A REVISED APPROACH TO TEACHING THE ENGLISH TENSE AND...
84
A REVISED APPROACH TO TEACHING THE ENGLISH TENSE AND ASPECT SYSTEM BASED ON EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE FROM THE FIELD OF SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISTION AND A CRITICAL REVIEW OF CURRENT PEDAGOGICAL PRACTICE Jorge Aguilar-Sanchez Submitted to the faculty of University Graduate School in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Master of Arts in the Department of TESOL and Applied Linguistics, Indiana University August 2004
Transcript of A REVISED APPROACH TO TEACHING THE ENGLISH TENSE AND...
A REVISED APPROACH TO TEACHING THE ENGLISH TENSE AND ASPECT SYSTEM BASED ON EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE FROM THE FIELD OF SECOND
LANGUAGE ACQUISTION AND A CRITICAL REVIEW OF CURRENT PEDAGOGICAL PRACTICE
Jorge Aguilar-Sanchez
Submitted to the faculty of University Graduate School in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree
Master of Arts in the Department of TESOL and Applied Linguistics,
Indiana University August 2004
ii
Accepted by the Graduate Faculty, Indiana University, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Master of Arts
_______________________________
Harry L. Gradman, Ph. D. (Chair) _______________________________ Master’s Committee Beverly Hartford, Ph.D. _______________________________ Daniel J. Reed, Ph. D.
September 2, 2004
iii
© 2004 Jorge Aguilar-Sanchez
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
iv
To
Papá y Yeyi for giving me the gift of life and for teaching me to reach for the stars, Dan for helping cope with my life in a new culture,
and Rosario (que descanse en paz) for pushing me to pursue my dreams and to go beyond my goals.
v
I would like to thank Fulbright-LASPAU and the Universidad Nacional-Costa Rica for making this degree possible and my thesis committee for all the help that they gave me in
the writing process of this thesis.
vi
A REVISED APPROACH TO TEACHING THE ENGLISH TENSE AND ASPECT SYSTEM BASED ON EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE FROM THE FIELD OF SECOND
LANGUAGE ACQUISTION AND A CRITICAL REVIEW OF CURRENT PEDAGOGICAL PRACTICE
Teaching grammar to students of English as a second language (ESL) or foreign language (EFL) has long been based on drills and fill-in-the-blank tasks, and on other exercises that present the syntactic constructions as the product of simple, mechanical steps without taking into account the actual learning processes involved. Traditionally, grammarians have treated the teaching of grammar as a matter of memorizing structures and substituting lexical items. Relatively little work has been done based on the construction of form-meaning-use associations in tense and aspect systems, especially from a pedagogical point of view. This thesis presents an overview of the English tense-aspect system and its components, recent findings regarding the acquisition processes of tense and aspect used by second language learners, a description of the tense aspect form (i.e. structure), the model used in ESL/EFL textbooks for teaching it, and a short overview of the input processing theory which serves as the pedagogical framework for the present work. Eighteen ESL/EFL textbooks are analyzed in terms of what types of teaching activities and visual aids are used to introduce the English tense-aspect system in order to establish a link between what the books present and what SLA research says about the acquisition of the English tense-aspect system. The outcome of this examination serves as the basis for the development of a multilevel pedagogical approach for the teaching of English tense-aspect. The approach proposed takes into account the recent findings and pedagogical implications proposed by SLA researchers and translates these findings into a pedagogical grammar using the input processing theory of VanPatten (1996) as the underlying theoretical framework. A discussion of the implications and limitations of this multilevel pedagogical model is presented and it includes recommendations for future research and for developing pedagogical tools and their presentations in language textbooks
vii
Index
Introduction .............................................................................................................1
Theoretical Framework............................................................................................3
Chapter1: English Tense and Aspect .......................................................................3
English Tense and Aspect............................................................................3
Tense ..............................................................................................4
The Present Tense ................................................................5
The Past Tense .....................................................................5
The Future Tense .................................................................6
Aspect ..............................................................................................7
Grammatical Aspect.............................................................7
Lexical Aspect .....................................................................8
Acquisition of English Tense and Aspect..................................................10
Role of Instruction .....................................................................................11
Processing Instruction................................................................................12
Public time and personal time and Bull’s (1960) Framework ...................13
Public time .....................................................................................14
Personal time..................................................................................14
Time Intervals ................................................................................15
Bull’s (1960) Framework of time expression and
grammatical structure.................................................................................16
viii
Chapter 2: Lexical and Grammatical Aspect Presentation in ESL/EFL
textbooks ............................................................................................18
Introduction ............................................................................................18
Method ............................................................................................20
The Books ......................................................................................20
Textbook selection .........................................................................21
Textbook classification ..................................................................21
Data collection ..............................................................................22
Data Analysis and Results .........................................................................25
Data Analysis .....................................................................25
Results................................................................................26
Predicate type utilized for the introduction
of the simple aspect................................................26
Predicate type utilized for the introduction
of the progressive aspect........................................28
Exercise type and visuals and the presentation
and explanation of tense and aspect.......................31
Pedagogy and the expression of temporality .........32
Paradigms...............................................................33
Bull’s Framework ..................................................34
Explanation charts..................................................35
Syntactic Formulas.................................................38
ix
Summary of how the Tense-Aspect System is
presented ............................................................................39
Discussion ................................................................................40
Chapter 3: Towards pedagogy for the teaching of English tense-aspect system:
A Model for the Teaching of English Tense-Aspect .................................42
Introduction ............................................................................................42
The Model ............................................................................................44
Public Time and Personal Time.....................................................45
Time Intervals, Memory Indices, and the Present Tense...............48
Time Intervals, Memory Indices, SLA research, and
the Past Tense ................................................................................50
Time Intervals, Memory Indices, and the Future Tense ................52
Other Parts of the System ..............................................................52
Discussion and Pedagogical Implications..................................................54
Implication ................................................................................54
Pedagogical ........................................................................54
Material Development .......................................................55
SLA Research ....................................................................56
Limitations .........................................................................56
Conclusion .............................................................................................................57
References..............................................................................................................59
x
List of Tables
Table 1.1: English Tense and Aspect System...................................................................6
Table 1.2: Semantic Features of Aspectual Categories ....................................................9
Table 2.1: Distribution of Grammar Books by focus, and level.....................................24
Table 2.2: Distribution of type of predicates used to introduce the simple aspect of the
present tense........................................................................................................27
Table 2.3: Distribution of type of predicate used to introduced the simple aspect of the
present progressive .............................................................................................29
Table 2.4: Distribution of type of activities, evidence and the treatment of STA verbs and
adverbials ...........................................................................................................30
xi
List of Figures Figure 1: The Bull Framework applied to the English language tense-aspect system ...16
Figure 3.1: Representation of tense in a multidimensional model..................................45
Figure 3.2: The relationship of past and future and the creation of the present .............47
Figure 3.3: Representation of the placement of memory indices according to
the aspect features of an utterance ......................................................................50
Figure 3.4: Order of Emergence of the Past tense and Aspects according to
Bardovi-Harlig (2000) represented in the English tense-aspect model ..............51
Figure 3.5: Conditionals in the Tense-Aspect System Model ........................................53
1
A NEW APPROACH TO TEACHING THE ENGLISH TENSE AND ASPECT
SYSTEM BASED ON EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE FROM THE FIELD OF SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISTION AND A CRITICAL REVIEW OF CURRENT
PEDAGOGICAL PRACTICE
Introduction
Teaching grammar to students of English as a second language (ESL) or foreign
language (EFL) has long been based on drills and fill-in-the-blank tasks, and on other
exercises that present the syntactic constructions as the product of simple, mechanical
steps without taking into account the actual learning processes involved. Traditionally,
grammarians have treated the teaching of grammar as a matter of memorizing structures
and substituting lexical items. Reflecting this traditional influence, we find publications
such as the following in many ESL/EFL classrooms: Azar (1999), Butler and Podnecky
(2000), Elbaum (2001), Richards, Hull and Proctor (1997), and Kirn and Jack (2002).
For the most part, these texts do not attempt to integrate or apply recent scholarly work
on tense and aspect. A few approaches have focused on the relationships among form,
meaning and use (cf.Thewlis, 2000; Badalamenti and Henner-Stanchina, 2000), but even
these texts do not fully acknowledge current theorizing and the empirical findings from
research in this area.
