislacking,expertopinioncommonlyassertsthatcapturesfisheriesproductionisdeclining,especiallyinhighpressureareas.Thiscouldberelatedtothecombinationofmanyfactorsincludingclimatechange,humanfactorsandlowernaturalproductivity.Thisdevelopmentisopposedbyanincreasingdemandforfishaccordingtointernationalnutritionalhealthrecommendations.Averagefishconsumptionwaswith3.5kg/capita/yearin2009inBurkinaFasoverylow,comparedto15kginCoted'Ivoire,7kginMaliand12kginSenegal.ThislevelofconsumptionisfarfromtheWHOrecommendations(12kg/capita/year)andtheglobalaveragewas18.6kg/capita/yearin2010.Furthermoreonly20%ofthedomesticsupplyin2011camefromdomesticproduction,accordingtotheDirectionGénéraledelaPêcheetdel’Aquaculture.FollowingtheNationalStrategyforfishandaquaculturedevelopment(officialpolicyasof2011),withthisincreasingdemandonfishandthehighpercentageoffishimportstoBurkinaFasoinmindthecurrentchallengeforthesectoroffisheriesresourcesisincreasing40%peryeardomesticproductionthroughaquaculture.Lesson2.12.Fishandhealth:fishisanincreasinglyimportantpartofthediet.Thisisespeciallysoinruralareaswheremeatislessavailableandexpensive.Fishismoreaffordable,ishealthy(lowfat)andcanbeappliedindifferentways,e.g.tonameoneexample:complementbreast‐feeding.FishContributionstoHouseholdDiet

‐PercentageofHouseholdswithFishConsumption:1d/week(38%),1to2d/week(28%),daily(34%).‐Fishmoreaffordable(lessexpensiveandavailableinsmallerportions)formost(88%)ofhouseholddomesticheads(women)‐Averagedailyexpenseforfishpurchase(150FrancsCFA)‐Fishcontributiontototalenergyindiet(kcal):31.5to45%‐Fishcontributiontototalproteinindiet:25to78.3%‐Fishcontributiontototalproteintocomplementbreast‐feedingindietofinfants:82.2%

thehighestpercentageoffishcontributiontohouseholddietwasstatedinfamiliesoffishermenorfishprocessingwomen


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However,thecontributionoffishtohealthimprovementdependsonfishquality.Findingsonmicrobiologicalandparasitologicalqualityofcommercialfishshowdifferencesinbacterialdensitylinkedtoprocessingmethods,andhygienicconditionsofsellingcontexts.Highprevalenceofparasiteswasfoundonlyonfreshandsmokedfish,thelatterisprobablythemostcommonlyavailableformoffishprotein.Thehealthriskfromfishingcanbereducediffunctionallinkscanbemadebetweenfisherymanagementandthelocalhealthsystemforpreventionofinjuryandillness,e.g.preventionofwater‐relatedriskslikediarrheaandmalaria.Microbialcontaminationoffishenroutetomarketleadstodecreasesinthequalityoffishinthedietandraisesthequestionofqualitycontrolforfoodsecurityatdifferentpointsonthevaluechain.Lesson2.13.Thepreeminenceofrepublicanlawinfisheriespolicyandmanagement:Modernlawsthatgovernfisherymanagementinclude: RAF(Nationallaw:ReformeAgraireetFonciere):governsthemanagementofnaturalresourcesandallocatesfishingonpublicwatersinthestate;andForestCode:regulatesfisheriesconservation,managementanddevelopmentoffisheriesandaquaculture.Fishermengroupsorassociationsatthelocallevelrelaytheserules.ExamplesoffishingrulesimposedbyRepublicanlawasobservedby5groupsorassociationsoffishermenoranglersinBurkinaFaso(Wramba,DougouYiriwaton,Yiguèbougo,AmicaledespêcheursdeBanfora)

- Prohibitiononfishingfry(growthstagesmallerthanjuveniles,e.g.larvae)- Prohibitiononfishinginspawningareas- Banhawknet- Weighcatches- Nocultivationattheedgeofthedam- Reducingthenumberofnetsintimesofrecession- ProhibitedtofishFriday- Prohibitiononmeshlessthan35mmEconomicalimplications:

commodificationoffishThesocialimplicationsofchangesimposedbyRepublicangovernanceinclude:

- Disarticulationoftraditionalgovernance- Anorganizationofsectors(Groups,Associations)- Newrolesofwomeninthetransformation- Peasantsweretransformingasfishermen- Resistanceofpopulationstonewregulations- Useofnetsofmesh<35mm- Practiceoffishingwithoutalicense

Lesson2.14.Traditionalinstitutionsreinforcethesenseofaquaticecosystemsas“sacredspace”attheheartofthelifeofsurroundingcommunities.“Waterbodiesoccupyanimportantplaceinthehistoryofthestudyarea.Theyareloadedwithsymbolismandcontainveryoftenplacesofworship.“.Water‐relatedtraditionalceremonies,suchassacrificesmeditatedbytheTengsobaand/ortheKotigi,havethefollowingaims:happinessofallpeople;goodrainfall;peaceinthevillage;theproductivityofthedam;thesafetyofusers.Examplesofinterventionsmediatedbytraditionalinstitutions(ceremonies)bylocal


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authoritiesinthreevillages(Mossodougou,Tengrela,Tiefora):sacrificesincasesofdrowning,(3);participationinfishermens’sacrifices(2);prohibitionoffishingonFriday(1);presidencyoftheCGP(1);authorizationtoincreasethepriceoffish(1);appointmentasChairmanofthefishermen(1);expulsionofforeigners(1).Lesson2.15.Dataonthedivisionoflabour,financing,responsibilitiesbetweenmaleandfemaleactorsinthefisheriessectorbroughtdeeperinsighttothehighcontributionofwomentothesustainabilityoffisheriesinBurkinaFaso.Buttheirimportantrolesarenotfullyconsideredbypolicymakers,institutions,authorities,associations,andsociety.‐toalargedegreewomenaremanagingtheworkoflocalfishermenatfinancialandorganizationallevelaswellasintheareaoffishingmaterials,buttheyarebarelyorganizedwithinanassociationorsupportedbyaninstitution‐atpolicylevelfisheriesareconsideredasmaledomain,thereforewomenaredisproportionatelyrepresentedinpolicydevelopmentoffisheries.‐women’scommercialactivitiesinfisheriesarecontributingtoahighdegreetothefamilies’income.Currentstatisticalsurveysconfinethefocustofishermen’sincomeanddonotgiveadequateattentiontofishprocessingasaneconomicdriverwithintheentireproductchain.Theirproportionaterepresentationatthelevelofpolicydevelopmentinthefisherieswouldbeveryimportantintheareasofaccesstofinancialresources,managementofnaturalresources,improvementofcommercializationoffish. Lesson2.16.Theelaborationofastrategyfortheintegrationofagendersensitiveapproachinprojectsandpoliciesforfisherieswillsupporttheparticipationoffemaleactorsinthesector.Butasfindingsshowedtheconsiderationofwomen’sneedsandstrategicinterestsisoftenlinkedtootherpolicysectorssuchashealth,nutrition,watermanagementandeducation.Thecoordinationandintegrationofresearchfindingsandpolicyrecommendationsbetweentheinvolvedministriesiscrucialforthedevelopmentofacomprehensivedevelopmentplan.Lesson2.17.Structuraldisparitiesbetweenfemaleandmaleactorsinfisheriesandwatermanagement(suchasworkroutines,legalregulations,socialresponsibilities,genderspecificlabourdivision,…)intermsofaccesstoinformationaboutillegalfishingpractices,financialsupport,educationinitiativesleadtodiscriminationandexclusionofwomenatthedecisionmakinglevel.ItislefttoinformalgroupactivitiesorNGOrelatedworktoensure(promote)femaleworkers’participationinlocalgovernanceprocesses.Lesson2.18.Socio‐ecologicalresearchonfisheriesinBurkinaFasoisreferringtodatarelyingonlocaldecisionmakersandstakeholders(managers,headofassociations,..)viewpoints,whoaremainlymale.Policyrecommendationsthereforetendtoreflectonlyapartialevaluationofthesituation.TheelaborationandimplementationofgendersensitiveprotocolsandtoolsfordatacollectionbroughtnewinsightsforsocialpracticesintheareaoffisheriesinBurkinaFaso


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1.1.3.Gender–LessonsLearned

Table1.3.LessonsLearnedfromSUSFISHResearchconcerninggenderasymmetriesinBurkinaFaso

No. LessonLearnedconcerningGenderinBurkinaFaso

3.1 Howindividualsperceiveandinterpreteventsare conditionedbytheirexpectations,whichoftendonotfitwithacompleteandrealisticunderstandingofgenderissuesinBurkinaFaso.

3.2 Participationoffemalestudentsinresearchcanbeimprovedwhentheirindividualneedsaremoreeffectivelyaddressedwithbetterfinancing,moreflexibleschedulesforfieldresearch,andmoreresponsibleteamwork.Increasedfemaleparticipationinfieldresearch,e.g.knowledgeelicitationanddatacollection,improvedthequantityandqualityofdatacollectedonfemalesubjects,suchasinthefishprocessingindustry.

3.3 AtthepoliticallevelinBurkinaFasotheconceptofgenderisadoptedfromdevelopmentpolicy.Itoffersawaytolookathowsocialnormsandpowerstructuresimpactthelivesandopportunitiesavailabletodifferentgroupsofmenandwomen.Itexplicitlyincludesothergroupsaswell,suchasvulnerablegroupsofasociety,poorpeople,youngunemployedetc.Butinresearchpracticethisapproachriskstoremaintheoreticalanddevelopmentdriven,becauseitisdistantfrompeoples’livelihoodsandleadsoftentomisunderstandings.

3.4 The representation of female students at PhD level in social and ecological sciences is very low. Therefore in SUSFISH a participation of female PhD students was not possible. SUSFSH research revealed that weak sensitivity towards gender inequalities in the conception of pedagogical programmes for primary, secondary and university education is a significant factor for this imbalance at tertiary level.

3.5 TheGDFRlacksaspecificpolicyandstrategytoaddressgenderissuesinfisheriesmanagement.DuringSUSFISHresearchitbecameobviousthatgenderissuesinpolicymakingoftenlackthecross‐sectorialdimension.Asecondobstacleistheperceptionofgenderissuesasa“women&development”phenomenon,withouttakingintoaccounttherelationsbetweenmenandwomen,theirdisparateroles,accessesandrightsinsociety.Thirdly,itisachallengetoaddresswomen’sneedswhentheyareconsequentlyexcludedfromdecision‐makingprocesses.ThegenderstrategyfortheGDFAthatwaselaboratedinSUSFISHincorporatedSUSFISHresultsandoffersagendersensitiveapproachinfisheriesandwatermanagementinBurkinaFaso.

Lesson3.1.OurresearchconfirmstheexperienceofscientificresearchorganizationsintheNorthandelsewhereinAfricathatwomencanplayanincreasingroleinresearchwhengender


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considerationsaretakenintoaccountsoastomeettheirindividualneeds.Suchmeasuresasbetterdirectedfinancingandscheduleflexibilitywillallowthemtobecomeresponsiblemembersofresearchteams.Lesson3.2.Concerninggenderaspectsinthemanagementofnaturalresourcesoffishandwater,numerousactivitieswerefacilitatedinSUSFISHin2014inordertoensuretheparticipationofwomen,men,andvulnerablegroups.ThiswasdoneincollaborationwiththeWPleaders‐inparticularWPs4,5and7.Themainobjectivewastofocusontheconsiderationofsocioeconomicrolesattributedtowardswomenasfishprocessorsandtomeninthefieldofwatermanagementandofthefisheries.Itwasveryimportanttoinvolvewomenworkinginthefisheriessectorfordatacollection.Theseeffortswereprimarilysupportedbytheimplicationoffemalestudentsinfieldwork,whohadamuchbetteraccesstoinformationthanmalestudents.EspeciallytheleadersofWP4andWPs5and7encouragedfemalestudentsintheparticipationoftheirresearchteam.Theresultsshowanimpressiveparticipationoffishprocessingwomenandtheconsiderationoftheirpositions,needsandknowledge. Lesson3.3.AtthepoliticallevelinBurkinaFasotheconceptofgenderisadoptedfromdevelopmentpolicy.Itisawayoflookingathowsocialnormsandpowerstructuresimpactonthelivesandopportunitiesavailabletodifferentgroupsofmenandwomen.Itexplicitlyincludesothergroupsaswell,suchasvulnerablegroupsofasociety,poorpeople,youngunemployedetc.Butatthepracticallevel,itisachallengetosharethisapproachwithpractitioners,becausegenderiswidelyunderstoodasarepartitionofroles,functionsandresponsibilitiesbetweenmenandwomen.Equalityisoftenunderstoodasequitybynumbers.SUSFISHactivitiesatthelocallevelshowedthatworkshopsandgroupdiscussionsareveryusefultonegotiateacommonmeaningandlatertoanalyzeaspectsofpowerrelationsandstructuralinequalitiesthatleadtothediscriminationofwomen.Eveninresearchpracticethisapproachriskstoremaintheoreticalanddevelopmentdriven,becauseitisdistanttopeoples’livelihoodsandleadssometimestomisunderstandings.SUSFISHisatrans‐disciplinaryproject,whichaimedtofostercooperationbetweenpolicymakers,practitionersandresearchers.Thediversityofgenderconceptsofinsocial,politicalandecologicalsciencesrequiredthatwefirsthostdebatestonegotiateacommonunderstandingamongspecialistsinordertoworkwithit.TheSUSFISHteamchangedtheprojectplanandorganizedaseriesofworkshopsinordertodevelopaprojectstrategytointegrateaspectsofexclusionintothesetoftoolsforfieldresearch(accesstoresourcessuchastime,money,information,equipment,fishquality,etc.,butalsoaccesstoeducation,controlaswellasparticipationindecisionmakingprocesses).Besidesthesetoolkitsoneresultofthemultidisciplinaryworkshopswasthatthereistheneedforastrategytointegrategenderaspectsinfisheriesmanagementandresearch.TheresultsandstrategicinputsweredisseminatedinmanychannelssuchastheMaquisdesSciencesdedicatedtoGenderinfisheriesorganizedinclosecooperationwiththeIRDandtheFrenchinstituteinOuagadougou.ThemultidisciplinarycharacterofSUSFISHofferedtheopportunitytoempiricalresearchin2014wedevelopedamorepreciseconceptualizationofgenderasanintegrativeapproachinsocio‐ecologicalsciences.Lesson3.4.ThelowparticipationofwomenatallcareerlevelsinecologicalscienceswasachallengeforSUSFISHprojectmanagement.Byanalyzing structurallyandsocially‐causeddisparitieswithinacademia, SUSFISH experts stated that this phenomenon is perceived as a decision of femaleacademics,whichisnotrelatedtosocialandeconomicfactors.SUSFISHresearchshowedthatfemalestudents are often older thanmale students and have to fulfill duties such as child care, incomegeneratingactivitiesandtointegratethemintheirscientificcareerplanning.Theirdecisionnottocontinue in theBurkinabeeducationsystemuntil theyachieveadoctoral thesis isoften linkedtosocialconstraintsandnotbecauseoflowinterest.ThislessonisvalidatedbythefactthateventheUniversity of Ouagadougou considered the phenomena that female students’ careers are hard to


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continueinBurkinaFasowhenonceinterruptedbecauseofpregnancyofhighpriorityinitsstrategy2014‐2025.And thus thisphenomenon is also linked to a structural deficit of girls’ promotion atprimaryandsecondarylevel.Lesson3.5.OneoutcomeofttheSUSFISHworkshopsongenderperspectivesintheresearchagendawastherecommendationtodevelopagenderstrategyinfisheriesfortheGDFRfortheintegrationofagendersensitiveapproachinprojectsandpoliciesforfisheriesandwatermanagement,whichwascompletedsuccessfullyin2014.SUSFISHfindingswereevaluatedandintegratedintheelaborationof the strategy.Exchangeswith theBurkinabèMinistryofWomenandGender contributed to theelaborationprocessaswell.Furthermoretheconsiderationofhalieuticresourceswithinthegenderstrategy plan of theMinistry of Agriculture could be proposed. In future this strategywill allowdevelopment of a tool to integrate scientific expertise and adaptivemanagement in the fisheriessector‐ The work of SUSFISH contributed significantly to its elaboration. SUSFISH promotedsuccessfulplanningandimplementationofgender‐sensitiveactivities,programsandstrategiesinthefieldofthefisheries(PleafortheconsiderationofgenderintheactionplanofMRAH)andcontributedtobetterdocumentationofgender‐specificresearchfindings.Besidesonnationalleveltheresultsandreflections of 2014 contribute to a better understanding of constraints and challenges for thereduction of gender disparities in PNSR (e.g. impacts of regulations) and to the elaboration ofsolution‐orientedmeasures.

1.1.4.EducationTable1.4.LessonsLearnedfromSUSFISHResearchconcerningEducationinBurkinaFasoNo. LessonLearnedconcerningEducationinBurkinaFaso

4.1 Thepotentialforgoodresearchisdiminishedwhenselectioncriteriaareappliedbasedon

developmentprioritiesratherthanacademicpriorities.

4.2 Muchmoretimeisneededtofullydevelopthepotentialofsupervisor‐studentrelationsaspartofteamworkmaturing.Thismayrequiremorefundingattheoutsettogivesufficientattentiontothischallenge.

4.3 Delaysinprocessingvisasandinpaymentcanseriouslydamageaneducationprogram.Onlycandidateswhocanaffordwaitingwithoutpaymentforseveralmonthswillbesuccessful.

4.4 ItisnotenoughtosimplyhaveaMemorandumofUnderstanding(MoU)betweenpartnerinstitutionsintheNorthandtheSouth.Sufficienteffortneedstobemadetotranslateandinterpretexactlywhatcommitmentsarerequiredintermsofcurriculum(teachingandlearning)tosuccessfullyachievetheacademicdegreesthattheprojectproposes.

4.5 Moreresourcesneedtobeinvestedtoeliminatelanguagebarriers(e.g.FrenchtoEnglish)thatreducethelearningcapacityofstudentsfromtheSouthwhentheystudyintheNorth.

4.6 Transdisciplinaryandtransnationalresearchcooperationneedstobeinformedbydeeperreflectiononbiasesintroducedbyscientific(epistemic)andculturalpresumptions.Cross‐disciplinaryworkshopsinitiatereflection,debateanddiscussionandtherebyprovideamodelforresearchtrainingmodules. Withongoinginternationalization,theinstitutional


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andoverallconditionsofpartnerinstitutionsintheNorthandtheSoutharediverging,andasymmetriesintheaccesstoanduseofinformationandtechnologybecomeevenstronger.

4.7 Applyingscienceoftenrequiresnegotiatingthemeaningofconflictingscientificpositions,e.g.theconcepts,theoriesandprotocolsembeddedinthedevelopmentofeachdiscipline.Therefore,debateanddiscussionarepreconditionsforappliedresearch,andgroupsofjuniorresearchers(BA,MA,Phd‐candidates)shouldbeinstitutionalized(insocialandecologicaldisciplines)atfaculty/departmentlevel.

4.8 Tosucceedasresearcherswhosupportnationalpolicyformulationandinaninternationalmarketforscience,graduatestudentsfromBurkinaFasoneedadditionalskillsinscientificpracticetodefineresearchquestionsandindependentlycarryoutresearchprojects.Theirtrainingneedstogivethemaccesstothebest,latestandmostappropriatemethodsaswellasresearchfindingsinternationally.Aprerequisiteisknowledgeaboutthecreationprocessofpeer‐reviewedpublications.OftenBurkinabègraduatestudentsstopatthelevelofin‐countryreportsorpresentationsinBFconferencesanddonotcontinuetheirworkinfollow‐upproposals,presentingandnetworkingontheinternationalstage.

4.9 Structuraldeficitsattheinstitutions:workingconditionsforjuniorandseniorresearchersoftendonotallowparticipationinthecreativeprocesses,cooperation,exchange,discussionthatproducetop‐levelresearch.Morefinancialandstructuralsupportshouldbeappliedattheuniversityandsecondaryschoollevels.Specifically,appliedsciencetrainingshouldbegivenincreasingprioritybeforetheuniversityleveltofosterintegrationoftheoryandpracticeinsecondaryeducationandbetterpreparestudentswithpotentialtodoscientificresearchatthegraduatelevel.

4.10 Theinterdisciplinaryapproachenhancedtheapplicabilityofresearchresultsinthedevelopmentoftrainingcurriculaforpractitionersinthefisheriessectoras,forinstance,thecooperationbetweenhealth,social,biochemicalandnutritionalscientistswithinSUSFISHshowed.

4.11. Toworkasastudentorresearcherinthefieldofdevelopmentresearchneedstraininginunderstandingcomplexity.Thepersonalinvolvementoftheresearcheriscrucialtothewholeprocess.Jointfieldworkinteamsshouldbecomeacoreelementofcurriculaandshouldbealsoinstitutionalizedatthepartnerinstitutions.

Lesson4.1‐Thepromotionofjuniorresearchersandscientistsisakeyinstrumentforcapacity‐buildingmeasuresinresearchcooperation.TheprioritiesoftheAustrianDevelopmentProgramforCooperationintermsofthepromotionofhighereducationsystemsinBurkinaFasoarefocusedonstrategicgoalswhichareinsomeaspectshardtocombinewiththemaingoalsofresearchcooperation.Onereasoncouldbethatthecriteriaforgoodresearchcooperationdonotfullyoverlapwiththosefordevelopmentcooperationprograms..WeexperiencedthisgapregardingtheselectionofPhDcandidatesfromtheSouthforfunding.Theselectionofcandidatesrequiredacomprehensive(interdisciplinaryandcollaborative)searchthatproducedalistofseveralcandidatesthatwasfirstprioritizedbyacademicsonthebasisofscientificqualificationcriteria.Thislistwasthenjudgedbyprofessionalsindevelopmentbasedongenderandagecriteria.


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Lesson4.2–Structuraldeficits:WithintheAPPEARprogramastudent‐supervisorrelationshipshouldbeconsideredasateamandnotmore‐or‐lessunderstoodasaservicedelivery.Educationismuchmorethanacommoditythatisshippedonaone‐waystreetfromNorthtoSouth.Itisanexchangeofinformationmediatedbyseparateculturalframeworks.Jointsupervision:Studentsaresupervisedpart‐timeataforeign(distant)institutioninordertogettrainedininternationalhighlevelscience.Buttofullydevelopsuchanexchangerequiressufficienttime,whichmeansnotsimplythreemeetingsover4yearsasiscurrentlybudgeted.Jointsupervisionneedsclosecooperationbetweenpartners.Jointsupervisionofdoctoralstudentsneedsface‐to‐facecontactbetweentheteachers(travelcostsshouldbecovered)‐InSUSFISHwemanagedthefinancialgaponlybyflexiblemanagementofbudgetarydedication.Supervisionshouldstartearly,evenbeforevisasaregranted,suchthatstudentsarebetterpreparedwhentheyarriveatpartnerinstitutionsintheNorth.Inasimilarlight,networkingtimemustbereckonedinthedesignofPhD‐educationalprograms.Lesson4.3‐Evenifallapplicationsareconfirmed,itstilltakes(toomuch)timeuntilthestudentcancometohishostuniversity.Therewereexamplesofsuccessfulapplicationswhichcouldnotberealizedbecausethestudent’scareerplanschangedsignificantlyduringthetimeofwaitingforthevisatobegranted.Scholarshipshadtobereselectedforasecondtime.Thishasconsequencesforthewholefundingperiodforresearchcooperation.Thestandardfundingmodelusedbyalldonorinstitutionsallocates3years.Thisthree‐yearintervalisaminimumfordoctoralprogram(includingdefense)withouttravelling,visum,flight,administration,applicationsetc.ExperiencesinSUSFISHshowthatatleasttwomoreyearsarenecessarytocompletethedoctoratewithintheschedule(includingpublications&finaldefense).Lesson4.4–Manyhighereducationinstitutionshaveadequatequality‐assuranceprocessesfordomesticdelivery.Bilateralarrangementsbetweenuniversitiesallowmutualidentificationofmeasuresofquality:TheMemorandumofUnderstanding(MoU)betweenBOKUandtheUniversityofOuagadougouwasveryimportantforacceptanceofstudentsfromtheSouthatBOKU.Standardizedcurriculatheoreticallyguaranteeaccreditationofdegrees.Inpractice,comprehensionofthepartner’ssystemisnotensuredbytheinternationally‐acknowledgedframework.AlotofadditionalinformationandtranslationworkwasrequestedforthestudiesprogrammeatBOKUinordertoapprovetheofficialrecognitionofcertificates.Qualityassuranceprogramscanbetimeconsumingintermsofcommunicationandinformationflows,buttheyjustifythetimeinvestedwhenstudenttrainingraisestheirworkqualityandlowerstheneedforrevision.Lesson4.5‐Languagebarriers:TheskillsexpectedinscientificEnglish(1.comprehension,2.writing)canbeasignificantproblemforstudentscomingfromAfricanUniversitiestoEuropeanresearchinstitutions–esp.innaturalsciencesandespeciallyforstudentsfromFrancophonenations.Throughinternationalizationofhighereducationsystemsmobilityandtransnationaleducationexperiencesarepromotedtofostercompetitiveness,innovativeness,mobility,languageskills,internationalworkingskills.Structuraladaptations(e.g.thepromotionofEnglishasthelanguageoftuition)shouldnotonlyfocusonattractingstudentsfromall(other)regions.Suchstrategicorientationshouldprovideeffectivecross‐culturaleducationalpreparationforalluniversitystudentsandimproveequityamongthem..AsithappenedinSUSFISHlecturesattheNorthernpartner’sinstitutionofferabasictraininginscientificEnglish,whichisfarmorechallengingthanthe“conversational”EnglishclassesofferedintheSouth.Butthisoftenrevealsagapbetweentraininginscientificwritingofferedbyhostuniversitiesandthespecificneedsofthegroupofforeignstudentsfrompartnerinstitutions.Overall,thishighlightstheneedfortraininginscientificwritinginEnglishintheSouth.Butconsideringthenatureofscientificpartnershipsweneedanapproachwhichissensitivetopowerasymmetries,e.g.acomprehensiveanalysisofresearch/educationspecificdifferencesandresearchimpedingfactors(accesstoliterature,


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languages,scientificwritingandreadingexpertise,accesstointernationalscientificnetworks)aswellasdiscriminatingfactors(e.g.language).Lesson4.6‐Methodologicalapproachesdifferdependingonhowtheyareembeddedindifferentepistemictraditions(waysofrecognizingandusingknowledge).Thesedifferenceschallengeeffortstoshareandexchangeexperiences&developnewinnovative,researchrelatedapproaches.Ithighlightsthedangerofunilateralknowledgetransfer(North‐to‐South)simplyfacilitatinguncriticalreflectionofpresumptions. Transnationalteamwork&exchangeshouldbeemphasizedtoencouragemethodologicalreflectionandunderstanding(e.g.clusteranalysis)forstudentsandreflectionofconceptsoninterculturalcooperation.Forappliedresearchinsocio‐ecology:ifknowledgeandtrainingislacking,theimbalanceinpowerrelationsgetsreinforcedthroughtransculturalcooperation(e.g.stereotypesarereproducedviceversa).InSUSFISHteamworkatthelevelofjointfieldworkinvolvedfruitfuldiscussionsonmethodologicalapproachesthatwerepossiblebecauseacommonunderstandingofresearchcontextsanditssocio‐culturalconditions(gender,politics,ecology,..)wasneeded.ThesetrainingexperiencesshouldbeintegratedincurriculaatpartneruniversitiesintheSouth(e.g.UOandUBD)aswelltheNorth(e.g.BOKU).Thecurriculumshouldalsointegratetraininginincreasingtherigorofempiricalresearchthroughbetterunderstandingoftheoryandmethodology.Lesson4.7‐Understandinganyscientificapproachthoroughlyisimportantforscienceresearchandespeciallysuchapplicationsasmodeling:therefore1.toquestion,tocontesttotryandcreateanindividualapproach2.tolearntoargueown(controversial)positionsshouldbecomepartoftheacademictraining.Curriculadevelopmentshouldintegratepracticeintheseapplications.Lesson4.8‐TosucceedashighqualityresearchersinaninternationalmarketforscienceasagraduatestudentfromBurkinaFasoadditionalskillsinscientificpracticearerequiredattwolevels.

1.toshowinitiativeindefiningtheirownresearchquestionsandindependentlycarryingouttheresearch.Itisnotenoughtopasssuccessfullyacourse(e.g.statistics).Astudentresearcherneedstocomprehendorproperlyapplythebest,latestandmostappropriatemethodsthatweresupposedlylearnedinthecourse.

2.toengageinmakingresearchfindingsavailableinternationally.Aprerequisiteisknowledgeaboutthecreationprocessofpeer‐reviewedpublications.OftenBurkinabègraduatestudentsstopatthelevelofin‐countryreportsorpresentationsinBFconferencesanddonotcontinuetheirworkinfollow‐upproposals,presentingandnetworkingontheinternationalstagebygoingabroadtoconferencesandbecomingsufficientlyknowntointernationalconsortiasotheyareinvitedforfollow‐upwork.SUSFISHobservationshighlighttheneedforfurtherin‐depthstudiesontheeducationsysteminBurkinaFasoasawhole,evenbeforegraduatelevelcourses,inordertoanalyzehinderingfactorsforstudents’internationalcareerdevelopment.Lesson4.9‐Thehighereducationsystemsinbothpartnercountriesunderwentsubstantialchanges,buttheexperiencesatnationalleveldifferlargely.InAustriaseveralyearsofapplyingtheBolognasystemrequiredseveralperiodsofadaptation.InBurkinaFasothefirstgenerationofuniversityteachersisapplyingBA/MAsystemforthefirsttime,butstilltherearemanycourseswhicharetaughtfollowingtheoldsystem.SincetheUniversityofOuagadougouunderwentacurriculareformtherearemoreopportunitiestoexperiencethispersonal(active)involvementintheproductionofscientificknowledge.Besides4.10.‐AlotofemphasiswasputontheimplementationoftheinterdisciplinaryapproachofSUSFISH.Theteamorganizedasetofworkshopstobringtogetherdiverseresearchfindingsandto


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definejointlessonslearned.Thisstrategicprojectfocusenhancedsignificantlytheapplicabilityofresearchresultsinthedevelopmentoftrainingcurriculaforpractitionersinthefisheriessectorasforinstancethecooperationbetweenhealth,social,biochemicalandnutritionalscientistswithinSUSFISHshowed.Toimprovethenutritionalstatusofpregnantwomen,SUSFISHresultsonthenutritionalqualityoffoodwereusedtoformulateatrainingmanual(advices,listofproducts,useoffishandothersourcesofproteins).Apilotprojecttotrainsixmidwivesforseveralweeksiscurrentlybeingimplemented.TheirabilitytoadvicepregnantwomeninnutritionisnowbeingassessedintheareaofSindou(Banfora).4.11.ExperientialEducation–participatoryscienceToworkasastudentorresearcherinthefieldofdevelopmentresearchneedstraininginunderstandingcomplexity.Buthowdoweapproachcomplexandchangingsystems?Innaturalsciencesweexaminedynamics,thatweanticipated.Insocialsciencesweanalyzethedifferentactorsalongtheirsocialinteractionsandrepresentations.Butinbothapproachesthepersonalinvolvementoftheresearcheriscrucialtothewholeprocess.TheSUSFISHteamofexpertsunderstandsdoingresearchasaninteractiveprocess,whichis‐besidestheinteractionsinthefield‐cruciallyshapedbytheresearchers’personalfactorssuchasbiography,languages,socialclass,nationalityandgender.Thereforeatalllevelsofcooperationweencouragedexchangeofideasanddebateinordertonegotiatethemeaningsofdifferentconcepts,theoriesandmethods.Thisaimbecamesignificantlyreinforcedbythestudents’preparednesstoparticipateinforeignresearchcontexts.ThetwoPhD‐studentsfromBurkinaFaso,whostudiedinAustriaandthefourAustrianMAstudentswhostudiedinBurkinaFasoformedagroupofyoungscholarswhowantedtoreflectondifferentresearchcontexts.Togethertheyhadtheopportunitytoexperiencepracticalconstrainsandlearnhowtointegratethistransculturalexperienceintotheresearchprocess.ItresultedinajointdatacorpusasbasisforseveralnewresearchquestionsonbioassessmentandmanagementofBurkinabèwaterbodiesandfisheries.AttheendofSUSFISHthefirstgenerationofpublicationsandthesesshowsanimpressivecontributionofjuniorscientistsbasedonthejointlycollecteddataduringfieldwork.

1.1.5.PartnershipConcerningpartnership,the importantlessonisthatcommunicationviameetings,workshopsand

symposia for instanceare important tostrengthenpartnershipandshareresources.Also,student

exchange should be promoted in such project because it leads to effective sharing of knowledge,

resourcesandexperience.Moreover,thisalsoreinforcesthecapacityof local institutions.Another

importantlessonwelearned:aprojectdesignshouldparticularlyconsiderjointresearchactivities

forjunior(andsenior)scientistswithadequatefinancialresourcesandflexibilityintermsoftimeand

coordination for a joint and continuous supervision. It is obvious that these efforts should be

embeddedinagreaterprocessofdiscussionandinvolvementofthewholeprojectteam.Theproject

designshouldalsointegratesystemanalysiselementsbecausethisexercisegivesarealoverviewand

summaryoftheprojectachievementstopartnersthemselvesandclearlyhighlightstheirdifferent

perspectives.


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1.2ImportantRemainingQuestionsTheknowledgebaseestablishedbySUSFISHresearchisconsiderable,butitisonlyagoodstarttowardsthecriticalmassofinformationneededtoinformthecreationandreformofpolicyandpracticeforBFfisheries.Thepowerofatransdisciplinaryapproachisthatitprovidesacomprehensiveoverviewbyintegratinginsightsfromdiverseperspectives.Butthispowerisonlyrealizedbyfrequentreappraisalandrevisionofresearchquestionsandmethodsasnewknowledgeisgained.Improvementofthisknowledgebaserequiresactiveresearchintothemostpertinentquestionsthatremainoutstandingafterthisroundofresearchiscompleted.Thefollowingtwosectionsidentifysomeofthemostcriticalquestionsinthebiophysicalsciences(Section1.2.1)andthenon‐biophysicalsciences(Section1.2.2)thatcanprofitablyinformfutureresearchagendasinBurkinaFasoandotherWestAfricannationsfacingsimilarchallengeswithinlandfisheries.1.2.1.BiophysicalSciencesThissectiondescribesoutstandingresearchquestionsthatremainaftercompletionofanalysisofdatabySUSFISHpartnersstrivingtoaddressSUSFISHresearchquestionsrelatedtothebiophysicalsciences,e.g.biology,chemistry,andecology.Table3–KeyremainingquestionsinbiophysicalsciencesafterSUSFISHNo. QuestionremainingafterbiophysicalscienceresearchunderSUSFISH

3.1 Howcanweimprovecapacitytoidentifyandclassifyfishand benthicinvertebrates

inBurkinaFaso?

3.2 Bywhatmeanscanwedevelopprotocolstostandardizesamplingforfishandbenthicinvertebrates?

3.3 Whatartificialmethodscanboostfisheryproductivity;whataretheiradvantagesanddisadvantages,andhowcanweimproveandapplytheminBurkinaFaso?

3.4 Howcanwedevelopmethodstobio‐monitorforindicesofwaterqualityandfisheryintegritythatareapplicableinBurkinaFaso?

3.5 Howcanwedevelopmethodstousebenthicinvertebratesasbio‐monitorsforindicesofwaterqualitythatareapplicableinBurkinaFaso?

3.6 Bywhatmeanscanweassesstheresilienceoffishcommunitiestoprolongedexposuretoanthropogenicpressures,e.g.chronicstressandepisodicshocks?

3.7 Howcanweassesstheimpactsofrivernetworkconnectivityonfishecology?

3.8 WhatprotocolsmustbeappliedtodevelopanecologicalclassificationofreservoirsandriversthatisapplicableinBurkinaFaso?


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3.9 WhichoptionsforfishmanagementrequirefurtherdataandtestingtohelpimprovethesustainabilityoffisheriesinBurkinaFaso?

3.10 Whataretheimpactsofhabitatuseandpreferenceson:spawning,larvae,juvenilesandadultsofdifferentfishspeciesinBurkinaFaso?

3.11 Howcanwedistinguishtheimpactsofpressuresonfishtaxa,bothaloneasindividualpressuresandindifferentcombinations(syngergism)?