In fact, relatively little work has been done based on the construction of form-
meaning-use associations in tense and aspect systems, especially from a pedagogical
point of view. The potential value of such work provided the motivation for this thesis,
which is organized as follows: I present an overview of the English tense-aspect system
and its components, recent findings regarding the acquisition processes of tense and
aspect used by second language learners, a description of the tense aspect form (i.e.
2
structure), the model used in ESL/EFL textbooks for teaching it, and a short overview of
the input processing theory which serves as the pedagogical framework for the present
work.
Chapter 2 relates the findings from Chapter 1 with the presentation of the tense-
aspect system in commonly used ESL/EFL textbooks. Eighteen ESL/EFL textbooks are
analyzed in terms of what types of teaching activities and visual aids are used to
introduce the English tense-aspect system in order to establish a link between what the
books present and what SLA research says about the acquisition of the English tense-
aspect system.
The outcome of this examination serves as the basis for the development of a
multilevel pedagogical approach for the teaching of English tense-aspect which is
presented in Chapter 3 . The approach proposed takes into account the recent findings
and pedagogical implications proposed by SLA researchers and translates these findings
into a pedagogical grammar using the input processing theory of VanPatten (1996) as the
underlying theoretical framework.
Finally a discussion of the implications and limitations of this multilevel
pedagogical model is presented which includes recommendations for future research and
for developing pedagogical tools and their presentations in language textbooks.
3
Chapter 1
English Tense and Aspect
According to Second Language Acquisition (SLA) research, three concepts are
crucial in the acquisition of temporal expression in a language: tense, grammatical aspect,
and lexical aspect (Bardovi-Harlig, 2000). These concepts are crucial not only within the
field of SLA, but also in the different fields involved in the teaching of second/foreign
languages including ESL. In fact, these concepts should serve as the keystone in
presentations of the English tense and aspect system in English as a Second Language
(ESL) and English as a Foreign Language (EFL) textbooks but typically are not.
Therefore, the current proposal takes into account the findings of the Primacy of Aspect
hypothesis (POA) (Andersen, 1991), the perception of personal time against public time
(Bull, 1960), and recent pedagogical findings in the interpretation and processing of input
(VanPatten & Lee, 2000) in order to construct a visual aid to help learners understand and
learn the English tense and aspect system. The main purpose of this chapter is to
explicate these concepts.
English Tense and Aspect
Temporal expression has become its own area of research in adult SLA (Bardovi-
Harlig, 2000); therefore, it has shed light on many findings in the field of teaching and
material development. Some of these findings are the acquisition sequences of tense and
aspect and the primacy of aspect hypothesis (POA) (Andersen, 1991), the phonetic
constraints related to tense and aspect (Bayley,1994), and the means of expression of
temporality employed by second language learners (Bardovi-Harlig, 2000; Andersen &
4
Shirai, 1994; Bardovi-Harlig & Reynolds, 1995; Giacalone-Ramat, 1997; among others).
For the purposes of this thesis, the POA serves as the basis for a pedagogical approach to
help learners in ESL/EFL contexts accelerate or improve their acquisition of the tense-
aspect system of English.
Before the presentation of a new pedagogical approach for the teaching of it, a
definition of the tense-aspect system of English is needed. The tense-aspect system of
English can be divided into two components (i.e. tense and aspect) that help define its
structure, its meaning, and its use. I would like to start with the definition of these two
key components and a presentation of their corresponding forms and uses.
Tense
The definition of tense used by SLA researchers is summarized by Bardovi-Harlig
(2000) as a deictic category that locates an event on a timeline, usually with reference to
the time of speaking. Deictic means the specification of identity or spatial or temporal
location from the perspective of one or more of the participants in an act of speech or
writing (Radom House Webster’s College Dictionary, 1997). Thus we can define tense
as a category that identifies or locates an event, temporally or spatially from the
perspective of the speaker, on a timeline in any act of speech or writing.
Tense is composed of three perceptions of time: present, past, and future. Before
defining these three perceptions of time, it is important to define the moment of speech as
the moment in which an utterance is said or written. Because we are talking about
locating an event spatially or temporally on the timeline with reference to the time of
5
speaking, the moment of speech does not represent what is generally referred to as the
actual present tense or present time.
The Present Tense
The present tense conveys immediate factuality, it expresses habitual actions in
the present, general timeless truths, or describes an event occurring at the moment of
speech (Azar, 1992). Quirk and Greenbaum (1973) distinguish between three types of
present. The first is a timeless present which in English is expressed with the simple
present grammatical structure (third person singular –s); the second is a limited present
which is expressed with the present progressive structure (be + V+ing); the third is an
instantaneous present which is expressed with either the simple or the progressive
structure. Regarding form, I will focus on the structures utilized to represent these
different types of present and they will be divided according to the aspectual marker they
possess (See Table 1.1).
The Past Tense
The simple past tense states facts with a sense of remoteness (Knowles, 1979 in
Celce-Murcia & Larsen-Freeman, 1999). It can also be defined as an action that took
place at a particular point of time or over a period of time. If it were over a period of
time it could be seen as a completed event, an event that has not been completed, or an
event that has been completed but took place over a specific period of time. The simple
past can also express former habituality (Quirk & Greenbaum Sydney, 1973).
6
Table 1.1
English Tense and Aspect System
Simple Perfect Progressive Perfect Progressive
Ø have + -en be + -ing have + -en be + -ing
Present write/writes has/have written am/is/are writing has/have been writing
walk/walks has/have walked am/is/are walking has/have been walking
Past wrote had written was/were writing had been writing
walked had walked was/were walking had been walking
Future will write will have written will be writing will have been writing
will walk will have walked will be walking will have been walking
(Celce-Murcia et al., 1999: p. 110)
The Future Tense
In order to define the future we have to take into consideration that the English
language does not use verbal morphology to represent the future tense as Spanish and
French do. Therefore, there is no obvious future tense shown in its verbs. In lieu of this
lack of future grammatical structure, English uses different present tense structures to
show future reference (e.g. will/shall + Verb, be + going to + verb, the present
progressive) rather than verbal morphology (Celce-Murcia & Larsen-Freeman, 1999;
Quirk et al., 1973).
7
Aspect
Aspect is the second component in tense-aspect systems and SLA distinguishes
between two types: grammatical and lexical. Grammatical aspect is a means of
expressing one’s view of a situation or event, and Lexical aspect or inherent aspect is the
set of semantic properties of the utterances used to refer to a situation. These semantic
properties belong to the utterance and not to the event itself (Bardovi-Harlig, 2000).
Based on this, we can define aspect as combination of the structure that is used to express
an event and the meaning that is embedded into the lexicon chosen to express the same
event.
Grammatical Aspect
Grammatical aspect is also known as view-point aspect and provides different
ways of viewing situations (Bardovi-Harlig, 2000) or as stated above the use of a
structure to express an event regardless of the link between structure and its meaning.
For example, I was eating an ice-cream cone. In this case the grammatical aspect is the
one shown by the structure be+v-ing of the verb phrase. It has been widely used as a key
for the production of ESL/EFL language materials (e.g. Azar, 1999; Butler & Podnecky,
2000; among others). The mastery of certain tense-aspect forms have been taken as
criteria for the placement and/or advancement from one level to the next one (Bardovi-
Harlig, 2000) and for standardized tests such as TOEFL.
8
Lexical Aspect
Also referred to as inherent aspect, lexical aspect refers to the inherent semantic
properties of the linguistic expression used to refer to a situation (Bardovi-Harlig, 2000).
For example, in the sentences I was eating an ice-cream cone and I ate an ice-cream
cone, the lexical aspect is the one that tells us that in the first sentence the action has
duration and in the second sentence the action is completed. In this study lexical aspect
will refer to the inherent aspect of the English predicate referred to in the literature as
verbs. The semantic features of verbs are often referred to as the lexical aspect;
therefore, verbs not only have grammatical aspect but also lexical aspect (Celce-Murcia
et al., 1999).
Vendler (1967) divided verbs into four categories: states (STA), activities (ACT),
accomplishments (ACC), and achievements (ACH). States persist over time without
experiencing change, are not interruptible, and refer to a situation that is assumed to last
more or less indefinitely. They can also be subdivided into verbs of sensory or mental
perception (e.g. know, believe), possession (e.g. own, belong), emotions (e.g. love, hate),
attitudes and opinions (e.g. like, dislike), measurement (e.g. contain, sound), relationship
(e.g. equal), and description (e.g. look like). Activities have inherent duration. They are
durative and describe an ongoing action, have undefined beginning and end points, and
involve a specific time span. Achievements capture a well defined start or end point, but
they do not have duration. Achievements are usually related to the past tense.
Accomplishments have both endpoints and inherent duration. They show when the
particular action described in the verb phrase is or is not completed.
9
These four categories can be assigned inherent semantic features as seen in Table
1.2 (Bardovi-Harlig, 2000; Celce-Murcia et al., 1999; Bardovi-Harlig & Bergström,
1996; Bardovi-Harlig & Reynolds, 1995). These features are dynamic, punctual, and
telic. From these three features we derive six types of lexical aspects that are present in
verbs. The dynamic feature [+ dynamic] distinguishes other verbs (paint, realize, swim,
study, etc) from states, which are [- dynamic] (have, contain, seem, like). The punctual
feature [+ punctual] distinguishes predicates that are instantaneous or single points (begin
to walk); and [- punctual] predicates with duration (read a poem, read). The telic feature
[+ telic] distinguishes predicates with endpoints (read a poem); and [- telic] predicates
without endpoints (read) (Bardovi-Harlig, 2000).
Vendler’s (1967) categorization and feature description serve as basis to develop
a pedagogical model that attempts to make these more salient in order to bring them to
learner’s attention.
Table 1.2
Semantic Features of Aspectual Categories
States Activities Accomplishments Achievements
Punctual - - - +
Telic - - + +
Dynamic - + + +
Note. (Bardovi-Harlig, 2000)
10
In English, the combination of tense and aspect is used to form representations of
temporal expressions (Celce-Murcia et al., 1999) like the present, past and future tenses
in their simple, perfect, progressive, and present perfect progressive aspects. Thus, what
has been known as the twelve English tenses are actually twelve combinations of tense
and aspect (See Table 1 above) (Celce-Murcia et al., 1999) and that have been recognized
due to the particular structure and lexical selection each one employs. This study focuses
on the structures employed to represent these combinations.
Acquisition of English Tense and Aspect
Bardovi-Harlig (2000) claims that adult learners of second or foreign languages
have access to the full range of semantic concepts from their previous linguistic and
cognitive experience (p. 22). This means that adult second language learners already
have a clear perception of what temporality is, and how to express it in their own
language. Grammar and language books introduce learners to structures and concepts to
express temporality. These concepts are sometimes abandoned before creating a link
between the sentence structure and its meaning. Furthermore, the concepts of tense and
aspect are sometimes fused into only one term, “tense”. These structures and concepts
are introduced and taught as memorizable items. They are not introduced or explained in
a manner that appeals to the learners’ real or personal understanding of temporality. This
lack of a pedagogical approach to the presentation of the tense-aspect system of English
is another key component for the development of this work.
11
Role of Instruction
Lee (2003) defines instruction as a synonym of intervention. He further states that
the difference between naturalistic acquisition and instructed acquisition is the presence
or absence of intervention in the acquisition process. Studies in SLA suggest that
learners process meaning before form, content words first, and lexical items over
grammatical items (Bardovi-Harlig, 2000). If learners process meaning before form and
instructed acquisition is characterized by the presence of interventions, then students are
to be presented with meaningful concepts in order to be able to deal with the grammatical
structures. Learning how to use the meaning of the lexicon and the structures that are
available to their interlanguage in order to produce meaningful utterances is a primary
task for learners. In order to achieve this, learners must pay attention to the structure and
its meaning.
The concept of attention in learning is an important component of the learning
process according to researchers in cognition; in fact, they claim that learning takes place
via attention and that people do not learn unless they are attending to the stimulus to be
learned (VanPatten, 1996). Therefore, making students aware of the form and its meaning
can enhance acquisition and the creation of form-meaning-use associations. This issue is
addressed by processing instruction (PI) which is an instructional technique that
addresses both the learner’s attentional resources and the target form’s characteristics
such as salience and communicative value (Van Patten & Cadierno,1993; VanPatten,
1996) and it will be described in the next section.
12
Thus, the intensity with which the learner relates form and meaning in the target
language is more important than the length of time in contact with it (Bardovi-Harlig,
2000). It is my intention to introduce a pedagogical approach that takes into account both
the presentation of the input in a meaningful way and its presentation with a higher
intensity for learners to be able to attend to the input in the tense-aspect area being
presented.
These facts about the importance of form-meaning associations and the fact that
many teachers rely on textbooks to teach English tense and aspect, are among the reasons
why this project focuses on the instruction of the English tense and aspect system and the
relationship between meaning, form and use as a result of processing of meaningful
input. Input processing instruction attempts to affect the ways in which learners attend to
input data (VanPatten, 1996). Input Processing instruction is the cornerstone of the study
outlined in the following sections.
Processing Instruction (PI)
As stated above PI is an instructional technique that addresses both the learner’s
attentional resources and characteristics of the target form such as salience and
communicative value (Van Patten & Cadierno, 1993, VanPatten,1996, 2003). It is a type
of grammar instruction which tries to affect the ways in which learners attend to input.
One main tenet of PI is that it is input-based instead of output-based, and it is consonant
with general SLA theory and communicative language teaching (VanPatten, 1996; Lee &
VanPatten, 2003).
13
PI is an extremely well described type of intervention in the acquisition process as
stated by Lee (2002). Furthermore, it is a psycholinguistically motivated approach to
focus on form that always considers the nature of input processing and tries to alter the
default processing strategies of learners if they fail to create optimum input. It is
beneficial when it identifies an incorrect or less-than-optimal processing strategy and
then approaches input activities that help to avoid that strategy (VanPatten, 1996). PI
also attempts to make forms more salient (i.e. bringing them to learners’ attention) and it
attempts to provide opportunities for consistent form-meaning mappings in activities
(VanPatten, 1996; Hwu, 2004).
Sanz (2003) describes Processing Intruction’s main purpose as follows: [Processing Instruction] seeks to change the way input is processed by the learner through provision of a clever mix of raw positive evidence, that is, practice in decoding input, and information about how the language works in the form of explicit information involving explanation of the target form as well as information about wrong processing strategies (p. 241).
PI also assumes that learners filter input. Therefore, when designing input
activities it takes into account the limited capacity of attentional resources during
language learning activities. PI works with structured input, input that has been
simplified, to facilitate the process of conversion of input into intake which will help
restructure the learner’s developing language system (Hwe, 2004).
Public time and personal time and Bull’s (1960) Framework
Bull (1960) states that almost all people have the same concepts of time and
order, and that all possible tense structures can be predicted from the concepts of time,
order, and aspect. He also states that the differences between languages and their
14
structures do not necessarily imply fundamental differences on the perception of time by
individuals. Tense is traditionally used interchangeably with the word time. Likewise,
the function of tense morphemes is used in a similar way to that of time with their
compatibility or incompatibility with tense and aspect markers. For this work, I divide
these two terms and their functions following Bull’s framework of time reference and
grammatical structures. Bull (1960) divides objective time into two segments: personal
time which is an individual’s estimate of duration of an event (e.g. The ceremony was
very long), and public time which is externally marked by the calendar or by natural
phenomena such as the seasons (e.g. The ceremony was on April 2nd, 2004).
Public time
Public time happens when we divide time by events or event substitutes. This
division is unidirectional and towards the future. Thus, our experience of time and events
is serial and unidirectional. Every event that uses a point of time as its orientation point is
thought to be within a time interval and it is categorized in accordance to the order and
relation with this orientation point. In other words the perception of the event and its
position within the calendric time (e.g. the party lasted four hours.)
Personal time
Personal time is constructed when we define a point of orientation that is not the
one defined by public time. This creates personal time intervals that have no measurable
length and are related to the personal point of orientation or as Bull (1960) calls it the
15
axis of orientation. In this case the axis of orientation will be the individual’s perception
of the event (e.g. the party went on for a long time.).
Time Intervals
Time intervals, whether public or personal, cannot be established without recall,
anticipation or without experiencing it. Bull (1960) points out that it is impossible to
relate the role of events with the structure of tense systems without considering the
relationship between events and an observer (p. 17). In other words, the perception of
time among people is important in order to be able to express temporality through a
sentence structure.