3.12 Whatrelationshipsexistbetweendamsize,thedynamicsofriversandvariousfishcommunitiesand/orfishspeciesinBurkinaFaso?

3.13 Whataretheeffectsofinvasiveplantsonfishdiversityandproductivity?

3.14 Howcanwemorepreciselyassessthehumanimpactsonwaterquantityandqualityinreservoirstobetterinformpolicyandpractice?

3.15 Howdoadultfishsizeandeggproductioninfluencefisheryproductivity?

3.16 Howdoagriculturalimpactsaffectfishcommunitiesandfisheryproductivity?

3.17 WhatacademicprogramswillprofessionalizetheskillsandknowledgeneededtomonitorwaterandfisheriesatthehigherlevelsthattheSUSFISHprojectaimsfor?

Question3.1.ImproveCapacitytoIdentifyandClassifyFishandBenthicInvertebratesinBF:ManagingaquaticecosystemsandfisheriesbasedonindicatorspecieswillbegreatlyfacilitatedbybettertoolstoidentifyandclassifybenthicinvertebratesandfishinBurkinaFaso.ThisrequiresdevelopmentofspecificBIandfishclassificationkeysforBurkinaFaso.ForBIthiscouldbedonegradually,withsimplekeysonfamilylevelforlessexperiencedusers,followedbymoredetailedones.FurtherfishcommunitysurveysinBurkinaFasoarealsomandatedbythefactthatfullyonethirdofspecieswithredliststatushavenotyetbeenclassifiedattheworldlevel,muchlessatnationallevel.AdeterminationkeyfortheBurkinabéfishspeciesisimportanttoimprovethequalityoftheaccesseddata.WeworkedwithanWest‐Africankey,whichcontainsmorethan10.000species,whichmakesdeterminationverytiringandsometimeshardlypossible..Question3.2.ProtocolstostandardizesamplingforfishandbenthicinvertebratesAguidelineforastandardizedsamplingoffishandBIforBFshouldbedevelopedinordertobuildindicesbasedoncomparabledata.TheseprotocolsshouldcoverhowtouseCast‐Netsandelectricfishingforstreamsandsmallwaterbodies.Inreservoirsandlarge,lenticriversectionsothersamplingmethodstoinvestigateinclude:Gillnetsandlonglines.


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Question3.3.Artificialmethodstoboostfisheryproductivity:FishStocking:Whatimpact(s)doesfishstockinginreservoirshaveonfishdiversity,productivityandabundanceofexistingfishcommunities?Whatimpactsresultfromstockingpotentiallyinvasivespecies?Aquaculture:Whataretheecologicalconsequences/risksofaquacultureforBurkinaFaso’sreservoirs?CanGISmodellingtoassessaquaculturepotentialinBFcapableofsupportingresearchintothisaspect,specificallyfortheWestAfrican/Sahelzone?Damsandreservoirs:Whataretheecologicalconsequences/risksofaquacultureforBurkinaFaso’sreservoirs?istheGISmodellingtoassessaquaculturepotentialinBFconsideringthisaspect,specificallyfortheWestAfrican/Sahelzone?Fishladdersandfishmigration:SomefishfromBurkinadomigrate,anddamsconstitutebarrierstothismigration.Sometimefishladdersarebuilt,buttheirefficiencywasnevertested.Aretheseladdersuseful,andwhichkindofladdersarethemostefficient?Someevidencesuggeststhatbrokendaminfrastructurepermitsmigration.Towhatexentisthistrue,andcanitbeappliedinfishladderdesign?Question3.4.FishCommunitiesandBio‐monitoringTheeffectivenessofanyindex‐drivenmanagementpolicieswillincreasewithbetterknowledgeoffishandBItaxonomy,distribution,ecology,andconservationstatus.DevelopinganindexbasedonindicatorspeciesforwaterqualityandquantitymanagementinBFrequirescomparingimpactedandreferencesites.Whataretheexperiencesfromothercountries,e.g.Austria,othernationsinAfrica,AsiaortheAmericas?Whatarethesignificantconstraints?ref.Deliverable3.1.“..developingafish‐basedindexforwaterqualityandquantitymanagementinBFWhatcouldbetheeffects/thecontributionofSUSFISHtoecologicalassessmentmethodsconcerningtherelativizationofresearchresults(e.g.SouthandWestAfrica)bringslighttonewknowledgeaboutfish“Tohelptoincreasetheresponsibilityoflocalpeoplefortheiraquaticenvironments(“youcanonlyprotectwhatyouknowandvalue”),thedevelopmentofasimpleandeasy‐to‐usewaterqualityevaluationsystemisnecessary.Ausefultoolforthispurposewouldbearapidfieldassessmenttool,suchaswhathasbeendevelopedfortheHindukush‐Himalaya‐Region.(seewww.assess‐hkh.at.)BeforepromotinganynewscoringsystemitisnecessarytotestitbroadlyindifferentregionsofBurkinaFaso.“Howwouldsuchabroadtestingprocessbedesigned,andwhatdifferentactorsshouldbeinvolvedsuchthatlocalpeopleaswellasacademicsandgovernmentagentstakeownershipandapplyit?Whatisneededforthisprocesshowmuchtimeandwhowilluseit?Scientists?Politicians?Question3.5.BenthicInvertebratesandBio‐monitoring.SUSFISHfieldresearchshowsthatinBFabiologicalriver/waterqualityassessmentsystem1)canbedevelopedandtestedinareasonableshorttime(threeyears),2)willmeetthe


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criteriaofthehigheststateofarts,and3)canbeestablishedasathreetiersystemwithincreasingaccuracyandprecision:

Level1:aRapidFieldMethodology(screening);Suchmethodsarecrudeandsimple,e.g.quickdipswithanet,torapidlyandcheaplyobtaindataaboutthepresenceanddiversityofaquaticfauna.Level2:aBioticScore(BS);Currently,developmentofLevel2,aBS,ismostadvanced.AlthoughbasedononlyafewsamplingsitesthemasterthesisofKoblinger&Trauner(2014)gaveclearevidencethataBioticScorecanbedevelopedinBF.BSvaluesclearlyreflectdifferentdegreesofstressintensity(e.g.expressedasintensityofagriculturallanduseorsomechemicalparameters).Twopossibleways(thatcanbecombined)canbeusedtodevelopaBS:1)adaptinganexistingmethodor2)developinganownmethodologytoevaluateanddescribetheecologicalstatusofwaterbodies.SUSFISHresearchshowsthebasicabilityoftheSouthAfricanScoringSystem(SASS),whichisbasedonbenthicinvertebrates(BI)asbioindicatorsthatreactinmeasurablewaystoenvironmentalstress.ToadapttheSASSforBurkinaFasothefollowingactivitiesneedtobeundertaken:a)scoresforBIhavetobeadapted;b)BIspeciesthatarenotlistedintheSASSneedtobeassignedascore(e.g.Ampullariidae,Paludomidae,Iridinidae,Chaoboridae);c)separatesystemshavetobedevelopedforrunningwaterandforreservoirsandtheaspectofperennialorintermittentdischargehastoberegarded;d)tobeabletoapplythereferenceconditionapproacheco‐geographicregionswithsimilarconditionshavetobedefined;e)asufficientnumberoftestsitesneedstobeinvestigatedtocoverthevarietyofreference,good,moderate,poorandheavilyimpactedsitesaswellastheeffectsofdifferentstressorsandimpacts.Alsotheoxygenconcentrationsinthewaterinfluencetheinvertebrates’reactionaccordingly;pollutedoreutrophiedwaterbodiesshowheavyunder‐orover‐saturations.Aspecialemphasismustbegiventoadaptthebioticscoremethodologytoclassifystagnantwatersandreservoirs,asthesescoringsystemswerenotdesignedtoassessstagnantorlenticwaterbodies.Listofpossiblestressorsthatshouldbeinvestigatedwithrespecttotheirimpactonthebiotaandtheecologicalbalance&functions:❖ Recreation❖ Tourism❖ Sport❖ Religion(includingholyfish,holycrocodiles)❖ Fishery❖ Drinkingwater❖ Irrigation❖ Nearshoreorshallowwateragriculture❖ Cattledrinking/washing❖ Directtoilet/washinguse❖ Sewagedumping


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❖ Pointpollutionbysewers/pipesLevel3:aMultimetricapproach(MMI).NeedmorehereApreliminaryversion(validforadistinctarea)ofaMultimetricIndexcouldbedevelopedbasedontheworkofIdrissaKabore(PhDthesis).Severaltestedmetricsshowahighcorrelationwithenvironmentalvariablesandprovideacleargradientofthemetricsreactionunderstress.Thediscriminationabilitytestedsofarispromising.

Question3.6.ResilienceoffishcommunitiesTheresilienceoffishcommunitiesisbroadlyindicatedbythepersistenceofsomespeciesin“highpressure”sites.Isthespeciescompositionofsuchsitespredictableenoughtousefullyclassifytheseassemblagesas“communities,”andifso,whatisthefishcompositionlikein“lowestanchorpoint”/siteswithamaximumpressureintensity,e.g.ThewastewaterchannelsinOuagadougou?Howdoesfishspeciescompositionchangeacrossarangeofsitesexhibitingadiversityofpressuresofdifferentdegreesofintensity?Underwhatconditionsandunderwhatkindsofrestorationeffortsathigh‐pressuresitesdofishcommunitiesrebound,andhowcanwemeasuredifferentreboundparameters,e.g.maxima,minima,overalldynamics?Question3.7.AssessingtheimpactsofrivernetworkconnectivityonfishecologyDoes“artificialization”ofhydrographicnetworks,e.g.cascadesofinfrastructuresalonghydro‐graphicnetworksandtheabsenceoffishby‐passes,disruptthehydrographicconnectivityduringthefloodingperiodsandpreventfishtomigrateupstreamandthen(re)colonizelakesandreservoirs?Howcansuchquestionsbetested?Whenisthebesttimeforanassessment,andhowcantheseasonalaspectsbestandardized?Forexample,whenwewerefishing(atthebeginningofanearlydryseason),somehabitatswerealreadydryingout,whileotherswerestillconnected.Question3.8.Ecologicalclassificationofreservoirsandrivers‐applicableinBurkinaFaso.Reservoirsrepresentauniquetypeofwaterbodyonaworldwidescale,butmostassessmentsystemsdonotprovidetheoptiontoassessstagnantwaterbodies,acommonsituationinBurkinaFaso.Amethodforclassificationandtypologyofreservoirsandbroad,lenticreachesofriversneedstobedevelopedthatissensitivetoBFconditions,wherestagnantwaterbodiesareusuallyunderstrongagriculturalpressures.ThedifferencesincatchmentsizeandStrahlerorderaswellasthedifferentecoregionseventuallyrequirearivertypologyforfurtheranalysis.AccordingtoManoinprep.ThebiotaintheComoecatchmentvariesalot.IntheNakambecatchment,thereisadownstreamgradientoffishspeciescompositionallthewaydowntoGhana.Developmentoftheseclassificationmethodsmayrequiredatafromneighboringcountries(Frimponginprep.FishDiversityinWestAfrica).Question3.9.FishManagementPolicyOptionstoInvestigateClosedseason,specificmeshsizesofthefishingnets,minimumormaximumlandingsizeandprotectionstateofrarespeciescouldimprovethesituationregardingbiodiversityandbiomassoffish.


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Question3.10.Assessinginteractionsbetweenhabitatandbiota(taxaand/orguilds)ManagingfisheriesinAfricaischallengedbyalackofreliabledataconcerningAfricanfishandecology.Thespecificcompositionoffishcommunitiesismainlyinfluencedbyinteractionsbetweenanimalsandtheirbioticandabioticenvironment.Habitatisregardedasoneofthekeyfactorsmediatingtheseinteractions.Moreknowledgeisimportanttomanageandmonitorthehealthofecosystemsandthesustainabilityoffisheries,whichinturncontributestofoodsecurity.Thereisaneedtoinvestigateimpactsofhabitatuseandpreferenceson:spawning,larvae,juvenilesandadults.Thisincludessuchparametersaslentic/lotic,temperature,oxygenconcentration,andconductivity.Question3.11.DistinguishingSeparateAnthropogenicPressuresonFishCommunitiesSincetheimpactsofmany,differentpressuresarecorrelated,futureresearchneedstohelpusdistinguishtheimpactsofindividualpressuresonfishtaxa.Howcanweintegrateresearchtodistinguishtheseparatecontributionsofmultiplepressuresthatdegradeaveragefisheryhabitats:mining,deforestation,sedimentation,andriverbankdevelopment?Question3.12.Hydrology,ClimateChange,DamsandFishCommunitiesHowdothedynamicsofsurfacewatersaffectfishcommunitiesinriversandreservoirs?Howhavedamschangedriverdynamicsovertime?Thisisrelatedto“environmentalflows,”i.e.arivershouldhavesufficientwateratallseasonstosustainfishcommunities.Howdoesdamsize(largevssmall)affectfishcommunities?Thisrelatestoreservoirtypology.Itappearsthatfishcanmigrateoversmalldamsbutnotlargedams.Question3.13.Effectsofinvasiveplantsonfishdiversityandproductivity.Inmanyreservoiragriculturepollutionandurbanwastes(sewage)leadtoimportantbloomofsaprophytesandalgae,howdothisaffectfishandfisheries?CanfishorBMIbethesolutionofthisproblem?.Question3.14.HumanImpactsonWaterQuantityandQualityinReservoirsDoessedimentationreducereservoirvolumestocriticalextents,especiallytowardtheendofthedryseason,suchthatwaterqualitydeclinesandimpactsfisheryproductivity?Doexcessivewaterwithdrawals,duetominingandirrigation,reducetheavailablewatervolumeswithinreservoirsattheendofthedryseasonbelowthresholdscriticaltofishcapacitytosurviveandreproduceinthewetseason?Question3.15.Fisheryproductivity,adultfishsizeandeggproductionHashumanpressure,especiallyoverfishing,soreducedaverageadultfishbodysizethatfisheriesproductivity(ofeggsand,ultimately,adults)requiresextrememeasures(fishingbans,aquaculture)torecover?Question3.16.AgriculturalimpactsonFisheryProductivityDoartificialfertilizersinrunoffsostimulateproliferationofaquaticmacrophytes(e.g.Ceratophyllumsubmersum)thattheyseverelyimpactthecatchabilityoffish?Dopesticidesbio‐accumulateinfishpopulationsanddegradeaquaticecosystemproductivity(disruptingthefoodweb,trophiccascades)?


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Question3.17.WhatacademicprogramswillprofessionalizetheskillsandknowledgeneededtomonitorwaterandfisheriesatthehigherlevelsthattheSUSFISHprojectaimsfor?IntheUniversityofOuagadougouthereisnodiplomainlimnologyorrelatedfieldlikeAquaticresourcemonitoring.Therefore,itisimportanttothinkabouthowtoimplementaMasteroflimnologyandAquaticresourceMonitoringinoneoftheUniversitiesofBurkina.


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1.2.2.SocialSciencesThissectiondescribesoutstandingresearchquestionsthatremainaftercompletionofanalysisofdatabySUSFISHpartnersstrivingtoaddressSUSFISHresearchquestionsrelatedtothebiophysicalsciences,e.g.sociology,economics,politicsandanthropology.Table4–Keyquestionsremainingforeconomic,socialandpoliticalscienceresearchafterSUSFISHiscompleted.No. Question

4.1 Istheconceptofsustainabilitytoovaguetobeusefulforpolicy‐drivenresearch?

4.2 Whatarethechallengesandopportunitiesforcreatingsustainablefisheriesthat

arecreatedbythehistoryofunpredictableshiftsinadministrativeresponsibilityattheNationallevelofgovernance?

4.3 Doesdecentralizationhelpornotinpromotingtheharmonizationofdifferentlevelsofgovernanceaswellasrepublicanversustraditionalinstitutions?

4.4 HowcanweassesstheeconomicpotentialforlocalfisheriesandaquacultureinBurkinaFaso?

4.5 Howcanweshapefuturetransdisciplinaryresearchthroughbetterunderstandinganduseofdifferentformsofknowledge?

4.6 Howcanweassessthepotentialforfisheriesmanagementatthenationallevel?

4.7 Whatmethodsareneededtoassesshowlocalknowledgeinfluencestheformulationandimplementationoffishingregulations?

4.8 Whatdifferenttypesofparticipatoryprocessescouldenhancepolicyandpracticeinfisheriesmanagementprograms?

4.9 Howdoethnicity,genderandsocio‐economicstatusinfluencethepotentialtoparticipateintheformulationandimplementationoffisherypolicyandpractice?

4.10 Howiscommunicationinfluencedbythelanguageusedindifferentphasesofactionresearch?

4.11

Howcanweassessanddescribedifferentformsofcorruptionandtheirspecificinfluencesonfisheriesmanagementatdifferentgovernancelevels?


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4.12 Howisthepotentialforsustainablefisheriesinfluencedbythecombinationofsubsistencevs.commercialfishing?

4.13 Whatistherelationshipbetweenafisherman’sskilllevelsandthecapacityoflearnandapplynewfishingpractices?

4.14 Whatpreventsthenationallevelfrombettersupportforlocalfisheriesmanagementandfromharmonizingfisheriespolicyandpracticeacrossalllevels?

Question4.1.Sustainability:isittoovagueagoaltobeuseful?Infutureresearch,howcanweassessthediverseperspectivesofdifferentstakeholdersonwhat“sustainability”isandhowthesedifferentperspectivesinfluencethechancesofimprovingfisheriesinBF?Whatdoessustainabilitymeantous,topoliticians,tolocalauthorities,fishermen,sellers,etc.?the“sustainablelivelihoodsapproach”)isconsideringamultimodalcapital,.Howusefulareourresultsiftheyarebasedonresearchthatuncriticallyassumedacommonunderstandingofsustainability(ise.g.environmentaleducation/knowledge,whichseemstobeimportantforsustainabilityoffisheriesandwatermanagementinBF)?Question4.2.InstitutionalNomadism:whatconsequencesforsustainablefisheries?Whataretheconsequencesofthemanyinstitutionalchangesoffisheriesauthoritiescitedinthereportforwaterqualityandmanagement?SUSFISHanalysisshedlightontheseshiftsandpoliticalpracticesbutfurtherresearchhastoexaminetheconsequencesofabruptandunpredictablecuttingoffofresources,staffturnovers,andlossofcompetences/experts’knowledge.Resultsshowedtheneedtoexamineitsdirectimpactonfisheriesandwatermanagementasnewpeople,newpolicies,revisedorabandonedbudgetchangesallcreateanatmosphereinwhichtheboundsofresponsibilitybecomeblurred.Question4.3.HarmonizingMultipleLevelsofGovernance:Doesdecentralizationhelpornot?TwocurrentsexistinBF:decentralizationofRepublicangovernmentandtheresurgenceofTraditionalgovernance.Howdothesetwocurrentsinfluencethechancesofestablishingsuccessfulfisheries?Importanceofdecentralizationresearch:

1.Whichaspectsofdecentralizationprocessesareleftasideinthecurrentresearch?Shouldwefocusonthoseinfutureorfocusonthemanagementofwaterresourcesonly?2.Whichperiod(s)ofdecentralizationis(are)relevanttoourresearch?3.EliteCapture–havedecentralizationandbottom‐upprocessesbeensooftencapturedbyelitesthattheyarenolongereffectivebecausenoonetruststhemtoworkanymore?