In order to understand the construction of time intervals within personal time, it is
important to look at the seven descriptive principles of the objective nature of events.
These principles are:
1. All events take place in time. 2. All events take time to take place; they have length and are
measurable. 3. All events –with, perhaps, some theoretical or irrelevant exceptions—
have a beginning (initiative aspect), a middle (imperfective aspect), and an end (terminative aspect).
4. All events take place unidirectionally; the end is always later in time than the beginning.
5. No event can be identical with itself. 6. All repetitions of the same event are sequent and serial. 7. All events are either cyclic or noncyclic, that is, desident or indesident
in traditional grammatical terminology. (Bull, 1960; pp. 16-17) When we place ourselves in relationship to real events in time, we perform three
acts: we experience, recall, and anticipate. This is what provides the perception of
present, past and future.
16
Bull’s (1960) Framework of time expression and grammatical structures
The visual in Figure 2 aid has been widely adopted for grammar instruction and
textbook production in order to teach the perception of tense and aspect in language
teaching. It has three major points that determine the perception of time. One point
represents the moment of speech or the axis of orientation for time events, one represents
the recollection of events represented by an arrow to the left of the axis of orientation
representing the past tense, and one point represents the anticipation of events
represented by an arrow to the right of the axis of orientation representing the future (see
Figure 1.1). Events are represented in this framework as intervals with an initiative,
middle, and a terminative aspect.
s im ple p res ent (m o m e nt o f s peec h )
pas t future
pas t per fec t
s im ple pas t
future per fec t
s im ple future
Figure 1.1: The Bull Framework applied to the English language tense-aspect system
(Celce-Murcia et al., 1999, p. 129)
Having reviewed several major studies related to the expression of temporality,
this thesis now turns to an exploration of the types of teaching activities and visual aids
that are used to introduce the tense-aspect system of English present in eighteen
17
ESL/EFL textbooks. This investigation is done with the hope of finding a link between
what books present and what SLA research says about the acquisition of this system.
18
Chapter 2
Tense and Aspect Assessment in ESL/EFL Textbooks
Introduction
In Chapter 1, I reviewed the main empirical findings concerning the acquisition of
the tense-aspect system of English, the role of instruction in second language acquisition,
and a pedagogy approach that has been demonstrated to enhance the conversion of input
into intake thus modifying the learner’s language developing system (i.e. PI). I now turn
to the question of what research findings have been incorporated into commonly used
ESL/EFL textbooks with respect to the teaching of the English tense-aspect system.
As pointed out in Chapter 1, studies suggest that learners process meaning before
form, content words first, and lexical items over grammatical items (Bardovi-Harlig,
2000); therefore, it is suggested that students need to be introduced to tense and aspect
embedded in meaningful materials in order to be able to deal with the grammatical
structures. They must learn how to use the lexicon that is available in their interlanguage
to be able to process the structure. Input needs to be processed in order for it to become
intake and be part of learners’ developing interlanguage. By drawing learner’s attention
to the grammatical form, processing instruction (VanPatten, 1996; VanPatten & Lee,
2000, among others) states that it is possible to make them aware of the structure; and
this in turn will enhance the chances that this input will become intake for their
developing language system (VanPatten, 1996). Attention is drawn by presenting one
thing at the time. This is supposed to enhance and accelerate the processing of input.
According to the theory (PI), this enhancement and acceleration affects the acquisition
19
and usage of the grammatical structures of tense and aspect and the expression of
temporality, in this case, of English.
Instruction can be a positive influence on the acquisition of a target-like tense-
aspect system (Bardovi-Harlig, 2000). Thus, if learners process meaning before form and
instructed acquisition is characterized by the presence of interventions (Lee, 2003); then
students should be presented with meaningful concepts in order to deal with the
grammatical structures that are involved in the English tense-aspect system.
Furthermore, the expression of tense and aspect, which is part of the grammar of
natural languages (Bybee & Dahl, 1989; Dahl, 1985) is potentially part of the learner’s
interlanguage. This appears to be the case, as demonstrated by the empirical evidence
reviewed in Chapter 1. Therefore in principle, learners do not need to learn the tense-
aspect systems; on the contrary; they need to use the one available to them through their
L1 in order to make form-meaning associations1. The processing of input is a key
component for the acquisition of second/foreign languages (Krashen, 1985; VanPatten,
1996; VanPatten, 2004, VanPatten & Lee, 2000; among others). Therefore, the way we
introduce the tense-aspect system of English to our students, the activities, and the
lexicon we use to introduce it should be subject to linguistic inquiry. The main question
in this chapter is what types of activities ESL/EFL grammar books or textbooks mainly
dealing with grammar, use for the teaching/learning of the English tense-aspect system.
With these facts in mind and this question in mind, eighteen textbooks produced
and published to be used in ESL/EFL classrooms were analyzed in order to determine the
way the tense and aspect components of the tense-aspect system of English are
1 This is an assumption that has been adopted by White (1990) and VanPatten (1996) when discussing the role of L1 in the acquisition of foreign language grammar.
20
introduced to students, how verbs and their complements (i.e. predicates) are introduced,
and what type of learning activities are employed. This and the possibility that the
expression of tense and aspect might need to be assessed as different skills in language
learning is what drives this part of the study.
Method
The books
Close to thirty ESL/EFL textbooks were selected from a group of many more
textbooks. The books were given to the researcher by the publishers at two ESL/EFL
teachers’ conventions when told about the purpose of the study and as promotional
materials. They are advertised as being utilized in both ESL and EFL settings. After the
poll of textbooks was completed, a detailed selection process in order to be present in this
study. The process took into account the following criteria:
a. language level at which they were aimed;
b. type of approach under which they were constructed (e.g. Form, meaning, and
use, traditional grammar);
c. level of proficiency, type of book (i.e. series, non-series), and teaching
approach;
d. the inclusion of grammar points in their lessons (if they were claimed not to be
grammar books); and
e. the probability that the book is used outside the United States (i.e. EFL setting).
21
Textbook selection
The selection process was enhanced by grouping the books from the first poll
according to their compliance with questions a and b. The selected books were further
grouped, based on question c, according to levels of proficiency they were aimed at (i.e.
if they were part of a series) and the specific approach to language teaching (e.g. form,
meaning, and use in communicative classrooms). After narrowing the poll, the next two
questions (e and e) were used for the last grouping of the sample. The textbooks had to
include grammar points in their lessons if they were claimed not to be grammar books in
their entirety; and finally whether these books were said to be used inside or outside the
United States. For the latter selection I took into account the publishing house
information. Texts that are published in different areas of the world as well as in the
United States were selected. This was done to have a more representative sample of the
ESL and EFL settings. Although this does not imply or represent to what extent they are
used, it is good evidence that they are available in both ESL and EFL settings, and they
are most likely to be used by ESL/EFL learners and teachers. This last grouping yielded
a total of eighteen books ranging from grammar only use (e.g. Azar, 1999) to
communicative language teaching with grammar components (e.g. Richards et al., 1997).
Textbook classification
The eighteen selected books are aimed at students ranging from beginning
to advanced language proficiency. They are intended for the teaching of ESL/EFL and
grammar through different skills, communication with some degree of grammar (i.e.
22
grammar not as the main focus of the lesson), and grammar as the main focus of the
lesson.
These textbooks can be classified according to the language skill through which
they teach grammar. I found one for listening, four for communication in general, two
for writing, and twelve for grammar as a specific skill (within the grammar category I
found two subcategories: communicative grammar and structural grammar. Two major
groups according to the kind of evidence, positive or negative (Bardovi-Harlig &
Reynolds, 1995) were found among textbooks. Some use positive evidence to introduce
grammatical structures, and some use negative evidence to do so. Nine rely on negative
evidence to introduce certain type of constructions (i.e. they use examples of
ungrammatical sentences to demonstrate a violation of rules for example *Mary is liking
the lesson), and nine use positive evidence (i.e. no ungrammatical sentences are used to
demonstrate the grammar; on the contrary, they use only grammatical sentences as
examples) (See Table 2.1).
Data Collection
Due to the fact that this is an overview of what it is being done in the ESL/EFL
textbooks, the data collected in this part of the study was gathered as a sample from
specific units aimed at the teaching of the present tense and its simple and progressive
aspects hoping that, based on this sample, a generalization could be made.