Question4.4.ExploringtheeconomicpotentialforlocalfisheriesandaquacultureHowdoesdevelopmentofaquacultureinfluencethere‐establishmentofnaturalfisheriesinBF?

1.HowstrongisthedemandoffishfoodgrowinginBF?


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2.UnderwhichconditionsfishcomingfromaquaculturesectorbecomesaffordableforBurkinabepeople?Whataboutpricedifferencesbetweenfishspecies?Isthereacheapest?ImportsfromChinaormarinefishfromW.Africancoast?3.Whyhavefishfarms/hatcheries,e.g.Bagre,fallenintodisrepairandarenotusedatall?4.Whyhavenomarketingvalue‐chainsbeensetupsuchthatfishandfishproductscanbesentinasafe(refrigerated)wayfromreservoirtoconsumer?5.Istheavailabilityofcheapimportsunderminingeffortstodeveloplocalfisheriesandfishvaluechainsjustashashappenedwith“dumping”ofcheapchickenproductsinAfricabyEurope?6.WhataboutexportofBFfishtoMaliandNiger?7.Whatmeansareinusetoraisethevaluesoffishandfishproducts(fillet,dryfish,smokedfish,friedfish,frozenfish)invaluechains?Forexample,theyhavevaluechainsforgreenbeansexportedtoEurope(ChefduCantonnearLakeBam).

Question4.5.Futuretransdisciplinaryresearch:understandingandusingdifferentformsofknowledge:Thereisacriticalneedtoassesstheimplicationsofusingdifferentformsofknowledgeforeducationanddevelopmentofcurricula,andespeciallyforknowledgeelicitationinsocio‐economicresearch.In(our)transculturalandtransdisciplinaryresearchwedependonkeyinformantsandinterpreters.

1.Howcanweassesstheirknowledge,relationsandpersonalagenda?2.Whatshouldweconsiderasimportantfactorsforthiskindofcooperationwhenplanningresearch?3.Whatdotheyneedinordertohelpuswithunderstandingandtheinterpretationoffindings?4.Whatshouldtheylearnaboutourresearch?5.Howshouldweinterpretourfindingsaboutfishermen’sknowledge:„mostfishermendeclarednottoknowanythingabouttheecologyofthenewspecies.Thosewhosaidtheyknowcannotexplain...“)?6.Howimportantarelanguageproblemsforthisoutcome?7.Howcanweensurethatourkeyinformantscanexpressthemselvesinallphasesofresearch:agendaformulation,knowledgeelicitation,andanalysis?8.Whataremethodologicalimplicationsonansweringquestions1‐7?

Question4.6.FutureDirectionofFisheriesManagementattheNationalLevel

1.WhichdataabouttheGeneralDirectorateforFisheriesResourcesisrequiredtoassessthepotentialforfisheriespolicyformulationandmanagement,especiallywithregardtodevelopmentofmanagementinstitutionsthatfunctionatandacrossalllevelsofgovernance?2.Whataretherespectivegroupsofactorsandtheirgroup‐specificinformationneedsconcerningwatermanagementresponsibilities,etc.,thatoverlapinthepolicyarenaoverseenbytheGDFR?


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3.Howcouldthisinformationbeedited,adapted,thatitmeetsthecommunicativeneedsoftheaddressees?Especiallyasweknowthatlanguagebarriersleadtodistrustandreinforceresistancetoregulations.4.Whichadditionalgenresofcommunicationbesidespolicynoteandresearchpapershouldbeassessed?

Question4.7.Localknowledgeandformulatingandimplementingfishingregulations

1.Howcanweassesstheexperiencesoflocalandgovernmentalactorsinimplementingcommonwaterandfishresourcemanagementregulations?2.Areourmethodstoelicitknowledgeappropriatetounderstandlocalstrategiesofnaturalresourcemanagements/protectionofresources?Obviouslywedidnotlearnenoughaboutthedegreeoflocalpeople’sconcern(s)andtheindicatorsfor“threat”theyidentified

Question4.8.Whatparticipatoryprocessescouldenhancefisheriesmanagementprograms?

1.Whichparticipatorymethodsavailable(ranking,mapping,villagewalks,Venndiagrams,mindmapping,richpictures,..).oractionresearchandcollaborativelearningmightbeappliedinfutureresearch?.2.Howtoensureinclusionofcritical“end”stageprocesseslike“Phasingout”,e.g.asresearchhasbeguninthecommunity,thepotentialforconflictmustbeloweredbyallowingtheexperiencesofstakeholderstobeincluded,debated,andjointdecisionsreachedabouthowtoaddressnewchallengesatthisstage

Question4.9.Howdoethnicity,genderandsocio‐economicstatusinfluencethepotentialtoparticipateintheformulationandimplementationoffisherypolicyandpractice?Dorealbarrierstoparticipationexist,and,ifso,howdotheyaffectfisheries?Forexample,involvementofwomenorstrangersdiffersfromregiontoregion.Question4.10.Howiscommunicationinfluencedbythelanguageusedindifferentphasesofactionresearch?InBurkinaFasowhatlanguage(s)shouldbeusedfora.administration,b.research(knowledgeelicitation),c.educationandinformationdissemination,andistherenoanswerthatisgeneraltoallofBurkinaFasobutspecifictodifferentethnicgroups?Whatlanguagesfacilitatea.negotiation,b.knowledgetransfer,translation,interpretationandintegration?Question4.11.Howcanweassessanddescribedifferentformsofcorruptionandtheirspecificinfluencesonfisheriesmanagementatdifferentgovernancelevels?TowhatextentdoescorruptioninfluencemanagementoffisheriesandwaterbodiesinBF?Forexample,governmentofficialsintheMinistryofEnvironmenthavebeenobservedtoselllicensesandkeepmoneyforthemselves.ThisaccordswiththeobservationsofJeanPierreOlivierdeSardan,ananthropologistinNiamey,oncorruptionatdifferentlevelsofgovernment.Question4.12.Howisthepotentialforsustainablefisheriesinfluencedbythecombinationofsubsistencevs.commercialfishing?


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1.Towhatextentdofisheriescontributetolivelihoodsbasedmostlyonsubsistenceagricultureandtowhatextentdopurelycommercialfisheriesinfluencelivelihoods?2.Whatdoes‘subsistence’meanforlocalpeopleinBF,andhowisitactualized?Regardingthesubsistenceconcept,itnotonlycontributestoincome,butitinfluencesmanagementofnaturalresources,fisheries.

Question4.13.Whatrelatestheaverageleveloffishingskillwiththepotentialforcapacitybuildingforbetterfisherypractices?Excepton(very)largereservoirs;fishermenarenotprofessionals.Theyarefirstlyfarmerswhodiversifytheiractivities,buttheseskillsarenotheritable,so

1.Fromwhomdonon‐professionalfishermenlearnwhentherearefewifanyprofessionalagentsorNGOstoteachandadvisethem?2.Dolowskilllevelsofnon‐professionalfishermenhamperabilitiestolearnbetterfishingmethodsandtolearnandobeyfishingregulations?

Question4.14.Whatpreventsthenationallevelfrombettersupportforlocalfisheriesmanagementandfromharmonizingfisheriespolicyandpracticeacrossalllevels?

1.Weobservedfailureoffederalagentstoenforcerulesoradviseinfisheriesdevelopmentatthelocallevel,especiallyforsmallreservoirs.Isinsufficient‘politicalcommitment’todeveloptheruralfisheries‐sectorbecausemostfisheriesresourcesarescatteredamongtoomanyverysmallreservoirs?2.Isfailuretoharmonizenational,regionalandlocalgovernanceinstitutionsaggravatedbydistrustatlocallevelsfornationallawandadministrationsustainedsinceearlyinthehistoryofFrenchcolonialadministration.


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Section2.ImplicationsofSUSFISHResearchforScienceandPracticeTheoutstandingquestionsdescribedinSection1.2offerampleopportunitiesforresearchtoexpandtheBFfisheriesknowledgebaseindirectionsmostusefultothecreationandenforcementofpolicyandpractice.However,theseresearchquestionscanbeexpandedandmoresharplydefinedbyexploringexpertopiniontoseewhatarelikelypathsonwhichBFfisheriesmightdevelop.SUSFISHpartnersusedgroupfocussessionstodevelopandelaborateasetofscenariosoffuturefisherytrajectories.Lookingatonlyasubsetofthemostintriguingscenarios,Section2.1describesthedetails,e.g.storylinenarrative,relevantfactorsandtheirrelationships,thatarecriticaltounderstandinghowthesescenariosmightunfold.Section2.2describeshowSUSFISHpartnersusedconceptualmappingexercisestoextendthislineofinquiry.Thiswasdonebydevelopingtwo‐dimensionalmapsthatgraphicallyillustrateddiversewaysthatthecriticalfactorsmightberelated,e.g.chains,webs,feedbackloops.BoththescenariosandtheconceptualmapsofferopportunitiestofurtherrefinetheresearchquestionsoffutureprojectsexploringpathstodevelopBFfisheriesandincreasefoodsecuritythroughfishculture.2.1.ScenariosthatMeritFurtherScrutinySUSFISHhasgeneratedagreatdealofnewknowledgeaboutthepotentialtodevelopandmanagesustainablefisheriesinBurkinaFaso,bothasfactsandconcepts(LessonsLearned)aswellasidentifyingthemostcriticalentrypointsforfutureresearch(RemainingQuestions).However,neitherfactsnorquestionsaresufficienttofullyexploretheimplicationsoftheknowledgegained,especiallyintermsofthedynamiccomplexityofasocial‐ecologicalsystem.Howmighteventsunfoldunderdifferentsetsofconditions?Whattrendshavebeencriticaltothepresentstateofaffairs,andhowmightthesetrendschangeovertime,shiftingtheprobabilitiesthatvariousstrategiesandpoliciesmightfailorsucceed?WorkPackage8staffopenedthedoortothedynamicimplicationsofwhathasbeenlearnedinSUSFISHbyofferingthepartnersopportunitiestodevelopscenariosoffuturedevelopmentoffisheriesthatidentifyanddescribekeytrendsanddevelopmentsthatneedfurtherattention.Scenarioscanbeusedtoguidethedevelopmentoffutureresearchagendasbecausetheyincorporateandintegrateintoonestoryline(sometimeswithmultiplethreads)anumberoffactorsthatmeritfurtherinvestigation:trends,scenariosandtheinteractionsbetweenfactorsthatinfluencethedynamicsofsaidtrendsandscenarios.AssuchscenarioscanweavetogetherLessonsLearnedandImportantRemainingQuestionsintosyntheticwholesthatinviteexplorationoftherelationshipsbetweentheLessonsandtheQuestionsaswellastheircomponentfactors.Methods:PursuanttotheoverallgoalofdevelopinganoverviewofSUSFISHfindings,WP8staffworkedtoassembleandintegrateinformationinputsfromSUSFISHpartnersandoutsideexperts.First,aliteraturesurvey(seeAppendix)developedabackgrounddatabaseonfisherysustainabilityfactorsevidentinbothnaturalandsocialscienceliterature.ThisbackgroundinformationwasusedtodesignandorganizeaweekofmeetingsinNovember,2013inOuagadougoutoelicitexpertknowledgeaboutbothnaturalandsocialfactorsthat


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influencefisheriessustainabilityinBurkinaFaso.TwoworkshopswereconductedinseriestoprovideadatabasefordevelopingasyntheticoverviewandsystemsanalysisofthepotentialforsustainablefisheriesinBurkinaFaso.Thispotentialwillbeassessedbasedonsystemsanalysisofinteractionswithinandbetweenbio‐physicalandsocio‐culturaldomainsthatarekeytofisheriesmanagement.Thesemeetingsdidsobyconveningnaturalscienceprojectpartnerstoconsiderbio‐physicalfactorsandtheirinteractions.Asecondmeetingconvenedsocialscienceprojectpartnerstoconsidersocio‐culturalfactorsandtheirinteractions.Inpreparationforthisseriesofmeetings,inearlyNovemberWP8staffmetwiththeProjectleaderandtwoBurkinagraduatestudentstodevelopandapplyaquestionnairethathelpsidentifyscenariosbywhichsustainabilityisstrengthenedorweakened,andfactorsandtheirinteractionsthatarecriticaltothosescenarios.ThequestionnaireofferedeachpartneroroutsideexpertandopportunitytoidentifyscenariosthattracefuturedevelopmentsthatmayinvolveincreasingordecreasingsustainabilityofBurkinaFasofisheries.Theycoulddosodescribing:1.Whatisatrend(historical,statistical)thatissignificanttofisherysustainabilityoverthelong‐term?,2.Whatisabrief(lessthan5sentences)scenariothatsummarizesthemaindevelopmentsthathelpexplainorelucidatethistrendanditsconsequences,3.Whatarethefactorsthatrequireresearchinordertounderstandeachscenarioanditsdynamicsinbetterdetail?Thisquestionnairewassenttoallprojectpartnersfortheirinput.ThispreparatorysurveyandtheOuagadougouworkshopsgeneratedsomefourteenscenarios(seebelowfortitlesandtheAppendixfordetails)thatemergeandextrapolatefromcurrentunderstandingbasedonbiophysicalscienceandthesocial,economicandpoliticalsciences.Theseinitialdraftscenariospostulatefisheryproductivitydeclinesbecauseof:

1.Societalmetabolism,e.g.processingofenergyandmaterialsfordomesticandeconomicreasons,anduseofshorehabitatincreasethesedimentloadinsurfacerunoff(sedimentation)andgraduallyfillreservoirbenthiczones,reducingreservoirvolume,andloweringthequantityandqualityofwaterinthewatercolumnandaquatichabitatsusedbyfishandotherfaunaforfood,shelterandreproduction.2.Overfishing,especiallyoflarge,matureadultfish,reducesaverageadultfishsize,and,hencetheaveragefecundityofadultfish,therebyreducingproductionoffisheggs,larvae,fryandjuveniles.3.Fishcommunitymetabolismandreproductiondeclinebecauseaveragefisheryhabitatsaredegradedbymining,deforestation,sedimentation,andriverbankdevelopment.4.Excessiveinputsofartificialfertilizersmaystimulatetheproliferationofaquaticmacrophytes(e.g.CeratophyllumsubmersumintheBourareservoir),therebyphysicallyblockingboatsandnetsandreducingthecatchabilityoffish(amongotherproblems).


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5.Pesticidesbio‐accumulateinfishpopulationsanddegradeaquaticecosystemproductivity(disruptingthefoodwebandtrophiccascades)andthereproductiveefficiencyandgrowthof(commercial)fishesremainunknown.6.Anthropogenicpressures(societalmetabolismandshorelinehabitatuse)increasetheloadingofsurfacewaternutrientinputstoaquaticbiotopes,shiftingthedominanceofphytoplanktoncommunitiestowardcyanobacterialassemblagesthatprevailinreservoirsurfacewatersandreducetheavailabilityofphytoplanktonpalatabletofish.7.Excessivewaterwithdrawals,duetominingamongotheractivities,reducestheavailablewatervolumeswithinreservoirsattheendofthedryseasondeclinebelowthresholdscriticaltofishcapacitytosurviveandreproduceinthewetseason.8.Artificializationofhydrographicnetworks:Cascadesofinfrastructuresalonghydro‐graphicnetworksandtheabsenceofby‐passesforfishdisruptthehydrographicconnectivityduringthefloodingperiodanddonotallowfishtomigrateupstreamandthen(re)colonizelakesandreservoirs.9.Reservoirvolumesdeclineduetoinsufficientprotectionandmaintenanceofreservoirinfrastructures(dikes,spillways,...),especiallyifcrocodiles’chambersexcavatedfromdikestherebyweakenthemandmakethemmorevulnerabletohydrologicaldisturbances(excessiveflashflood).10.RisingimportanceofInternationalFishMarketsandFish‐ProductsImportationstoBF.Thelowpricesofimportedfishproductsdonotallowtheexploitationoflocalfishpopulationstobecomeasustainableactivity.Lackofprofitabilitybecauseofmarketcompetitionwithimportedfish‐productsprovestobetoohighahurdlefortheinitialinvestmentsintheinfrastructureandtrainingnecessarytomakeinlandfisheriesamatureindustry.11.Lowfisheriesskillsofnon‐professionalfishermen.Excepton(very)largereservoirs;fishermenarenotprofessionals.Thesestakeholdersarefirstlyfarmerswhodiversifytheiractivities–andincome’ssources–infishing(allyearroundorseasonally).Fisheriesactivityisnotpatrimonial(asfarmingcouldbe)andthereisnorealheritabilityofthisskill.12.Insufficient‘Politicalcommitment’todeveloptheruralfisheries‐sectorbecausemostfisheriesresourcesarescatteredamongtoomanyverysmallreservoirs.13.Increasingpopulationsofalienfishspeciescauseindigenousspeciestodecline.Sustainedinvasionandsubsequentreproductivesuccessofalienfishspeciescausestheirresidentpopulationstogrow.Asthealienfishspeciesoutcompeteindigenousspeciesforfoodresources,thelatterpopulationsdecline.


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14.FailureofnaturalresourcemanagementaccompaniedbydistrustatlocallevelsfornationallawandadministrationsustainedsinceearlyinFrenchcolonialadministration.