Three sets of questions were asked for the analysis of the units. These questions
are the following:
23
1. General Information
a. What type of book is it?
b. What population is it aimed at?
2. Simple and Progressive Aspects of Present Tense
a. What type of verbs does the text use to introduce the simple present and what
quantity?
b. What type of verbs does it use to introduce the present progressive and what
quantity?
3. Teaching techniques and the presentation of the tense-aspect system
a. What type of visual aids does the text use to introduce the expression of tense
and aspect?
a.1. Does it use graphs?
a.2. Does it use formulas?
a.3. Does it use examples?
b. Does it use any technical vocabulary? If yes, does it explain it in detail?
c. Does it use any type of discussion activities concerning the expression of
temporality?
Question set number 1 was used to determine the type of books and the
population of students they are aimed at. These criteria were used to categorize the
textbooks and to describe the units. Set number two was designed to search for a link
between the role of instruction and the natural process of the acquisition of tense and
aspect in English as a second/foreign language. This search was done taking into account
the type of predicates that are used to introduce the structure being studied.
Tabl
e 2.
1
Dis
tribu
tion
of G
ram
mar
Boo
ks b
y fo
cus,
and
leve
l
Nam
e A
utho
r Ye
ar
Pub
lishe
r Le
vel
App
roac
h
List
enin
g
Impa
ct G
ram
mar
: Gra
mm
ar T
hrou
gh L
iste
ning
E
liis
& G
aies
20
01
Long
man
E
SL/
EFL
stu
dent
s C
omm
unic
ativ
e
W
ritin
g
Nitt
y G
ritty
Gra
mm
ar
Youn
g &
Stra
uch
1994
C
ambr
idge
hi
gh b
egin
ners
/low
inte
rmed
iate
D
rills
C
lear
Gra
mm
ar
Fols
e 20
01
Mic
higa
n be
ginn
ers/
low
inte
rmed
iate
C
omm
unic
ativ
e
C
omm
unic
atio
n
New
Inte
rcha
nge
Intro
R
icha
rds,
Hul
l & P
roct
or
2000
C
ambr
idge
be
ginn
ers
Com
mun
icat
ive
New
Inte
rcha
nge
1 R
icha
rds
1997
C
ambr
idge
be
ginn
ers
Com
mun
icat
ive
Am
eric
an H
eadw
ays
Soa
rs &
Soa
rs
2001
begi
nner
s C
omm
unic
ativ
e Te
nse
Situ
atio
ns: T
ense
s in
Con
trast
and
Con
tex
Har
tman
, Zar
ian
& E
spar
za
1998
H
arco
urt B
race
hi
gh in
term
edia
te
Com
mun
icat
ive
Gra
mm
ar a
s a
skill
Com
mun
icat
ive
B
asic
Gra
mm
ar in
Use
M
urph
y &
Sm
alze
r 20
00
Cam
brid
ge
begi
nner
s/lo
w in
term
edia
tes
Com
mun
icat
ive
Gra
mm
ar L
inks
1
But
ler &
Pod
neck
y 20
00
Hou
ghto
n M
ifflin
E
SL/
EFL
stu
dent
s C
omm
unic
ativ
e G
ram
mar
in C
onte
xt 1
E
lbau
m
2001
H
einl
e &
Hei
nle
ES
L be
ginn
ers
Com
mun
icat
ive
The
New
Gra
mm
ar in
Act
ion
Fole
y &
Neb
lett
1998
H
einl
e &
Hei
nle
Sec
onda
ry a
nd a
dult
ES
L/E
FL
stud
ents
C
omm
unic
ativ
e
S
truct
ural
Gra
mm
ar E
xpre
ss
Fuch
s &
Bon
ner
2001
Lo
ngm
an
Inte
rmed
iate
/hig
h in
term
edia
te
Dril
ls
Gra
mm
ar D
imen
tions
: For
m, M
eani
ng &
Use
B
adal
men
ti &
Hen
ner-
San
chin
a 20
00
Hei
nle
& H
einl
e H
igh
begi
nner
s D
rills
In
tera
ctio
ns A
cces
s: G
ram
mar
W
erne
r, N
elso
n &
Spa
vent
a 20
02
McG
raw
Hill
B
egin
ners
/hig
h bi
ginn
ers
Dril
ls
Inte
ract
ions
1: G
ram
mar
K
irn &
Jac
k 20
02
McG
raw
Hill
hi
gh b
egin
ners
/low
inte
rmed
iate
D
rills
Fu
ndam
enta
ls o
f Eng
lish
Gra
mm
ar
Aza
r 19
92
Pre
ntic
e H
all
Inte
rmed
iate
D
rills
U
nder
stan
ding
and
Usi
ng E
nglis
h G
ram
mar
A
zar
1999
Lo
ngm
an
inte
rmed
iate
/adv
ance
d
Dril
ls
Bas
ic E
nglis
h G
ram
mar
A
zar
1996
Lo
ngm
an
EFL
/ES
L st
uden
ts
Dril
ls
24
25
Finally, set number three was designed to determine to what degree the English tense-
aspect system is presented as a system or if its components are highlighted as individual
components, and if attention is drawn to the structures and their meaning being presented
in the textbook (i.e. if there is a presentation of its form, meaning, and use).
Data Analysis and Results
Data Analysis
For the analysis of the data gathered from the three sets of questions described
above, a percentages and raw scores approach was selected.
Data for the first set of questions was gathered from the section “To the teacher”
that appears either as part of the introduction of each textbook or on the back cover of the
book. All the information that describes the method utilized within the units of the books
and the level the textbooks were designed for was gathered as part of the data.
For the second set of questions, units that claim to introduce the simple or
progressive aspects of the present tense were selected. Predicates that were used to
present the use of each of these aspects were selected and divided into the four categories
that have been used in the studies of the acquisition of second language tense-aspect
systems (i.e. STA, ACT, ACC, and ACH). After sorting the verbs out, each of the units
was analyzed using the third set of questions in order to determine to what extent and
with what method the English tense-aspect system was introduced. Examples from the
units are presented in order to establish a comparison among the books. They are used to
determine if the English tense-aspect system is introduced or mentioned and how it is
presented as a whole.
26
Results
Predicate type utilized for the introduction of the simple aspect.
The predicate categories that are used in this part of the analysis are the ones used
by Vendler (1967). As stated in Chapter 1, these categories have been used in studies of
the acquisition of the English tense aspect system (Bardovi-Harlig, 2000). The reason to
use these categories is to search for possible implications of the role of instruction in the
acquisition of the English tense-aspect system by instructed learners.
In Table 2.2 we observe that activities (ACT)occupy the first place followed by
accomplishments (ACC) in second place and states (STA) in third place. Not only do
ACTs occupy the first place among the verbs presented to students in these books, but
also they represent the highest number of predicates shown to represent the simple
present in generic and habitual events. From the results of this analysis, we can also see
that, in the majority of books, ACTs outnumber any other type of predicates (e.g. I am
eat lunch at the cafeteria; Azar,1992, p. 3).
Six of the eighteen books, however, present a balance between ACTs and ACCs.
Twelve present an imbalance between these two categories in with ACTs outnumbering
ACCs by more than three predicates. This is an important number if we consider the
amount of input presented. ACHs are almost non-existent with the exception of four
books that introduce between one and five tokens in the simple present.
Tabl
e 2.
2
D
istri
butio
n of
type
of p
redi
cate
s us
ed to
intro
duce
the
sim
ple
aspe
ct o
f the
pr
esen
t ten
se
S
impl
e P
rese
nt
Tota
l B
ook*
ST
A %
AC
T %
AC
C
%
ACH
%
(n
) %
1 Im
pact
Gra
mm
ar: G
ram
mar
Th
roug
h Li
sten
ing
325
.05
41.7
4
33.3
00.
012
100
2 N
itty
Grit
ty G
ram
mar
5
8.5
2440
.7
2542
.45
8.5
5910
03
Cle
ar G
ram
mar
6
11.3
2852
.8
1935
.80
0.0
5310
04
New
Inte
rcha
nge
Intro
1
7.1
1392
.9
00.