2.1.1.BiophysicalSciencesOfthefourteeninitialdraftscenarios,onescenarioostensiblyanchoredinbiophysicalsciencerapidlycomestothemindofanyobserveroffisheriesinBurkinaFaso.Inmostmarketsthesizeoflocallycaughtfishisstrikinglysmall,andthereisavastdifferenceinfishsizebetweenfishcaughtinregulatedversusunregulatedaquatichabitats.Adultfishsizecorrelateswitheggproduction,and,ultimately,theproductivityoftheentirefishery.Sincethisrelationshipisnon‐linear,meaningthereisoftenathresholdbelowwhicheggproductionisordersofmagnitudebelowitspotential,thequestionarisesastowhetherthefisheriesinBurkinaFasoarecaughtinatrap,boxedininazoneoflowproductivitybelowthethreshold,andthatitcannotbeescapedwithoutmassiveinterventiontoallowfishpopulationstorecover.ThisisthescenariothatSUSFISHpartnerschosetoexploreinmoredetail,asdescribedbelow.2.1.1.1.ProcessorTrendinfluencingFisherySustainability:

Fishproductivitydeclinesasaverageadultfishsizedeclines.

2.11.2.KeyWords:Fecundity,Eggproduction,FishSize,

2.1.1.3.Scenarioshowinghowsustainabilityisinfluenced:Title:Fisherypolicyrestoresfisheryproductivitybyreversingthedecliningtrendofadultfishsize.

Overthecomingyearsfisherymanagementbecomessustainablefortworeasons:A.fishmanagerscanlowerfishingpressurebycontrollingfishnetmeshsizeandB.becausescientistsdiscoverforeacheconomicfishspecieswhatitsoptimalreproductiveadultsizeis,providingguidelinesforpoliciessettingmeshsizeandmonitoringthetiming,durationandintensityoffishingefforts.Thiscombinationresultsinareinforcingloopinwhicheachfishspeciesbecomesmoreproductiveasaverageadultfishsizeincreasesbeyondthresholdswhereeggproductionincreasesexponentially.

2.1.1.4.Importantfactorsinvolvedinthisscenario:HowtoreadandunderstandtheHierarchicalListofCriticalFactors:Thefactorsofconcerntothisscenariohavebeenlistedinahierarchicalorderthatcanbeunderstoodasfollows.ThemostfundamentalfactorsareplacedthefurthesttotheleftintheFirstTier,andasone’seyemovestotherightthedegreeofspecificityincreasesaseachsucceedingfactorinthenextlowertierisdescribed.This“lower”factorsupportsthenexthigherfactorand,ultimately,thefundamentalfactorinthefirsttier.Counter‐intuitively,thehigherthetiernumber,themorespecificandsupportiveitisoffactorsfromtiersoflowernumbers.For


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exampleatthetoporstartoftheHierarchicalList1below,themostfundamentalfactoris“Fishproductionrate”,whichcanbefurtherunderstoodbythesecondtierofsupportingfactors,e.g.EggProductionrate”,“NumberofJuvenileFish”,“NumberofAdultFish”,and“Waterquality.”EachfactorinthesecondtierisfurtherexplainedbymorespecificfactorsintheThirdTier.Therefore,EggproductionrateisfurtherexplainedbyAverageAdultFishSize,EggSurvivalRate,ArrivalRateofMatureFishtoSpawningGrounds,andPatternofReservoirFilling.Thishierarchicalorderingcontinues,includingafourthandafifthtieroffactors.Thehierarchicalorganizationoffersabasisforsystemiccomparisonoffactorsthatinfluencethedynamicsofascenario.Itdoesthisbyshowingthedependenceoffactors,mostdirectlywithineachlinefrommosttoleastfundamentalfactor,butalsoindirectlybysuggestingpotentialrelationsbetweenfactorsacrosslevels,e.g.relationsbetweenallthefactorsinthesecondtier.Thisformofknowledgeelicitationandrecordingestablishedthebasisforamorethoroughandcomprehensivesystemsanalysis,whichwouldexploremorecomplexinteractions,e.g.websofinteractionsandfeedbackloopsthatinvolvefactorsatdifferentlevelsofthehierarchy.TheSUSFISHprojecthasestablishedthatbasisformorecomprehensiveoverviewswiththisinitialsystemoverviewbasedonhierarchicalstructure.HierarchicalList1:CriticalFactorsforBiophysicalScienceScenario

FishproductionrateEggproductionrate(Fecundity),Spawningrate(frayage),

AverageAdultFishSizeEggsurvivalrate

Eggpredationrate,Diseaseincidence,Waterquality

OxygenConcentration,Temperature,pH,Chemicals.ArrivalrateofmaturefishtospawninggroundsPatternofreservoirfilling(1nuitpoorspawningvs.2moisgoodsp.)

FillingrateRainfallpattern(intensity,spatio‐temporalvariation,seasonal)

AvailabilityofHabitatServicesHabitatarea(spatialmosaic),habitatquality

NumberofJuvenileFishRecruitmentRate

NurseryhabitatareaandstructuralcomplexityGrowthratefromfrytojuvenile

PredationpressureDensityofBirds,frogs,fish,

NumberofAdultFishRecruitmentRate

Habitatareaandquality:Growthratefromjuveniletoadult


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AvailabilityoffishfoodFitnessofAdultFish

Preyavailability(macro‐invertebrates,etc.)DiseaseincidenceConditionFactor(Weight‐to‐Lengthratio)WaterQuality(Temperature,pH,Oxygen,Chemicals)

Populationmobility(ratesofimmigrationandemigration(fishnumberarrivingfromoutsidethereservoirorleaving)

Dams(presence,condition),Fishladders(presence,condition)Fishingpracticesinthehydrologicalnetwork

UseofnetsasabarrageacrosstheentireriverFishingusingtoxicchemicals

LengthofdryperiodwithoutwaterinreservoirWaterquality

WaterQualityVariabilityReservoirturnoverrate(Polymyctic–multiplemixing)

Reservoirbasinbathymetry(depth,shape)Seasonalvariationinshapeanddepth

Dry‐downrateasdryseasonprogressesWaterQualityIntensity

ConcentrationofToxins,PesticideandherbicideusebyfarmersHeavyMetalConcentration(Hg,Cyanide)AcidsandSolvents

Oxygenconcentration,Fertilizeruse(typeandintensity),Algalgrowthrate,ProportionofCyanobacteriainthealgalassemblage

TurbiditySedimentationrate,Littoralmacrophytes(area,density)esp.grassesPhytoplanktonproductivity

Fishingpressure(intensityandeffectivenessoffishingefforts),Fishdensity

NumberofAdultFishEffectivenessoffishingpractices

WatervolumeLegalityofFishingMethod(ratiolegal/illegal)FishNets(MeshSize,number,length)Long‐lines(number,intervalbetweenhooks,length)Traps(numberandpositioningontherivercross‐section)DurationofFishingSeason

NumberofFishingMan‐daysAvailabilityoffishingskillsandknowledge

AvailabilityofexpertadviceOrganizationsFishermenAssociations,NGOs,Ministries)LocalCommunity


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Amountofprofessionalfishingexperience(fishingyears)inthelocalcommunity

AverageageoffishermenNumberofold(wise)fishermen

OutmigrationrateoffishermentoOtherfisheriesinBurkinaFasoGoldminesinBurkinaandtheregionDakar,Lagos,Abidjan

EconomicpressureonfishermentofishEconomicpressurefromSocio‐Culturaleventsandceremonies

Eventsthatrequirepayments(weddings,Christmas,etc.)DemandforFish

DomesticfisheconomyRatioofdomesticproductiontoconsumptionrates

FishproductionratesCaptureFisheriesAquaculture

ImportationrateoffishfromoutsideBurkinaFasoFishConsumptionPreferences

AveragequalityoffishconsumedTypesoffishpreferred(size,species,processedornot)

Incomefromterrestrialfarming,Incomefromlivestock,IncomefromAquaculture(shiftsfishermanfromcatchtofishfarming)PriceofProtein,

FishPrice,MeatPrice,RatioFish/MeatpricesCostofLiving

MiningactivitiesimpactonlocaleconomiesEffectivenessofGovernance

EffectivenessofRepublicanGovernanceEffectivenessofGovernmentInstitutions

InternationalPressure(Govt,andNGOs,Banks)Policiesformanagement(administrativecode)

ExistenceAcceptancebypractitionersandresourceusers

AwarenessofpolicyLegitimationthroughparticipation

LegislationExistenceImplementingAgencies(fisheriesdept)

Feedbackbetweenpolicyformulationandimplementation

FishRangers(Foresters),Daysofrangeroversight,Susceptibilityofrangerstobribes(soudoyer–Corruption),

SalaryofRangers,Effectiveoversightofrangers


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BeliefinGovernmentStabilityofGovernmentHierarchy(shiftingandunpredictableMinistryresponsibilities)

EffectivenessofTraditionalAuthority,FaithinTengsoba,FearoftheGods,HolyCrocodilesEffectivenessofFishermenAssociationsPresentornotpresent,Degreeoforganization

5.Relationsbetweenfactorsthatinfluencethisscenario:

Factorsinvolved: Howtheyinteract: Results

Eggproductionrate,AverageAdultFishSize

Exponentialincreaseineggproductionabovespeciesspecificsizethreshold

Largefishareordersofmagnitudemoreproductivethansmallfish

NumberFish,MigrationRate(fishnumberarrivingfromoutsidethereservoir)Dams(presence,condition),

Somedamsareinpoorconditionandallowfishtomigratearoundthem.

Mostreservoirscompletelydryoutandfisherytotallydependsonmigrationfromtheoutside.

NumberofFishermen,useofchemicalpoisons,FishNetMeshSize,DurationofFishingSeason

Increasingoffishermenreinforcetheuseofillegalfishingmethods

Thedeclineincatchvolume

Fishdensity,Watervolume

Therainingseasonincreaseavailablefoodandfloodplain

Increasingoffishreproductionandfishmigration


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2.2.1Social,EconomicandPoliticalSciences

Onescenariorelatedmostlytothenon‐biophysicalsciencesseemedtooccupyacentralpositionthatlinkeditwithmostotherscenariosofBFfisherydevelopment.Thatscenario,describedbelow,examinesthefactorsandrelationshipsthatinhibitcommunicationandtrustingovernancebetweendifferentlevelswithingovernmentaswellasbetweenthoseingovernmentandthoseoutside,e.g.NGOs,business(fishermenandfishmongers),andconcernedcitizens.2.2.1.1.ProcessorTrendinfluencingFisherySustainability:FailureofnaturalresourcemanagementaccompaniedbydistrustatlocallevelsfornationallawandadministrationsustainedsinceearlyinFrenchcolonialadministration.2.2.1.2.KeyWords:Governance,Scale,NaturalResources,Colonialrule2.2.1.3.ScenarioshowinghowsustainabilityisinfluencedTitle:Multi‐levelGovernancerelatedtonaturalresourcemanagementatthelocallevel

FailureofnaturalresourcemanagementsustainedsinceearlyinFrenchcolonialadministrationthatunfoldedoverthepast130yearsinresponsetoprocessesatdifferentlevels.LocalAdministration(before1885),Colonialadministration(1920–1960),Nationaladministration(1960topresent).TheLocallevelhasexhibiteddecliningeffectivenessoflocalresourcemanagement.Thisdeclineisrevealedbyashiftfromasemi‐effectivelocal‐levelcommunityorganizationtomoreindividualdecisionsoverthepasttwodecades.Modernrepublicangovernancedoesnotworkwellenoughatthelocallevel.Thetraditionalorganizationisinplaceatthelocallevel,e.g.Therearedifferentgroupsinvolvedinmanagingfisheries.However,familytiestothoseintraditionalpowerpositionsincreasinglydeterminewhoassumespowerwithintherepublicangovernancestructure,e.g.Thepresidentofanassociationisthebrotherofthelocalchief.Sothelocalchiefhasincreasinginfluenceovermodernorganization.This“takeover”likeEliteCapturehasacceleratedsincethenationalpolicyofdecentralizationstarted.Partoftheproblemisalsoofrepresentationwithinanyofthelocalorganizations:whomdoesthebrotherofthelocalchiefreallyrepresent,anddoesthatchangehiseffectivenessincontributingtomanagement?Thisambiguitydamagestheprocessoflegitimationofpowerofthelocallevel:whoisthe“owner”oflocalresources?Thistrendofincreasinglyusingfamilytiesratherthanexpertisetodeterminewhogainspowerinmoderngovernancecanlowerthecollectiveexpertiseofgovernance.Italsoconcernsequitywithinthecommunity.Ifyoudonotfeelresponsibletorepresentcertaingroups,thenpower“unnaturally”concentratesonlytocertaingroups(clans,families).Thispowershiftisaccompaniedbyashiftoffinancialresources,becausethepowerfulcanincreasinglydivertfundsforgovernmentprojectstotheirownfamilyfinances.Transparencyalsosufferswhendecisions(financialorgovernance)aremademorewithinfamiliesthaninthe“openair”ofpublicdiscussionforgovernment.Astransparencydeclinesandsuspicionsmountthatthesystemonlyworksforafew(theelitehavecaptured


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thedecentralizationprocess),thenpeoplewillignorethegovernanceprocessandactindividually,hopingnoonewillnoticeortakeaction.

2.2.1.4.Importantfactorsinvolvedinthisscenario:HierarchicalList2:CriticalFactorsforSocial,EconomicandPoliticalScienceScenarioRepublicanGovernmentrelatedtowatermanagement

AdministrationPolicy‐Develop,implementandmonitorimplementationandimpacts

NationalSectoralRegionalLocal(reservoirorlake)

StrategyNationalSectoral

LegislationNational

Law(Acts)Ordinances(AssemblyNational)Decrees(President)Arrêtés1(Minister,Mayors)Decisions(Directors)

InternationalConventionsAccords,Pacts

Institutions(organizationalstructure)1GovernanceInstitutionsthatworkatthelocalLevel(evenifbasedathigherlevels)

RepublicanGovernmentCLE(CommittéeLocaldel’Eau)Fishermen’sAssociations

Groupments,GroupmentdespecheursaKongoussi

Union(national,provinciallevel)ForestersAssoc.ofWomenwhoprocessfishComitéduGestionPérimètreHalieutiqued’IntérêtEconomique

9inBurkinaFaso,forallorganizationsinterestedinwaterbutonly3operationalcommitteessofar.

1unarrêtéestunedécisionexécutoireàportéegénéraleouindividuelleémanantd'unouplusieursministres(arrêtéministérielouinterministériel).Translation:aarrêtéisanexecutivedecisionwithbindingconsequencesingeneralorforindividualsthatwasissuedbyoneofmoreministriesofthenationalgovernment’sadministration.


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TraditionalGovernment

Conflictingprocesses:legitimationofpowerandlegality

DamagetolegitimationofpowerwithinrepublicanorganizationsExclusionofmarginalgroups

NetworkAnalysisofpowerrelationswithinthelocalcommunityMembershipwithinrepublicanorganizations

BalancinginterestsbetweenmenandwomenWomenexcludedfrominformationaccess

DonotknowthatitisillegaltobuyfishthataretoosmallPoorcompliancewithrulesofgoverningorganizations

Electionorganization(every2years)Meetings(donotmeetoftenenoughtobeeffective)

CLEisoftentoobigtomakeiteasytoassemble)Noaccountability(nofeedbacktomembers,notransparency)

LackoftrustWhypaywhenIcannotseetheadvantageWhypaywhenthemoneygoestopeopleIdonottrust

Indigenousresistanceto“foreign”ideasGERES–experienceofdominatingforeignadministrationForeignideasdonot“tastegood.”Confusingshiftsbackandforthastowhatisrecommended:

ForeignerstoldthemtocutthetreesatLakeBam,nowtheysayweshouldgrowthem.

Freeriderproblem:whypayforapublicgoodavailablefor“free”Myancestorsdidnothavetopay,whyshouldI?Failuretopaytaxorduesrelatedtofishingormembershipinorganization.

ResistancetomodernrulesthatdepartfromtraditionRefusetoabandonpracticesdeemed“illegal“bymodernrules

UseofforbiddenfishinggearNetswithmeshdimension<35mm

FishingwithoutalicenseSellingfishingrightswithoutauthority

Fishermenpayforrighttotakeallfishinareservoirwhenactuallythesellerhasnoright.

Failuretoenforcethelaw

Forestersarenotactivatedbyaspecific“project”orinitiativethatmandatesthattheygoandmonitorfishermen.Withoutspecificmandates,theyignorethesituation.

Forestersdonotmonitorwhofishes(oreducatepeoplelocally)Malifishermenpaydirectlytolocalcommunity(5Kperfishermanpermonthinadditiontosomefish)as


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opposedto8Kperyeartotherepublicangovernment.(seep156RaymondOuedraogoDissertation)

Forestersinfluencedbytheir“LocalGuides”Forestersnominatedfortheirjobsbasedonexpertise,buttheyoperateincooperationwitha“LocalGuide.”

LGarenominatedlocally.LocalGuidessometimesorganizeresistancethatnullifiesenforcement.

LackofresourcestosupportenforcementFundingTrainingorExpertisePowertoenforcethelaw

NewrulesorlawcannotdisplacethetraditionalrulesInthemindsoflocalresourceusers(fishermen,hunters)

SeeaboveaboutresistancetonewlawsLawsconflictwithTraditionalPractices,e.g.Useoffetishes(Voudou)

LocalpeoplechasedouttheforestersandpolicefromMousoudougouaftertheytriedtofineahunterforcatchingarabbitwithoutalicense,whichactuallywaslegal,sothiswasanabuseofpower.

Inthemindsoftheforester‐Forestersmaynotagreewithnewlaw‐Forestersnotwillingtogoagainstmajorityopinion.‐IftheForesterdoesnotunderstandlocaltraditions,evennon‐verballytheycancommunicatethislackofunderstandingandcreatetensioninthecommunity.Thiscaneasilyoccurwhenforesterscomefromelsewhere.

CommodificationoffishNewtrendfromsubsistencetocommercializationcreatesamomentumthatishardtocounteractbyenforcingthelaw.

Trendrunscountertotraditionalgovernancethatco‐evolvedwithsubsistencefishing,whichwasaminority,ratherthanthemajoritynowthatwilldoanythingtogainmoneyinanexpandingindustry.

Povertyoffishermenobligesthemtofishbyanymeansnecessary.

Populationdynamicsreinforcetheeconomicpressuretogainmoneybyanymeans

Trendexpandstheroleofwomeninfishprocessing.

ConflictbetweenRepublicanlawsandTraditionalruleWhenconfusionexistsbetweenRepublicanandTraditionalrules,thenpeoplewillusuallyresorttotheTraditional.