00
0.0
1410
05
New
Inte
rcha
nge
1 2
10.5
842
.1
842
.11
5.3
1910
06
Am
eric
an H
eadw
ay 1
3
13.0
939
.1
1147
.80
0.0
2310
07
Tens
e S
ituat
ions
4
33.3
758
.3
18.
30
0.0
1210
08
Bas
ic G
ram
mar
in U
se
313
.012
52.2
7
30.4
14.
323
100
9 G
ram
mar
Lin
ks 1
2
8.3
1770
.8
520
.80
0.0
2410
010
G
ram
mar
in C
onte
xt
423
.58
47.1
4
23.5
15.
917
100
11
New
Gra
mm
ar in
Act
ion
17.
18
57.1
5
35.7
00.
014
100
12
Gra
mm
ar E
xpre
ss
520
.813
54.2
6
25.0
00.
024
100
13
Gra
mm
ar D
imen
sion
s 6
12.0
2754
.0
1530
.02
4.0
5010
014
In
tera
ctio
ns A
cces
s: G
ram
mar
5
12.8
2564
.1
923
.10
0.0
3910
015
In
tera
ctio
ns 1
: Gra
mm
ar
418
.210
45.5
8
36.4
00.
022
100
16
Fund
amen
tals
of E
nglis
h G
ram
mar
3
15.8
1578
.9
15.
30
0.0
1910
0
17
Und
erst
andi
ng a
nd U
sing
E
nglis
h G
ram
mar
2
16.7
650
.0
433
.30
0.0
1210
018
B
asic
Eng
lish
Gra
mm
ar
12.
233
71.7
12
26.1
00.
046
100
27
28
Predicate type utilized for the introduction of the progressive aspect
I am concerned, in this section, with the type of predicates that were used to
introduce the use of the progressive aspect in present tense. As we can see from Table
2.3., ACT represented the highest group of verbs presented to introduce the present
progressive. Seventeen of the eighteen books introduce the present progressive mostly
with ACT. These books use more than fifty percent of all verbs found in the two units
under study in the unit that deals with the progressive. Only one book introduces the
present progressive with an equal amount of verbs between ACTs and ACCs, nine tokens
each. Five books use STA verbs in fixed expression such as “I am having problems”.
Three books introduce the use of ACHs also in similar fixed expressions.
One issue that arose from the analysis of these units was the fact that several
textbooks treated the teaching of STAs as part of the present progressive unit. Nine
books treated them as part of the unit introducing the present progressive, and nine
introduced them as a separate unit or as a separate topic. Nine used positive evidence and
nine relied on the use of negative evidence. (see Table 2.4).
An interesting finding from this analysis is that none of the books under study
makes a contrast between the progressive and the simple aspects of the present tense to
show learners the differences in use. This is an issue that processing instruction covers
within the importance of bringing learners’ attention to the structure and its meaning in
order for learners to be able to process the input and SLA research has demonstrated that
learners need to pay attention to the input in order for it to become part of their
developing interlanguage (VanPatten, 1996)
Ta
ble
2.3
Dis
tribu
tion
of ty
pe o
f pre
dica
te u
sed
to in
trodu
ced
the
sim
ple
aspe
ct o
f the
pre
sent
pro
gres
sive
P
rese
nt P
rogr
essi
ve
Tota
l B
ook*
ST
A %
AC
T %
AC
C
%
ACH
%
(n
) %
1 Im
pact
Gra
mm
ar: G
ram
mar
Thr
ough
Li
sten
ing
1 8.
39
75.0
2 16
.70
0.0
12
100
2 N
itty
Grit
ty G
ram
mar
0
0.0
7 58
.35
41.7
0 0.
012
10
03
Cle
ar G
ram
mar
0
0.0
11
84.6
2 15
.40
0.0
13
100
4 N
ew In
terc
hang
e In
tro
1 3.
722
81
.54
14.8
0 0.
027
10
05
New
Inte
rcha
nge
1 0
0.0
5 71
.42
28.6
0 0.
07
100
6 A
mer
ican
Hea
dway
1
0 0.
09
81.8
2 18
.20
0.0
11
100
7 Te
nse
Situ
atio
ns
0 0.
014
77
.84
22.2
0 0.
018
10
08
Bas
ic G
ram
mar
in U
se
1 4.
019
76
.05
20.0
0 0.
025
10
09
Gra
mm
ar L
inks
1
0 0.
017
65
.49
34.6
0 0.
026
10
010
G
ram
mar
in C
onte
xt
0 0.
09
47.4
9 47
.41
5.3
19
100
11
New
Gra
mm
ar in
Act
ion
0 0.
09
75.0
3 25
.00
0.0
12
100
12
Gra
mm
ar E
xpre
ss
0 0.
011
52
.410
47
.60
0.0
21
100
13
Gra
mm
ar D
imen
sion
s 0
0.0
19
65.5
10
34.5
0 0.
029
10
014
In
tera
ctio
ns A
cces
s: G
ram
mar
1
4.3
16
69.6
6 26
.10
0.0
23
100
15
Inte
ract
ions
1: G
ram
mar
0
0.0
12
63.2
7 36
.80
0.0
19
100
16
Fund
amen
tals
of E
nglis
h G
ram
mar
0
0.0
12
85.7
1 7.
11
7.1
14
100
17
Und
erst
andi
ng a
nd U
sing
Eng
lish
Gra
mm
ar
0 0.
010
76
.93
23.1
0 0.
013
10
018
B
asic
Eng
lish
Gra
mm
ar
1 2.
236
80
.07
15.6
1 2.
245
10
0
29
Tabl
e 2.
4
D
istri
butio
n of
type
of a
ctiv
ities
, evi
denc
e an
d th
e tre
atm
ent o
f STA
ver
bs a
nd a
dver
bial
s
Ty
pe o
f Act
iviti
es
Type
of E
vide
nce
STA
Tre
atm
ent*
**
Use
of
Boo
k D
rills
C
omm
**
Pos
itive
N
egat
ive
With
inS
epar
ate
Adv
erbi
als*
***
1 Im
pact
Gra
mm
ar: G
ram
mar
Thr
ough
Lis
teni
ng
√ x
X √
x √
heav
y 2
Nitt
y G
ritty
Gra
mm
ar
√ x
X √
√ x
heav
y 3
Cle
ar G
ram
mar
x
√ X
√ √
x m
ild
4 N
ew In
terc
hang
e In
tro
x √
√ x
x √
heav
y 5
New
Inte
rcha
nge
1 x
√ √
x √
x he
avy
6 A
mer
ican
Hea
dway
1
x √
√ x
x √
mild
7
Tens
e S
ituat
ions
x
√ √
x x
√ he
avy
8 Ba
sic
Gra
mm
ar in
Use
x
√ √
x √
x m
ild
9 G
ram
mar
Lin
ks 1
x
√ √
x x
√ he
avy
10
Gra
mm
ar in
Con
text
x
√ √
x x
√ m
ild
11
New
Gra
mm
ar in
Act
ion
x √
X √
x √
heav
y 12
G
ram
mar
Exp
ress
√
x X
√ x
√ he
avy
13
Gra
mm
ar D
imen
sion
s √
x √
x √
x he
avy
14
Inte
ract
ions
Acc
ess:
Gra
mm
ar
√ x
√ x
x √
heav
y 15
In
tera
ctio
ns 1
: Gra
mm
ar
√ x
X √
√ x
heav
y 16
Fu
ndam
enta
ls o
f Eng
lish
Gra
mm
ar
√ x
X √
√ x
heav
y 17
U
nder
stan
ding
and
Usi
ng E
nglis
h G
ram
mar
√
x X
√ √
x m
ild
18
Bas
ic E
nglis
h G
ram
mar
√
x X
√ √
x he
avy
**
Com
mun
icat
ive
**
* Tre
atm
ent o
f the
STA
with
in o
r sep
arat
e fro
m th
e pr
esen
t pro
gres
sive
uni
t
**
** U
se o
f adv
erbi
als
to e
xem
plify
the
use
of th
e pr
ogre
ssiv
e or
the
sim
ple
pres
ent (
i.e. c
reat
e a
dire
ct li
nk b
etw
een
form
and
adv
erbi
als)
30
31
Exercise type and visuals and the presentation and explanation of tense and aspect
For the explanation of tense and aspect, nine textbooks make use of drills and
nine use communicative activities. By drills I refer to the traditional fill-in-the-blanks in
sentences with no context or in cloze passages, and by communicative activities I refer to
the type of activities that require the oral use of the structures being studied (i.e. oral
output). A similar pattern was found when looking at the way they treat the use of STA
verbs.