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LocalconceptionsofNaturalresources(Water,Fish,etc.)Power

Networkofrelationships


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2.3.SystemsAnalysisofBehaviorPatternsCriticaltoSustainabilityWhileprevioussectionsifthisreportactuallydoconstitutesystemsanalysisbydescribingahierarchicalstructureofrelationsbetweencriticalvariables,thereisamplepotentialtoextendthatsystemsanalysisusingothertechniques,suchasconceptualmapping.InsufficientresourcesoftimeandfundingpreventedWP8stafffromworkinglongenough(monthstoyears)withawideenoughcircleofexpertopiniontogeneratedetailedconceptualmapsabettedbysystemsanalysisthatuncoverspreviouslyunappreciatedpatternsofcausation.ThatlevelofeffortwouldhaverequiredworkingwithallSUSFISHpartnersinadditiontosomeoutsideexpertsandkeystakeholderstoelaborateonthebasicsystemsanalysisestablishedthroughscenariodevelopment(Section2.2).However,withthehelpofsystemsmodelingexpert,PiotrMagnuszewksi,fromtheCenterforSystemsSolutions,WP8staffworkedwithseveralSUSFISHresearchpartners,todevelopasystemsanalysisthroughconceptualmappingofseveralscenarios.Theseexercisesservetoillustratethepotentialforconceptualmappingtohelpstakeholdersidentifypotentialcriticalrelationshipsbetweenfactorsthatmighthelpexplainthedynamicsofconcerninatrendand/orscenario.Underthebestofcircumstances,suchexerciseswouldcontinueforaprolongedseriesofmeetingsovermonthstorefinethemapsbyiterativelychallengingandrevisingthemap’shypotheticalstructureusingnewdatafromliterature,expertopinion,orcurrentunpublishedresearchresults.Totrytoillustratethepotentialofconceptualmapping,wemetseveraltimesinSpring2014andconfinedoureffortstotwosetsofscenarios:abiophysicalsciencesetbasedonscenarios1‐4andasocialsciencesetofscenariosbasedonscenarios12and14(seeAppendix).HowtoreadaconceptmapmadewithCmapsoftware:Cmapssoftwareallowsonetogenerateconceptualmapswhereintheconceptsarelinkedbyrelationshipsthatareverballydescribedbyonetomanywords.Thispermitsoneto“read”thegraphicmapasagroupofrelatedsentences.ForbetterclarityinthisReport,inthetextdescribingconceptualmapsconceptsaredenotedinitalicfontwhiletheverbsaredenotedinnormalfont.OneexampleofasentencecanbefoundintheupperrightcornerofFigure1below.SedimentationreducesAreaanddurationoffloodingforfishnurseryhabitats,whichaffectstheFishProductivity,whichaffectsFishPopulationwhichaffectsFishYield.Byusingwordstocomplementthegraphicdepictionofrelations,itisnotonlyeasierandfasterattheoutsettocomprehendtheindividualideasandthecollectiveconceptofthemap,but,ifonereturnstothediagramafteraprolongedperiod,itisalsomucheasiertorelearnthediagramandresumeworkonit.Cmapsiscurrentlyatthefrontierofsoftwaretoprovidesuchgraphictoolstodescribeasetofrelatedhypothesesaboutcollectivecausationincomplexsystems.2.3.1.SystemsanalysisofthebiophysicalsciencessetofscenariosThesuspicionthatdifferentscenariosdonotstandalonebutarerelateddrivesthesearchtoidentifythoserelationships,andFigure1revealsimmediatelyhoweasyitistolinkscenarios1through4.All4scenariosareinvolvedinawebofrelationshipsthataffectFishProductivityandFishYield.Scenario1(Sedimentation)involvesfactorsthatinfluenceFishProductivity,e.g.AmbientWaterTemperatureandAreaanddurationoffloodingforfish


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habitats.Scenario2(FishSize/EggProduction)involvesthehubofrelationsthatinfluencebothproductivityandyield.Scenario3(Fishproductivity/Habitat)positsadirectrelationshipbetweenhabitatqualityandproductivity.Scenario4(Macrophyteproliferation)positsarelationshipbetweenagriculturalfertilizerinputs,macrophytedensityinthelittoralzone,andfishcatchability,whichdirectlyaffectsFishYield.TheconceptualmapinFigure1isagraphicpictureofahypotheticalsetofrelationships.Eachsetofrelationshipspositedundereachscenarioisnotverycomplicatedasgraphed,buttheoverallmapmayappearcomplex,becausemostpeopledocumentcomplexitywiththelengthoflistsoffactorsand/orverbaldescriptionsofrelationshipsbetweenthefactors.Itstillisararechallengeformostpeople,evenscientists,toviewandcomprehendtheconstellationofalltherelationshipsinasystem.Theartofinterpretingtwo‐dimensionalmapsoflinkedhypotheticalrelationshipsisstillrelativelynew.Sufficeittosay,thatwithincreasinginputsofdataovertime,eachscenariocouldeventuallybedescribedbyaconceptualmapthatisfarmorecomplexinstructureorbya“family”setofmapsthatarerelatedorlinkedbycommonvariables.ButFigure1istheproductofabrief,experimentalprobeinmappingbySUSFISHpartnersthataimsforasimplergoal.ItclearlyshowsthatscenariosareverylikelyrelatedandthattherelationshipsandkeycommonvariableshavepotentialtoinformtheresearchagendaoffutureprojectsrelatedtowaterandfishscienceinBurkinaFaso.2.3.2Systemsanalysisofthesocial,economicandpoliticalsciencessetofscenariosResearchbasedonsocial,economicand/orpoliticalscienceinSUSFISHhasgeneratedaconsiderablenumberoflessonslearned(Table2),importantfollow‐upquestions(Table4)andscenariosrichlydetailedwithadauntingnumberofcandidatefactors(HierarchicalList2).Aspreviouslynoted,thehierarchicalstructureofrelationsbetweenkeyfactorsdoesconstitutethefoundationofasystemsanalysisofsocial,economicandpoliticalvariablesthatinfluencefisherysustainability.Butconceptualmappingoffersopportunitiestoextendthatanalysistoexploremorecomplexcausalstructures,e.g.websandfeedbackloops.WP8staffmetseveraltimesinSpring2014underthedirectionofPiotrMagnuszewskitocreateconceptualmapsbasedontwosocialsciencescenarios:12and14(page??).Figure2summarizesthosemodelingeffortsandrevealsanumberofintriguingfeedbackloops,i.e.ringsoffactorsthatarelinkedinacircleofcausation.Thesestructuralpatternsarehypothetical,andtheirvalueliesindefiningreinforcingpatternsofcausationthatarehardtoidentifybecausemostpeoplethinklinearlybutareworthyoffurtherexamination.Onthebroadestlevel,thisexperimentalmodelingsessionpositedaloopasfollows:FailureofnaturalresourcemanagementaddstoGovernanceChallengesthatundermineourCapacitytoimplement(enforce)lawswhichleadstomoreFailureofnaturalresourcemanagement.Figure1–ConceptMapofKeyBiophysicalProcessesAffectingFisherySustainabilityinBF


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Severalminorloopsworkwithinthisbroaderloop.GovernanceChallenges,whichareexaminedinmoredetailbelow(seeFigure3),leadtoCommunicationfailureaboutthelegalsystemwhichreduceCompliancewithlawswhichhinderourCapacitytoimplement(enforce)lawswhichleadstomoreFailureofnaturalresourcemanagement.Furthermore,GovernanceChallengescanleadtoEliteCaptureofparticipatorybottomupprocesses,whichleadstomoreInequalityinpowersharing,whichunderminesTrust,and,hence,CompliancewithlawswhichleadstomoreFailureofnaturalresourcemanagement.GovernanceChallengescanleadtoDiminishingpowerandavailabilityofrolesandstrategiesforwomenandpoorwhichleadstomoreInequality,lowersTrust,Compliance,therebyincreasingFailureofnaturalresourcemanagement.Finally,thisfailureitselfunderminesTrust,leadingtolowerComplianceandmoreFailure.Insummary,Failureofnaturalresourcemanagement,whichconsistsofwaterpollution,overfishing,wateroverconsumption,anderosionleadingtosedimentation,canbeanalyzednotasoneorseveralsinglechainsofcausesbutasasetofloopsthatreinforceandaugment


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Figure2–ConceptMapofKeySocialProcessesAffectingFisherySustainabilityinBF


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eachother.Theoperationoftheseloopscanunderminesustainability,butthatoperationpotentiallycanbeslowedorhaltedbyseveralhypotheticalinterventions,whicharedepictedasgreenboxesinFigure2.FollowingtheexamplesinFigure2,CapacitybuildingprogramsandknowledgesharingcanimproveEducation,knowledgeofresourcemanagementgroundedinthelocalcontext,therebyhelpingwithbothCompliancewithlawsandEnforcementCapacity.Participationoflocalcommunitiesindecision‐makingandimplementationcanincreaseTrust,andWomen’sEducationcanaddresstheDiminishingpowerandavailabilityofrolesandstrategiesforwomenandpoor.SustainabilityVisioningcanaddressandabetallthreeoftheseloopprocesses.Someofthe“variables”orconceptsshowninFigure2actuallyaretitlesthatrepresentaclusterofrelationshipsthemselves.TheseareFailureofnaturalresourcemanagement,Capacitytoimplement(enforce)laws,andGovernanceChallenges.Wenowdescribetheconceptsandrelationshipsunderlyingthelattertwoconceptsasdepictedwhentheir“box”framesareexpandedtorevealtheinnerstructureinFigures3and4.SeveralofthecurrentchallengestoefficientgovernanceatmultiplelevelsinBurkinaFasohavebeenpreviouslydescribedinSections1.2and2.2,e.g.LessonsLearnedandinImportantRemainingQuestionsinsocial,economicandpoliticalsciences.Someoftheconceptsandinterrelationsunderlyingtwoofthesechallenges,e.g.InstitutionalNomadismandDecentralization,arerevealedinFigure3.InstitutionalNomadismemergeswhenCompetitionbetweenministriesforcontrolofPolicyandBudgetsresultsinLackofcontinuityinorganizationalstructure,whichisreflectedinFrequencyofresponsibilityshiftsbetweenministriesandinChangesinpersonnelassignmentswithinministriesandagencies.ThelatterisprofoundlyinfluencedbyNepotism.ThesecausalrelationsaffectBudgetaryuncertainty,e.g.unpredictabilityoffinancialavailabilityforthosecreateand/orimplementpolicyaswellasUncertaintyaboutmeaningofinstitutions(laws,strategies,etc.)forbothgovernmentandnon‐governmentalactorsinfisheries.TheothergovernancechallengeshowninFigure3hastodowithDecentralizationandhowtoestablishgovernancethatfunctionswithinandacrossmultiplelevels.Decentralizationisachallengewithinitselfinthatitappearstoexistmoreonpaperthaninreality.SinceheretoforeitwasostensiblysimplertomanageentirelyfromthenationalcenterinOuagadougoufollowingtheFrenchcolonialmodel,DecentralizationimmediatelyappearstobeachallengingadditiontoComplexitybyaddingNewGovernancestructure(newpositions,oftenfromoutside)ofthesocialcirclesinthecapital.ThisisexemplifiedinthenewLocalWaterCommittees,e.g.lesCLEEsorCommitteeLocaldeL’Eau.Thecomplexitybecomesapparentinthatthesecommitteesdonothaveenoughresourcestoworkeffectivelynordotheypossessactualpowertobetterunderstandresourcechallengesandmakedifficultdecisionsthatareenforced.Assuchtheyappearmoreasa“goodidea”poorlyconceivedorimproperlyimplementedthatsimplyaddtofrustrationandlackoftrustingovernancesolongasthesecommitteesstandidlewithoutevenenoughmoneytomeetregularly.Figure3–ConceptMapofGovernanceChallengesAffectingFisherySustainabilityinBF


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TwootherchallengesarelistedbutnotstructurallyelaboratedinFigure3:Resistancetomodernrulesthatdepartfromtraditionand“Neo‐colonial”Agenda.Theformercomplicateseffortstoformulateandimplement“modern”,e.g.republican,lawsatthelocallevel,andcouldexplaintheresurgenceinrelianceintraditionalinstitutionsmentionedpreviously.ThelatterreflectsthetensioncreatedbyhowcultureandeconomyinBurkinaFasoappearinparttobeprofoundlyaffectedbyeventsoccurringoutsidethecountry.ThatpartofcurrentBurkinabeculturethatisembodiedinwhatnormsareestablishedandreifiedastowhatismodernandprogressive,certainlyseemsinfluencedbytheinternational“knowledge”economiesthatcreateandrunoncomputersandsmartphones.Furthermore,BurkinaFaso’seconomyisprofoundlyinfluencedbytheactivitiesofworldmarketsaswellasgovernmentandNGOdonors.Justintheareaoffishconsumptionalone,eightypercent80%oftherisingdemandforfishismetbyinternationalsources.Howcangovernancereacheffectivelytolocallevelswhensomuchattentionisdirectedacrossthenationalborderstointernationalsourcesofideasandeconomicresources?SomeoftheconceptsandtheirinterrelationsthatchallengethecreationandsustainingoftheCapacitytoimplement(enforce)lawsaredepictedinFigure4.ThefirstisthechallengeofcreatingaGoodfitbetweeninstitutions(laws,rules)andorganizationalstructures(responsibilities).Tofitlawstotheirrespectiveresponsibilitiesimpliesthatthelanguageofthelawrequiresactionsthatcanreasonablybeexpectedfromtheactors,within


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governmentandwithout,andtheirrespectiveorganizations,thatareresponsiblebythelawtoperformthoseactions.Agooddegreeoffitisneededforfunctioninggovernancetobridgefromnationaltolocallevels,andthisinturnprovidesbothOversightatthelocallevelandtheLegitimationofpowerateachlevelofgovernance.Suchofficiallylegislatedmulti‐levelgovernancecanalsobecomplementedbyInformalinstitutionsintheenforcementoflaws.HowtheycomplementofficialinstitutionsandorganizationalstructuresiscomplicatedbythefactthatInformalinstitutionsarecreatedbybothPeoplelivingthereaswellasOutsideorganizations.ThelattermaynotknowwelltheLocalContext,asisthecasewithinternationalorganizations,bothintheprivateandpublicsectors.Inthatcase,theformalandinformalinstitutionsthattheyoperatebymaynotfitwellwithlocallysensitiveinstitutionsandorganizationalstructures.Suchpoorfitwasclearlyinevidencebefore1960whenFrenchcolonialagriculturalpolicytriedtoimposeEuropeandefinitionsofmodernpracticeonrowcropfarming,resultinginwidespreaddeforestationintheSahel.Figure4–ConceptMapofFactorsrelatedtothecapacitytoenforcelawsaffectingfisherysustainabilityinBurkinaFaso.


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3.DiscussionBasedonresearchinthebiophysicalandsocial,economicandpoliticalsciences,theSUSFISHprojecthasestablishedafoundationofknowledgeusefultoassessandactualizethepotentialforsustainablefisheriesinBurkinaFaso.TheSUSFISHprojectwasfoundedbynaturalscientiststoexplorethepossibilitytoanalyzeandthenmanagefisheriessustainablybasedonrigorousbiophysicalscience.However,thelonghistoryoftechnicallysoundnaturalscienceprojectsthatutterlyfailedinthelongrunduetosocial,economicand/orpoliticalreasonspromptedthemostprominentinnovationinSUSFISH:researchintothenon‐biophysicalfactorsthatmighthelporhinderthesustainabilityoffisheriesinBF.Theresearchfocuswasfurtherexpandedtolookforinteractionsbothwithinandbetweenbiophysicalandnon‐biophysicalfactorsusingscenariosandsystemsanalysis.SUSFISHresearchsetouttoestablishafactualbasisforsustainablefisheries.Butbasedontherecognitionthatsuchanefforttolookthoroughlyacrossdisciplinescanneverbecomprehensiveinonlyafewyears,SUSFISHprojectresearchwasorientedtoconcludebyidentifyingthemostimportanton‐goingquestionsforfutureresearch.Inthissection,wesummarizethemostprominentfindings(LessonsLearned)andquestionsgeneratedbySUSFISHresearchandconcludewithsomeofthesalientimplicationsofsuchresearchasindicatedfromscenariosandsystemsanalysis.3.1ReviewofmajorfindingsTheSUSFISHprojecthasclearlymetitsoverallgoalofprovidingthesciencebasisformakingfisheriessustainableinBurkinaFaso.Thishasbeenachievedbothintermsofknowledgegeneratedaswellascapacitybuildingtoapplythatknowledge.Capacitybuildinghasbeenachievedthroughprovisionoftools(softwareforanalysisandhardwareforfishmonitoring)aswellastrainingintheuseofthosetools.Thisincludestheuseofdifferentkindsofgeartosamplebothfish(gillnets,electrofishing,etc)andbenthicinvertebratesandtheprotocolsforhandlingandtheanalyzingthesamples,especiallytaxonomicclassification.Italsoincludestheuseofstatisticalsoftwareandmodelingtoanalyzeandidentifysignificanttrendsinthedatasampledinthefield.KnowledgehasbeengeneratedbothintermsofconceptsandfactsaboutBurkinaFasoaquaticecologyandsociety.Thisnewinformationcanserveasafoundationaldatabasethatcaninformtheformulationandimplementationofpolicy,providingbenchmarkdatafromwhichtomeasureprogressandsettargetsperformancelevelsforpolicyandpractice.Forexample,notonlyhasSUSFISHresearchgeneratedthemostcurrentandcomprehensivespecieslistsforBF,ithasidentifiedthesignificanceoftherelativescarcityofsomeofitsspecies:asignificantfraction(56%)offishspeciesinBurkinaarethreatened.SUSFISHhasestablishedthedatabasistoidentifythemultiplesourcesofthosethreatsandquantifytheirimpactsonaquaticspecies.Broadly,inBurkinaFasothepresence,diversity,trophiclevel,densityandbiomassofcertainfishandbenthicinvertebrategeneraandspeciesrespondnegativelytoarangeofanthropogenicpressures.SuchBIaswellasfishtaxarespondnotonlytothreatsandpressuresbutalsotolandscapeandhabitatparameters.Assuchcertaingeneraandspeciescanbeusefulasbio‐indicatorsof