Adverbials and time expressions were used as a direct link between the form and
the meaning to such extent that some books rely heavily on their use to tell students what
aspect should be used in a particular sentence. Some of these books also treat the time
adverbial as part of the correct form of a specific aspect. As we can see from Table 2.3,
thirteen rely heavily on the use of adverbials to introduce the simple aspect (e.g. every
day, usually, etc.) as well as the progressive aspect (e.g. now, right now, etc.) in the
present tense. Only five textbooks rely on the structure at a higher percentage than they
rely on the use of adverbials to introduce these aspects. Contrary to the majority, these
five books introduce the adverbials as a help to express tense and aspect.
From what we know in second language acquisition, learners acquire content
words before they acquire function words; therefore, the introduction of these adverbials
may lead learners to learn these adverbials as aspectual markers. Bardovi-Harlig and
Reynolds (1995) found that learners rely heavily on the use of adverbials in their
interlanguage to mark aspect. For pedagogical purposes if we are trying to focus learners’
attention to the form-meaning associations, a heavy presence of adverbials will override
the communicative value of the form and learners could direct their attention to a word
32
heavy in communicative value such as adverbials instead of the form. The implication of
the introduction of tense and aspect sentences with and without adverbials from the
perspective of the role of instruction is an issue that should be further studied.
Pedagogy and the expression of temporality
The third set of questions involved a search for the type of activities and visuals
which books use in order to teach or introduce the expression of tense and aspect (i.e.
what pedagogical approach is being used by these textbooks). It is important, at this
point, to note that the form or structure of a sentence is not the same as the expression of
temporality. As demonstrated in studies of the acquisition of English tense and aspect,
the expression of temporality could be present in the learners’ interlanguage in different
ways. One of them is the use of adverbials (Bardovi-Harlig & Reynolds, 1995). It can
also be present at the structural level, but not marked morphologically (Bardovi-Harlig &
Bergström, 1996; Bardovi-Harlig, 2000; Bardovi-Harlig, 1998; Bardovi-Harlig et al.,
1995; Giacalone Ramat, 1992).
In this study, since my interest is pedagogical and not acquisitional, I make a
distinction between the expression of tense and aspect (i.e. meaning and use) and the
structure of sentences (i.e. form) which represents different aspects of a specific tense
(e.g. present tense). The latter, the present tense, can be represented in two ways: the
simple and the progressive aspects. We need to keep in mind that not only can these
structures express the present tense, but they can also express time reference other than
present (e.g. future and past).
Therefore, the expression of tense and aspect, in this study, is the use of tense,
aspect, and time reference as a system composed by form, meaning, and use. It is the
33
ability to explain the position of events in the tense-aspect system of a language, in this
case English. It is the way in which tense and aspect are presented to the learner, and the
ability to make learners aware of what the structure really means and how they can use it.
In sum, the expression of tense and aspect is connected to the idea of making
structures meaningful to the learners. This may be achieved taking into account the
psycholinguistic processes put forward by the input processing theory and through
processing instruction (VanPatten, 1996).
Paradigms
After defining the key concepts for the interpretation of the data in Table 2.5, we
see that fifteen books use the entire verb paradigm to introduce morphological markers.
Only three make no use of it.
A paradigm is a representation to display the various forms of a given
grammatical structure. It is an abstraction, generalization, and a tool to help organize
information and present data; but it does not correspond to how knowledge is structured
in the brain (VanPatten & Lee, 2000). Bybee & Dahl (1989) state that paradigms are not
present in native speakers’ heads. If they are present, they have been put there by
teachers or books. A paradigm is shorthand, which has no psycholinguistic validity for
acquisition, for a particular set of connections. VanPatten and Lee (2000) refute the use
of paradigm for acquisitional purposes by stating that if the goal of a lesson is to learn the
grammar and to be tested on the grammar (i.e. structure with no meaning and/or use),
then it makes perfect sense to use such shorthand devices (i.e. paradigms). They go on to
say that if the purpose of the lesson is to learn how to perform particular tasks (i.e. form-
34
meaning associations), then paradigms lose their purpose in the class. Thus, they argue
that learners only need to know part of a rule or parts of a paradigm at a time for learners
to be able to make the necessary form-meaning associations and to pay attention to the
input being presented to them.
Bull’s Framework
Bull’s Framework (Bull, 1960), or time graphs as I call the different versions of
this visual aid, were also found only in four books. This low level of representatiob was
not expected since Bull’s framework has been used in traditional grammar textbooks for
almost four decades, but it is not surprising since the four books that contained these
graphs are within the category of traditional grammar-only instruction textbooks and the
others claimed to be new approaches to grammar instruction and/or conversational
English textbooks.
Time graphs are visual aids to help the learner understand the meaning of tense
and aspect. They constitute a comprehensive tool, and they help learners understand
abstract concepts such as tense, aspect, and time reference. Time graphs are also good
visual aids for the creation of a better understanding of the tense-aspect system if they are
used in a more comprehensive way. A more comprehensive way implies the use of the
concepts public time and personal time. The fact that most of the books are focused only
on structure rather than the expression of temporality might be the reason why textbooks
lack explanation of relationships between public and personal time.
35
Explanation Charts
Before going into detail in the analysis of explanation charts, an overview of the
role of explicit explanation in SLA is at stake. VanPatten & Lee (2000) express that,
based on evidence from SLA research, in second language acquisition explicit
information is not necessary for successful acquisition. They further their assertion by
stating that aside from the knowledge of abstract rules that we develop without any
explicit instruction, research on nontraditional approaches to grammar strongly suggests
that explicit information is not necessary (p. 125). In this work, I would acknowledge the
fact that explicit information has been proven not to be important in non-traditional
approaches to grammar, but I would adhere to the fact that some research has shown that
explanation may be beneficial to help learners acquire a structure in a faster manner than
when there is no explanation at al (Schmidt, 1995) and that in order to process input
learners’ attention has to be drawn to the particular structure being studied. I will not
advocate the use of explicit explanation as it has traditionally been done but rather,
explicit instruction within PI’s framework. This stand is taken because the main purpose
of this work is pedagogical: to aid in the acquisition of the tense-aspect system of
English.
SLA research has found that adverbials play an important role in assigning aspect
with instructed language learners (Bardovi-Harlig & Reynolds, 1995). As we can see
from the two definitions above mentioned, the present progressive structure is directly
linked, and sometimes presented only with this tense-aspect structure, to the adverbial
now. This lack of or simplification of the input may be the cause of under-
generalizations of the present progressive to describe only activities that are in action at
36
the moment of speech and not the use of it to express future events. It could also create an
over-generalization of the use of the adverbial now for activities only in the progressive
leaving aside the imperatives. In future studies whether learners use adverbials as means
of expressing tense-aspect because they are processing content words before the structure
or whether explicit instruction is triggering this behavior when learners pay attention to
these words heavy in communicative value should be an area of inquiry.
Thus, explanation charts, another type of visual aid, were found in the entire
sample of textbooks. Although these charts are intended to help the learner understand
the use of certain structures, some of them lead learners to under-generalizations about
the use of the structure. According to PI theory, learners could be overwhelmed with the
amount of information presented to them, an issue that has not been studied enough up to
this point. Studies in processing instruction have demonstrated that if learners’ attention
is drawn to the target structure (i.e. one thing at the time), learners have been able to
recognize the structure at more often than learners with traditional instruction (i.e.
explanation charts and paradigms) (VanPatten, 1996, VanPatten & Lee, 2000, among
others).
For example, some of the authors define the present as the moment of speaking,
or simply “the present” with no reference to whether it is time-related or aspect-related, a
distinction I consider is crucial for the construction of form-meaning associations.