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waterbodytypology,andrivermorphologyandstructureinBurkinaFasocatchmentsaswellasLandUse‐LandCover(HabitatType)parameters.ItwasalsoestablishedthatdataonBI(abundance,speciesrichness)alsoreflectwaterqualityparameterssuchasconductivity,oxygendemand,ambienttemperatureofthewatercolumn,andproductivityofawaterbody),soaquaticspeciescanbeusedasbio‐monitorsofwaterqualitybothformanagingfisheriesaswellasthesecurityofwatersuppliesforsociety.ThepracticalimplicationsofSUSFISHresearchisthatitprovidesspecificknowledgeaboutthesensitivityofcertainfishandbenthicinvertebratetaxatospecificpressuresand/orclustersofpressuresthatofferthedatabasisformonitoringthepresenceandimpactsofpressures.Overall,SUSFISHsurveysdemonstratethatsuchparametersasfishsize,abundanceanddiversityarerelatedtothequalityoffisheriesandhabitatmanagement.Therefore,bothfisheriesandwatercanbebettermanagedbasedonsciencethatrigorousmonitorsandmanagesmultiplelevels:aquatictaxa,thewatercolumn,habitatqualityandsurroundinglanduses,andthehumanactivitiesthatgeneratepressuresimpactingtheseaquaticandterrestrialhabitats.SUSFISHdataindicatethatfishmanagementmustbeinformedbydataatscaleslargerthanlandscape,sincefishbiodiversityisrelatedtotheirmobilityand,ultimately,towaternetworkconnectivity.Overthelong‐term,thisprojecthasestablishedthatmonitoringsystemsthatweredevelopedbasedondatafromcatchmentsoutsideBFareoflimiteduseformonitoringandmanagingBFcatchments.ThereisaclearmandatetodevelopanewmonitoringsystembasedentirelyondatafromBF.SUSFISHalsohasprovidedanoutlineofdifferentpathwaystodevelopsuchaBF‐specificmonitoringsystem,e.g.athreetiersystemwithincreasingaccuracyandprecisioncanbeestablished:level1:arapidfieldmethodology;level2:aBioticScore;andlevel3:aMultimetricApproach.Aspreviouslynoted,SUSFISHwasfoundedinrecognitionofthehistoryoffailureofdevelopmentprojectsgroundedonlyontechnicaland/orscientificadvances.InBurkinaFasoaloneSUSFISHresearchfoundexamplesofabandonedequipmentandinfrastructure(fishponds,refrigerators,fish‐weighingscales,fishshops)tosupportthemodernizationoffisheriesthattestifytothis.Forthatreason,SUSFISHsponsoredresearchintothesocial,economicandpoliticalbarriersandbridgestosustainablefisheries.Ourresearchindicatesthatwhilesomeencouragingexamplesexist,thereareabundantbarrierstosustainablefisheriesprovidedbychallengesofgovernanceatmultiplelevelsinBurkinaFaso.AprominentoverarchingchallengeisthatitappearsthatfisheriesmanagementisnotequallyappliedalloverBurkinaFasobutisconcentratedinafewlargereservoirsof“nationaleconomicinterest”,e.g.Ziga,Bagre,Kompienga,andSourou.Outsideofthesemajorreservoirsdominatedbycommercialfishermenwhoareregulatedandingoodcommunicationwithgovernmentofficers,communicationisnotsogoodformanagementorgansdevotedtosmallerreservoirs,exceptforfourfishingconcessionsgiventotheassociationsofthelocalfishermen(Bapla,Moussodougou,Tandjari,Lera).Asidefromthesefewexamplesofsuccessfulorganizationoflocalmanagementcapacity,forthemostparttherearegapsbetweenNationalandlowerlevelsofgovernance.Briefly,agovernance


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systemthateffectivelyfunctionsfromthecentral,nationallevelouttotheregionalandlocallevelshasyettobeestablished.Oftenthelinkbetweenlawandpracticestomonitorfisheriesismissing(lawisnotadoptedtopractice).Thereforethereislittleeffectivepolicemonitoringorenforcementoffishingpracticesatthelowerlevels,e.g.smaller‐scalefisheries.Whileeffortstodecentralizemanagementauthorityhavebeenunderwayforyears,thefailuretocomprehensivelybridgeinstitutionsfromnationaltolocallevelsishamperedbythefrequencyofshiftsofgovernanceresponsibilities(institutionalnomadism)forfisheriesmanagementatthenationallevel(AdministrativeFlux).Onesalientexampleofsuchpoorcommunicationisthegenerallackofexpertisethatisregionallyorlocallyavailableforconsultation.Asaresult,progressinimprovingfishingmethodsisblockedbylackofcapacitytolearnortoorganize.Inthefaceofsuchpoorinter‐levelcommunicationandsporadicorabsentmonitoringtheuseofillegalequipmentandfishingpracticesonlymounts.Itishardtoimaginehowtrustingovernancecanbebuilttostrengthencompliancewithlawsandpoliciesundersuchconditions,andevidenceofthiserodingtrustisthatinsomeareaslocalfishermenhaveswungtheirallegiancefromrepublicantotraditionalauthorities.Traditionalauthoritiesstillconstitutelegitimatelocalsourcesofgovernance.Traditionalinstitutionsplayavitalroleinreaffirmingtheidentityofcommunitiesreliantonaquaticecosystemsandtherebybroadlyinfluencewaterandfishmanagement.However,thecurrentgovernancestructurehasfailedtolinkandharmonizerepublicanandtraditionalsources.Andeffortstodecentralizehavebeenpoorlyimplemented,e.g.localmanagementcommitteeslackthefundingtoevenmeetregularly,orhavebeentakenoverbyspecialeconomicorpoliticalinterests,e.g.elitecapture.Thegovernmentalbodiesresponsibleforthefisheriessectorwereunawareofwomen’sspecificroleinthefisheriesmanagement.Consequentlytheydidnotconsiderthemenoughascrucialactorsintheirstrategicandpoliticalprogrammes.SUSFISH’ssociologicalresearchonfishasimportantincomegeneratingresourceshedlightonwomenasimportantpreservingstakeholders(e.g.systemerhaltendeFunktion)intheeconomic,nutritionandhealthdomains.Interdiscplinaryworkrevealedimportantcross‐sectoralactivities,interrelatedpowerrelationsandhinderingfactorsthatplaykeyrolesinthevaluechainissueoftheresourcefishinBurkinaFaso.However,notwithstandingtheirimportanteconomicrole,sincewomenareexcludedfromdecision‐makingprocessesonlocallevels,thefocusoffutureanalysisshouldbeorientedtowardstheimpedingfactorsemergingfromincompleteormisguidededucation,structuresofassociationsandpowerasymmetries.Thesefindingsresultedinthedraftofastrategyfortheintegrationoftheseaspectsinthefisheriesmanagementpolicies,whichwasdevelopedinSUSFISH.OnepillarorcoreelementofSUSFISHresearchwastoestablishorintensifycooperationamongpartnerswithintheproject(nationallyinBurkinaFasoandinAustriaaswellasinternationallybetweeninstitutionsofbothinvolvedcountries).Someofthemneededcapacity‐buildingmeasurestofostercooperationacrossdisciplinaryandinstitutionalboundaries.ThereforeSUSFISHdevelopedasetofcooperation‐promotingactivities,suchasjointinterdisciplinaryfieldtrips,cross‐disciplinaryworkshops,jointlectures,shared


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supervisingmodelsforstudents(crossinstitutionally),systemanalysisandconceptmodelling.AsecondpillarofSUSFISHappliedresearchwasnetworkingwithnewpartnersnationallyaswellasinternationally.ForinstancearegionalnetworkofresearchinstitutionsonfisheriesandaquaticecologycouldbeinitiatedthroughtheintensificationofexchangeanddisseminationactivitiesbetweenBenin,Côted’IvoireandBurkinaFaso.Bothpillarscontributedsignificantlytothepromotionofinstitutionalcapacitiesofsocio‐politicalecologyinthehighereducationsystemofBurkinaFaso.WiththeconclusionofSUSFISHitisobviousthatfurthereffortswillbecrucialforasustainablecontinuationofthechangesmadeinthissector.3.2ReviewoftheImplicationsofSUSFISHresearchSUSFISHpartnersusedthreemeanstoexaminetheimplicationsoftheproject’sfindings:elucidatingprominentremainingquestions,developingscenariosthatelaboratedifferentdevelopmentpathsofaquaticbiotopesinthefuture,andsystemsanalysisofhypotheticalrelationshipsbetweenfactorsthatinfluenceimportanttrendsandscenariosidentifiedbySUSFISHresearch.Wesummarizekeyfindingsinallthreeareasbelow.ManyofthequestionsoutstandinginthebiophysicalsciencesemergefromconcernsabouthowtoextendSUSFISHtobettersampleandclassifyaquatictaxaaspartofassessingtheimpactsofmorethanonethreatatatime.Forexample,howtoassesstheeffectsofcomplexclustersoffactorsonaquatictaxa,e.g.Thoseinvolvedinrivernetworkconnectivity,ordamsizeandriverdynamics.Theanswerstosuchquestionscouldthenbeusedtodeveloptheprotocolstoestablishbio‐monitoringsystemsbasedsolelyonBFaquatictaxa,e.g.fishandbenthicinvertebrates.However,ourfindingsofhowseverelyreducedinsizeandabundancelocalfishareinlocalmarketssuggestthatlocalaquaticbiotopesandtheirresidentfishcommunitiesaresoseverelyimpactedthattheycannotberapidlyorcompletelyrestoredunderthecurrentgovernanceregime.Therefore,questionsariseastowhatartificialmethodscanboostfisheryproductivity;whataretheiradvantagesanddisadvantages,andhowcanweimproveandapplytheminBurkinaFaso?Questionsoutstandinginthesocial,economicandpoliticalsciencesarepartlycenteredonhowtoimprovefutureresearchmethodologically,e.g.howcommunicationisinfluencedbylanguageoristheconceptofsustainabilityconcepttoovaguetobeusefulinco‐creatingknowledgewithlocalstakeholdersinthefuture?However,mostofthequestionsfocusonhowtoextendandtestourpreliminaryfindingstobetterdescribeandquantifyvariousgovernancechallengesandhowtheyimpactfisheries.Forexample,howseverelydotheunpredictableshiftsinnationalresponsibilitiestoformulateandadministerpolicyimpactthecommunicationaboutandimplementationofpoliciestomanagefisheries,aquaticbiotopesandsurroundinghabitats?Howcanweassessanddescribedifferentformsofcorruption,effortstoimprovelinksbetweennationalandlocalgovernancelevels,andeffortstoharmonizerepublicanandtraditionalgovernanceinstitutions?Finally,atmorelocallevels,whatmethodsareneededtoassesshowlocalknowledgeinfluencestheformulationandimplementationoffishingregulationsandwhattypesofparticipatoryprocessesmightenhancepolicyandpracticeinfisheriesmanagement?


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SUSFISHappliedparticipatoryresearchmethodstodevelopscenariosaswaysforexpertsandpartnerstoexaminethedynamicimplicationsofthefactsandquestionsgeneratedbytheproject.Howmighteventsunfoldunderdifferentsetsofconditions?Forexamplewhatarethemediumtolonger‐termconsequencesofaccumulationsofpesticides,sediment,agriculturalfertilizers,orinvasivespeciesonthequantityandqualityoflittoraloraquatichabitat,watercolumnortheresidentaquatictaxa?Whataretheconsequencesifaquaticcommunitiesbecome“trapped”inanewregimewheretoxicphytoplanktonaredominantorwherefishadultbodysizeisirreversiblyreduced,cappinganyefforttoincreasefisheryproductivity?Suchexercisesdidnottestorverifyanyparticularsystemtrajectory,buttheyallowedparticipantstoreconsidertheirassumptionsandquestionsinlightofthedynamicsthattheyanticipated,anditfurtherallowedelaborationofwhatparticularvariablesandparametersoughttobemeasuredtobetterunderstandhowthesystemischanging.Assuch,theseexercisescaninformfutureresearchagendas.Finally,theSUSFISHprojectusedconceptualmappingexercisestoexaminethepossiblestructuresofrelationsthatmightunderliethedynamicshypothesizedinseveralscenarios.Theseexercisesextendedanalysisofthesystemfromahierarchicalsetofrelationshipspositedunderthescenarios,tomorecomplexpatternsofrelationships:websandfeedbackloops.Theeffortstomaptheseconceptsandtheirrelationsdidnotverifyanyparticularsetofconceptsorpatternofrelations,buttheyidentifyhowsomepartnersimaginetheyarerelatedandproposetoanalyzetheminthefuture.Mappingofbiophysicalfactorsrelatedtoseveralfisheryscenariosshowedtheydonot“standalone”butarelinkedinawebofrelationshipsthataffectFishProductivityandFishYield.Mappingofnon‐biophysicalfactorsassociatedwithseveralscenariosrevealedthecentralroletrustplaysinanestedsetofrelatedfeedbackloopsthatinfluenceGovernanceChallenges,ourCapacitytoenforcelawsandFailureatnaturalresourcemanagement.ThissuggestthepossibilitythatFailureofnaturalresourcemanagement,whichconsistsofwaterpollution,overfishing,wateroverconsumption,anderosionleadingtosedimentation,canbeanalyzednotasoneorseveralsinglechainsofcausesbutasasetofloopsthatreinforceandaugmenteachother.


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4.ConclusionsTheSUSFISHprojecthasclearlymetitsoverallgoalofprovidingthesciencebasisformakingfisheriessustainableinBurkinaFaso.Thishasbeenachievedbothintermsofknowledgegeneratedaswellascapacitybuildingtoapplythatknowledge.Capacitybuildinghasbeenachievedthroughprovisionoftools(softwareforanalysisandhardwareforfishmonitoring)aswellastrainingintheuseofthosetools.Furtherachievementsweremadebyintegratingthesenewtrainingelementsinthecurriculumdevelopmentforappliedecology.KnowledgehasbeengeneratedbothintermsofconceptsandfactsaboutBurkinaFasoaquaticecologyandsociety.Thisnewinformationcanserveasafoundationaldatabasethatcaninformtheformulationandimplementationofpolicy,providingbenchmarkdatafromwhichtomeasureprogressandsettargetsperformancelevelsforpolicyandpractice.ThepracticalimplicationsofSUSFISHresearchisthatitprovidesspecificknowledgeaboutthesensitivityofcertainfishandbenthicinvertebratetaxatospecificpressuresand/orclustersofpressuresthatofferthedatabasisformonitoringthepresenceandimpactsofpressures.However,despiteanthropogenicpressuresfishpresenceanddiversityremainshigherifhydrologicalconnectivityoftheregionalsurfacewaternetworkismaintained,allowingfishmigrationtoreplenishlocalpopulationdeclines.Overall,SUSFISHsurveysdemonstratethatsuchparametersasfishsize,abundanceanddiversityarerelatedtothequalityoffisheriesandhabitatmanagement.Therefore,bothfisheriesandwatercanbebettermanagedbasedonsciencethatrigorouslymonitorsandmanagesmultiplelevels:aquatictaxa,thewatercolumn,habitatqualityandsurroundinglanduses,andthehumanactivitiesthatgeneratepressuresimpactingtheseaquaticandterrestrialhabitats.SUSFISHalsoproducedreliableinformationthatwillbeusedtoimprovethegovernanceofwaterandfish.Forexample,thelistoffishspeciesisalegalandtechnicalrequirementthatwasneverfulfilled:SUSFISHproposedalistofspecies.ThedevelopmentoftheRedlistoffishforBFwillgiveinsightfordiversityconservation,notonlyforfishbutalsoforothertaxasuchasbenthicmacro‐invertebrates.Overall,asignificantfraction(56%)offishspeciesinBurkinaisthreatened.AmajorchallengeisthatgovernanceisnotuniformlyenforcedinBF.Becauseofmultiplekindsoflegalandadministrativestatusesforfisheriesaccordingtoreservoirtype(largeorsmallscale),therearegapsbetweenNationalandlowerlevelsofgovernance.Thisgapmaylessenifconsiderationoflocalcommunities’opinioninfisherieswillbeimprovedintheprocessofdecentralisationthatstarted1.5decadesago.However,moremustbedonetointegratetheformulationandenforcementofpolicy.Creationandenforcementoffisheriespolicyishamperedbythefrequencyofshiftsofgovernanceresponsibilities(institutionalnomadism)forfisheriesmanagementatthenationallevel(AdministrativeFlux).Linkagesbetweenlawandpracticestomonitorfisheriesaremissingatvariouslevelssuchthatlawisnotadoptedinpractice.Thereforeeffectivepolicemonitoringorenforcementoffishingpracticesisscarceatthelowerlevels,e.g.smaller‐scalefisheries.SUSFISHprovidedacomprehensivereportongovernanceinthefisheriessector,whichwassharedwithpractitionersinordertolinkscientificresultswithadministrativeexperience.Intermsofintegratingbetterawarenessofsocialtrendsinfisheriesresearchandpolicy,atthepoliticallevelinBurkinaFasotheconceptofgenderisadoptedmoreduetooutside


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pressure,e.g.fromdevelopmentpolicy,thanfrominternalevolution.Thisapproachriskstoremaintheoreticalanddevelopmentdriven,asitisdistantfrompeoples’livelihoodsandleadsoftentomisunderstandings.SUSFISHresearchcontributedsignificantlytoshedlightontheroleandstatusofwomeninthecomplexsocialandpoliticalstructureoffisheriesmanagementinBurkinaFaso.Thesefindingscouldbeintegratedinpolicyformulationatministeriallevelandthusfosteramoreappliedapproachtowardsgenderequality.Intermsofeducationandresearch,SUSFISHdevelopedastrongpartnershipatnationalaswellasoninternationallevel.Thestrengthisbasedon(1)interdisciplinarycollaborationandexchange,(2)developmentofinnovativeresearchmethods(3)developmentofnewcurriculaelementstopromoteresearchinpractice(4)teamwork(5)jointdisseminationactivities.SignificanteffortwasmadetodiminishexistingasymmetriesamonghighereducationsystemsinglobalNorth‐South‐relations,butwashinderedbystructuraldeficits.Forinstanceinstrumentssuchasscholarshipsforstudentsfromdevelopingcountriesareveryuseful.Butthepotentialforthepromotionofyoungscientistsisrestrictedbythefollowingfactors:(1)goodresearchisdiminishedwhenselectioncriteriaareappliedbasedondevelopmentprioritiesratherthanacademicpriorities.(2)Tosucceedasresearcherstosupportnationalpolicyformulationandinaninternationalmarketforscience,graduatestudentsfromBurkinaFasoneedadditionalskillsinscientificpracticetodefineresearchquestionsandindependentlycarryoutresearchprojects.(3)Tothatend,muchmoretimeisneededtofullydevelopthepotentialofsupervisor‐studentrelationsaspartofteamworkmaturing,andchangesneedtobemadeinBurkinabecurriculaatthelevelsofsecondaryschoolanduniversity.SUSFISHcooperationenabledsomesignificantinitialexperiencesinthisdirection.Butstructuralchangesintheeducationsystemareneededmoregenerally:appliedsciencetrainingshouldbegivenincreasingprioritytofosterintegrationoftheoryandpracticeandpreparestudentswithpotentialtodoscientificresearchatthegraduatelevel.

Intermsoffuturecooperationbasedonimprovednetworksofappliedscientists,thememorandumofunderstandingsignedbetweenOuagadougouUniversityandBOKU‐Universityisanimportantasset.MoreovertheequipmentpurchasedbySUSFISHwillstillbeusedbytheBurkinabeinstitutions.Studentexchangesandjointsupervisionofstudentsamongtheinvolvedhighereducationinstitutionswillfosterfuturecooperationandresearchnetworks.SUSFISHresultsoftheinterdisciplinarystudiesonfoodsecurityandnutritionwereusedtodeveloptrainingmanualsontheuseoffishindietforpractitioners.Alltheseadvancesinconcepts,data,skillsacquisitionandequipmentcanserveasasolidfoundationforthere‐establishingsustainablegovernanceoffisheriesandaquaticecosystemsasapost‐revolutionarygovernmenttakesshapeinthecomingyears.


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5.Appendix:ScenariosofFutureDevelopmentsofBurkinaFasofisheriesContentsScenario1:SedimentationScenario2:FishProductivityandQualityofAverageHabitatScenario3:MacrophytePoliferationScenario4:PesticideCocktailScenario5:CyanobacteriaScenario6:DrySeasonWaterAvailabilityScenario7:HydrographNetworksScenario8:InfrastructureDecayScenario9:InternationalFoodMarketsScenario10:Agro‐fishermenScenario11:PoliticalCommitmentScenario12:AlienFishSpecies


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Scenario 1

SEDIMENTATION

1. ProcessorTrendinfluencingFisherySustainability:Sustainedorincreasingerosionratesleadstosedimentarionfillingreservoirbasins.

2. KeyWords:Erosion,Wind,Agriculture,treeloss

3. Scenarioshowinghowsustainabilityisinfluenced(3sentencesorless):

Sedimentationfillsreservoirbasinsreducingavailablewatervolume,therebyreducingthe

areaandthedurationoffloodingoffishnurseryhabitatsandraisingambientwatercolumn

temperatures.

4. Importantfactorsinvolvedinthisscenario:

SoilerosionandoverlandtransportratesSurfacerunoffvolumeandvelocity,WindAverageVelocityandDuration

AridityDesertificationTreedensity

Deforestationrates,Agriculturalcultivationtechnologiesandapplicationintensities

TreeplantingratesEffectivenessofSurfacesoiltransportbarriers

StonebundbuildingandmaintenanceratesMonsoonlengthandintensityLivestockimpactonsoilstructure

LivestockgrazingratesanddurationSoilDynamicsinReservoirbenthos

RateofsoilthroughputthroughreservoirRateofsoilinflow,RateofsoiloutflowRateofsoilremoval



Deforestationrates,windspeed,soilerosionrates

Reinforcingfeedbackloop

Erosionratessustainedorincreaseastreecoverdeclines


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6.KeyQuestionsorUncertainties:

‐ThishypothesisiscontroversialandonlypartlysupportedbyfieldmeasurementsinBurkinaFaso(citation).

Scenario 2:

Fishproductivitydeclinesasaveragehabitataffected

1. KeyWords:


Fisherymanagementbecomessustainableasfishmanagerscanlowerhabitatdegradation

whichareusefulforfishreproductionandfishfeeding.

3. Importantfactorsinvolvedinthisscenario:Physicalhabitatalteration

Sandandgravelmining‐Modificationofspawning‐Destructionoffisheggsandlarvae

DeforestationofaquaticplantDestructionofplantsbyFlood,grazing

‐Destructionnursery‐Destructionoffishhidingplace‐Reductionoffood

RiverbankdevelopmentModificationforagricultureandvegetablefarming

‐Modificationandreductionoffloodplain‐Reductionofavailablefood

Roadsdevelopmentandbankprotection‐Reductionoffloodplain

SedimentationFromwindandrain

‐Reductionofwatervolume‐Destructionandreductionofbothavailablespawningandnurseryplace

PerturbationduetolivestockwalkingduringpastureanddrinkingperiodChemicalalteration

Eutrophicationbylivingwastewater,sewageindustrialandurbanwastewaterToxicchemicals

heavymetalsfromgoldmining


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pesticides,organiccompound



‐Modificationofriverssubstrateandtheirvegetation‐Fishpopulation

Anychangeonriverfeaturehasanimpactonfishpopulation

Probabilityoflossoftheecosystemqualityandbiodiversity

Scenario 3

1. Process or Trend influencing Fishery Sustainability: Macrophyte Proliferations

2. Key Words: Fertilizers, Agricultural Practices, Aquatic Macrophytes

3. Scenario showing how sustainability is influenced (3 sentences or less):

Excessiveinputsofartificialfertilizersmaystimulatetheproliferationofaquaticmacrophytes(e.g.CeratophyllumsubmersumintheBourareservoir),thenreducingthecatchabilityoffish(amongotherproblems).


Agriculturalintensification(increasedfluxesofinorganicnutrientscomingfromwatershedand/orupstreaminlandvalleys),stillamplifiedincaseofweakrenewalofwatermassesduringthefloodingperiod(withalimiteddilutionofnutrientstocksinsitu).

5. Relations between factors that influence this scenario:

Factors involved: How they interact: Results

Macrophyte growth, fertilizers uses, transfers from watershed and/or upstream inland valleys.

Stimulation Increase in fertilizers uses may stimulate macrophyte growth.

6. Key Questions or Uncertainties:

“AlternativeStableStatesHypothesis”:potentialshiftsfrommacrophytedominancetowardsphytoplanktondominance(andinverse).Tworesilientstates(foraquaticecosystems)butwithverydifferent(associated)ecosystemservices.


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Scenario 4

Agro‐chemical contamination of lake sediments, water column and tissues of fauna living in and

around the lake.

1. Key Words: Cocktail of pesticides, Agricultural Practices, Watershed state (land use)


Becauseofagriculturalintensificationpesticideusehasbecomebanal,leavingcocktailsofchemicalresidues.Theirimpactsontheaquaticecosystemproductivity(disruptingthefoodweb,trophiccascades,)andthereproductiveefficiencyandgrowthof(commercial)fishesremainunknown.Theirpotentialaccumulationwithinfishtissueshastobeexploredbothforfishpopulationsaswellasconsumershealthareinconcern.


AgriculturalIntensification

CropProductionandWaterUseProductionratesforcommercialfarming(cotton,tomatoes,vegetables)

Regionaldemandforvegetables,esp.tomatoesInternationalandregionaldemandforcotton

ProductionratesforsubsistencefarmingPesticideUse

Best‐management‐practicesinapplicationTimeframeofapplication,Quantity,Quality

WaterUsePopulationdensity,Averagedistancefarmtomarket,Cropproductionrates

LandUsePopulationdensity,growthrate,migrationratesLanduseintensificationofwatersheds

Urbanization,Roadnetworkdevelopment,Miningdevelopment,Reservoirdevelopment

LandrightsRatiooffallowtocultivatedlandsinthewatershedClimateChange(Increasedvariabilityofrainfall,wind,temperature)

PesticideDynamics

MovementfromfarmtothehydrosphereSurfacewaterRunoffRate,PercolationratetoGroundwater,Atmosphericdispersalrate(irrigatedwateraerosols)tolakewaterRecyclingrateofaquaticwatertothefarm(irrigation)

LineardistancefromfarmtolakeChemicaltransmutationofpesticidesbetweenfarmandlake

BiologicalandGeochemicalinteractionsMovementthroughtheaquaticecosystem(bio‐accumulation)

PesticideconcentrationsinWaterColumn,Sediments,


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TissuesofFaunaandFloraPesticidetransferratesbetweendifferentlevelsofthefoodchain

Bio‐amplificationMovementoutoftheaquaticecosystem

Fishcatchrate,Fishconsumptionrate,Transferratefromfishtohumantissues(bone,fat,muscle)Pesticidemovementoutoflake

FlushingrateoutofreservoirduringrainyseasonWaterwithdrawalrateforhumanandanimaluse

IrrigationCottonproductionrate,Cotton‐relatedwaterdemandDomesticuse,

washing,cooking,Animals–domestic(livestock)andwildindustrialuse,mining,roadandbuildingconstruction

EvaporationrateConsiderincreasingimportanceofnon‐linearresponsesasclimaticvariabilityincreases,e.g.afewextremeeventscandominatetheyearlydynamics.

AssessingtheStateoftheSystem(establishingabaselineformonitoring,modeling)

Aquaticecosystemproductivitydisruptingthefoodweb,trophiccascadesReproductiveefficiencyandgrowthof(commercial)fishesHumanhealthrelatedtowatercontamination



Pesticidesuses;natureandorigins(harmfulness)ofchemicals;deregulationoffarmingpractices;transfertowatermasses(influenceoflanduseandhydrologyaswell);transferstofishcommunities;impactsonreproductivepathways;flesh

Tobestudied Pesticidesdoclearlythreatenaquaticecosystemswithunknownimpactsonfishpopulationsandfurther,ontheirconsumers(humansasanimals).

6. Key Questions or Uncertainties: Huge and complex scientific task….

ChemicalImpacts(Pesticides,Herbicides,Fungicides)


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Aquaticecosystem(fish)productivityStructureofCommunities

Scenario 5 Cyanobacteriaproliferations

1. KeyWords:Cyanobacteria,waterquality,anthropogenicpressures,watershed,bufferareas


IntheNakambébasin,cyanobacterialassemblagesarehugelydominantinthesurfacewatersofmostreservoirs.Theirdominanceseemsassociatedtoincreasedanthropogenicpressuresexertedonwatershed(populationdensities)andimmediatebufferareas(landuse).Cyanobacteriamayconstitutetrophicdead‐end(unpalatableformostspecies).Manyofthemexhibitharmfultoxicitywithpotentialaccumulationalongthefood‐web,includingfishandtheirconsumers

3. Importantfactorsinvolvedinthisscenario:Anthropogenicpressuresonwatershedandimmediatevicinityofreservoirs.Cyanobacteriafacilitation.Pelagicfood‐webs..



Anthropogenicpressures;solidanddissolvedfluxestowardsaquaticecosystems;cyanobacteriafitness

Complexloopinvolvingfluxes(fromthewatershed)andstocks(withaquaticecosystems,includingstoechiometry).

Anthropogenicpressuresmayfacilitatecyanobacteriaproliferations.

Scenario 6

Availablewatervolumeswithinreservoirsattheendofthedryseasondeclinebelow

thresholdscriticaltofishcapacitytosurviveandreproduceinthewetseason.

1. KeyWords:Waterreserves;multipleusescontext;hydrologicaluncertainty


Excessivewithdrawalofwaterduringthedryseasonmayconsiderablyreducetheamountofwateravailablewithinreservoirsattheendofthedryseason(foragriculture,miningor


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otherpurposes).Atthattime,futurefishgenerationsareunderthedependencyofthequantity(andquality,seePC‐BP2)ofpotentialgenitorswhosenumberispartlycontrolledbytheavailablewatervolume.Thismayselectspeciesandgloballyimpoverishfishdiversity.Dryspellmayalsobeinvolvedincaseof‘poor’rainyseasons(reducedinflows).

3. Importantfactorsinvolvedinthisscenario:Watervolumesattheendofthedryseason

WatervolumeatendofwetseasonRainfallpatterns(duration,intensity)duringwetseason

Waterwithdrawalrates

SurfaceWaterdemandfor(inorderofpriority):Mining,industry,Irrigation,livestock,domesticuseIrrigation

DemandforagriculturalproducefromFrance,FoodPricedifferentialFrance/BurkinaFaso,ExportrateofBFproduce

GroundwaterdemandEvaporationClimaticVariability(rainfallpatternsunpredictable)

FishsurvivalrateduringthedryseasonAvailabilityoffood

CompetitionfromotheraquaticspeciesProductivityoftheecosystem

FishremovalrateFishingPressurePredationpressure

FishReproductiveCapacityNumberoflargeadultfish(stocksoffuturegenitors)

Re‐stockingsuccessrateFishingpressureRe‐colonizationratefromthehydrologicalnetwork

ConnectivityTypesoffishingpractice

Fishinggear(nets,traps)acrossriverNumberofbarragesinthenetworkNumberofFishladders(Passesmigratoires)

AvailabilityofFoodAvailabilityandQualityofHabitats

CompetitionpressuretousehabitatDiversityofpotentialhabitatsforfuturefishgenitors

Littoralmacrophytedensityanddiversity(grasses,shrubs,etc)Waterquality(Oxygen,Chemicals,Temperature)Substratediversity(rocks,mud,detritus,)


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Availablewatervolumes;fishgenitors;

Impactsonhabitats(numberanddiversity)andthenonfishassemblages(abundances/diversity).

Insufficientwaterreservesattheendofthedryseasonmayalleviatethereproductivesuccessoffishpopulations(lostofgenitors).

6.KeyQuestionsorUncertainties:Couldbecontrolledbyrestockingofselectedspecies?

Scenario 7

1. ProcessorTrendinfluencingFisherySustainability:Artificialisationofhydrographicnetworks

2. KeyWords:Connectivity;fishmigration;naturalrestockingofreservoirs

3. Scenarioshowinghowsustainabilityisinfluenced(3sentencesorless):Fishstocksareunderthedependencyofpermanentwaterresourceswheremostgenitorsare(naturally)living.Upstreammigrationduringthefloodingperiodisthefirstnaturalrestockingpathway.Cascadesofinfrastructuresalongthesamehydrographicnetwork–andtheabsenceofby‐passforfish–disruptthehydrographicconnectivityduringthefloodingperiodanddonotallowfishtomigrateupstreamandthen(re)colonizelakesandreservoirs.

RaymondOuedraogoadds:lostcapacitytomigratenegativelyimpactsfishgrowthand

reproduction

4. Importantfactorsinvolvedinthisscenario:Cascadesofinfrastructures;fishmigration;naturalrestocking

Scenario 8

1. ProcessorTrendinfluencingFisherySustainability:a. Destructionofinfrastructures


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2. KeyWords:Infrastructures’preservationandmaintenance

3. Scenarioshowinghowsustainabilityisinfluenced(3sentencesorless):a. Destructionofinfrastructureswilldefactodestroyfisheriespreviouslyassociatedto

thewatermasses…createdbytheinfrastructures…

4. Importantfactorsinvolvedinthisscenario:a. Infrastructuresprotectionandmaintenance.Crocodiles’chambers.Hydrological

disturbances(excessiveflashflood).Dimensionofcurrent(andfuture)infrastructures

(dikes,spillways,…



Infrastructure’sstates.Maintenance.Crocodiles.Hydrologicaldisturbances..

CrocodilesdocreateexcavationswithindikesPoormaintenancestimulatedegradation.

Hydrologicaldisturbancesmaydestroypoorlypreservedinfrastructures,andthenassociatedactivities(fisheriesamongmanyotherservices).

Scenario 9

1.ProcessorTrendinfluencingFisherySustainability:

RisingimportanceofInternationalFishMarketsandFish‐ProductsImportationstoBF

2.KeyWords:Infrastructures’preservationandmaintenance

3.Scenarioshowinghowsustainabilityisinfluenced(3sentencesorless):Thelowpricesofimportedfishproductsdonotallowtheexploitationoflocalfishpopulationstobecomeasustainableactivity.Lackofprofitabilitybecauseofmarketcompetitionwithimportedfish‐products(tobedeveloped).

Scenario 10

1. ProcessorTrendinfluencingFisherySustainability:Fishermenoragro‐fishermen?

2. KeyWords:Polyactivity;patrimonialisation(patrimonialising?)offisheriesactivities,heritability


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3. Scenarioshowinghowsustainabilityisinfluenced(3sentencesorless):Excepton(very)largereservoirs;fishermenarenotprofessionals.These

stakeholdersarefirstlyfarmerswhodiversifytheiractivities–andincome’ssources

–infishing(allyearroundorseasonally).Fisheriesactivityisnotpatrimonial(as

farmingcouldbe)andthereisnorealheritabilityofthisskill….(tobedeveloped).

4. Importantfactorsinvolvedinthisscenario:Household’sstrategies;diversification;professionalization;polyactivity

Scenario 11

1. ProcessorTrendinfluencingFisherySustainability:a. ‘Politicalcommitment’

2. KeyWords:Fisheries‐sectordevelopment;largevssmallreservoirs;centralizationanddecentralization;newactors(Ruralcommunes);tobedeveloped

3. Scenarioshowinghowsustainabilityisinfluenced(3sentencesorless):a. Thelargenumberof(very)smallinfrastructuresisanopportunity.Smallbut

numerousandscattered,fish‐productsextractedfromsmallreservoirsmay

immediatelyimpacttheriverineconsumers.Thesefish‐productsmayhaveahuge

impactonanimportantrural(oftenvulnerable)population.Economicweight

globallyunknown.Tobedeveloped….

4. KeyQuestionsorUncertainties:

Therealimpactofverysmallscalefisheriesontheirimmediateconsumersremainstobethoroughlyassessed(byfieldworksandnotonlybythetrituratingofsecondarydata…tobedeveloped.Howandwhytodevelopefficientlytheexploitationof(very)smallreservoirs?Isthereapoliticalcommitmentforthiskindofinfrastructures?Istherearedundancybetweentheirlocalimportance(butsmallandscattered,poorlydocumented)andthepoliticalrecognizingofthisimportance?Sowhat?(tobedeveloped).

Scenario 12

1. Process or Trend influencing Fishery Sustainability: a. Increasing populations of alien fish species cause indigenous species to decline



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a. Sustained invasion and subsequent reproductive success of alien fish species causes their

resident populations to grow. As the alien fish species outcompete indigenous species

for food resources, the latter populations decline.

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