Within the explanations of the present tense, we find the inclusion of aspectual
definitions with no mention whatsoever of the word aspect or what it implies. An
example of this situation is the definition of the progressive aspect of the present tense
found in two of the textbooks studied:
37
“Use the present progressive tense for actions happening now. Use it with time expressions like now, right now, and at the moment.” (Butler & Janet Podnecky, 2000 p. 79); and “The present progressive expresses an activity that is in progress (is occurring, is happening) right now. The event is in progress at the time the speaker is saying the sentence. The event began in the past, is in progress now, and will probably continue into the future.” (Azar, 1992 p. 3) Explanations of this kind are found in most of the books which makes one wonder
how learners process this information and what effects are caused by them and to what
degree they notice the structure and construct form-meaning associations. A question
that needs to be addressed in future studies on the influence of instruction in the
acquisition of second and foreign languages. After being presented with these definitions,
learners are asked to produce accurate utterances by means of drills and fill-in-the-blank
exercises.
It is not my intention to suggest that the explanation charts are wrong; on the
contrary, what I am saying is that they can be strengthened in order to trigger reflection
about the expression of tense and aspect in the target language and to lead learners’
attention to the uses of the structure one at the time.
One way to do so is to use the input processing theory to present explanation of
the structure in a way that is beneficial to the conversion of input into intake. This will be
explained in detail in Chapter 3.
38
Syntactic Formulas
VanPatten and Lee (2000) also mention that it is not uncommon for people to
generalize from experiences and that we tend to imply that the way we learn a language is
the way language is learned in general. This comment makes me reflect that the grammar
instruction I received when I was at the beginning of my learning process does not vary
much from what the textbooks under study are presenting to learners (i.e. it has not
changed in about 15 years or even more).
An example of this tendency is the use of syntactic formulas, a technique used by
the grammar translation method, which is used as a tool to help learners produce
grammatical sentences. For several learners, formulas do not seem to help when they are
faced with spontaneous speech or in settings outside the classroom.
Formulas were used in thirteen books, and they varied in form and in the way
they are presented. Some of the formulas used technical vocabulary such as subject, and
verb. Examples of the formulas used are:
a. “am/is/are + verb + ing” (Young & Strauch, 1994 p. 71)
b. “Subject + Verb // Subject + Verb + -s” (Werner, Nelson, & Steedman, 2002”)
Formulas can be very helpful, but they are also very abstract, which in turn makes it
difficult for the learner to establish a direct link between meaning and form. Formulas
tend to substitute for the paradigm. Texbook writers use items like the ones shown in a
and b above; and this, in turn, creates confusion when the learner attempts to attach, in
this case, the third-person-singluar“-s” to the verb.
In addition to these formulas, spelling and pronunciation rules, which are
formulas, were also found among the aids presented to help students learn the structure of
39
the simple and progressive aspects in present tense. These rules are used in thirteen of
the eighteen books. These spelling and pronunciation rules are the ones to convert the
base form of the verb into the present participle or the pronunciation of the third person
singular –s in its different phonetic environments. These rules can also be accounted for
as formulas for the production of the structures under study because they require the
memorization of a specific pattern linked to the spelling of the verbs.
Summary of how the Tense-Aspect System is presented
The eighteen books were also analyzed in order to find what kinds of activities or
visual tools they use, if any, in order to present the learners with the concepts of tense,
aspect, time reference, and the different perceptions that these terms enclose. None of the
eighteen books show a differentiation between the terms tense, aspect, and time reference
and their structures. On the contrary, they present the different aspects of the present
tense as individual tenses.
These books did not have any activity related to the perception of tense and aspect
and how it triggers the use of specific structures to express temporality in different ways.
The lack of these kinds of activities may be related to the difficulty learners have to
produce grammatical structures and to retain them when dealing with the expression of
tense and aspect. Research has demonstrated that learners need to make a meaningful
link between the meaning, the structure, and its use in order to incorporate the structure
into their interlanguage (Giacalone Ramat, 1992; Bardovi-Harlig et al., 1995, among
others). This link is enhanced through the use of Input Processing Theory which
advocates that we need to lead students attention to a particular form at a time for
40
students to notice the structure’s meaning. They have to be able to recognize the
structure before we ask them to produce it.
Discussion
SLA research suggests that learners need to create a more durable link between
the meaning and the form of sentences in the target language. As teachers and SLA
researchers, we need to implement a pedagogy that appeals to the analysis, the practice,
and the use of the English tense and aspect system, or foreign languages’ tense-aspect
systems for that matter. As shown in this study, traditional methods for the teaching of
grammar still dominate textbook production. The focus changes, but still the assessment
and classroom practices from old methodologies remain in the textbooks. A new
pedagogy has arisen from the need to overcome these traditional approaches to the
teaching of grammar. With this pedagogy comes a different form of classroom-activity
construction.
PI has shown through empirical evidence (see VanPatten 1986 and VanPatten
2004 for a comprehensive review of the literature) to be a strong, new pedagogy for the
teaching of grammar in foreign language instruction. PI has proven to be beneficial for
the comprehension of romance-language grammars in foreign language settings. PI does
not dismiss other methodologies or claim to be a unique way to teach grammar; on the
contrary, its claims are that it could very well complement the existing methodologies for
the teaching of foreign/second languages. It can complement these methodologies by
enhancing learners’ attention to form and meaning in order for learners to be able to
produce meaningful utterances. PI deals with perception rather than production.
Perception will help learners to understand how the grammar of the language they are
41
learning works. It also helps learners to make form-meaning association from the first
stages of their language acquisition. By paying attention to form, meaning, and use;
learners are able to process and filter input in a way that is beneficial to their developing
linguistic system.
In an attempt to implement processing instruction and input processing theory in
the teaching of tense and aspect systems, a multi-level model for the teaching of the
English tense and aspect system is developed in Chapter 3.
42
Chapter 3
Towards pedagogy for the teaching of English tense-aspect system: A Model for the
Teaching of English Tense-Aspect
Introduction
Empirical research with second language learners on the interaction between
grammatical and lexical aspect strongly indicates that tense-aspect systems of second
languages are complex structures the same way first language tense-aspect systems are
(Andersen, 1991; Bardovi-Harlig, 1995; Liskin-Gasparro, 2000; among others).
Yet very few tense-aspect researchers have made claims that inform or reflect on
pedagogy for the teaching of tense aspect systems. Among these few, we find work by
Liskin-Gasparro (2000), who aside from studying the acquisition of tense and aspect by
second language learners of Spanish, presents implications for pedagogical practices
related to the teaching of tense and aspect. Liskin-Gasparro makes three pedagogical
observations regarding the role of instruction in the acquisition of second language tense-
aspect systems. The first one has to do with the linguistic input that students receive in
upper-level division courses where it is rare that courses include systematic attention to
the development of students’ language skills. The second is the need to incorporate
awareness of narrative structure into tense and aspect instruction to advanced students.
This observation includes the question of whether the inclusion of emphasis on the
relationship of aspect to narrative effectiveness would be beneficial for the teaching of
tense and aspect. The last observation is related to the disparity of the sequence of
acquisition and the sequence of presentation of structures in the classroom. In this regard,
SLA research obviously is at odds with pedagogical practices. This last observation
43
prompted me to construct a new pedagogical approach.. My goal is to build a bridge
between SLA research and classroom practices to help learners acquire the English tense-
aspect system.
Furthermore, the fact that learners process meaning before form provides us with
the starting point for discovering perhaps more constructive ways to introduce the
structure of a language. One of these meaningful ways is the use of reflection on the
meaning of tense, aspect, and time reference. Reflection can be brought about through the
use of visual tools. SLA studies demonstrate that directing learners’ attention to the
form, its meaning, and its use is beneficial to the acceleration of the acquisition processes
(Lee & VanPatten, 2003). The findings in the present study demonstrate that these useful
tools are almost non-existent within the textbooks used in ESL/EFL classrooms with
regard to the teaching of tense and aspect.
Therefore, I am proposing a model for the introduction of the English tense-aspect
system in ESL/EFL settings. This model presents both meaning and form as a unit. Its
main goal is to have learners reflect on their understanding of their L1 tense-aspect
system in order to apply this knowledge to their interpretation of the L2 tense-aspect
system. In other words, it is meant to gather learners’ attention and direct it to the
interpretation and recognition of the form and its meaning and use. It is framed within the
processing input theory and the pedagogy that derives from this theory (i.e. PI).
This model is also partly based on the assumption that Universal Grammar is still
available to L2 learners, but that they access it through their knowledge of their L1
(White, 1990), assumptions that are also adopted by the input processing theory together
with the assumption that L1 has a role in the acquisition process. These assumptions and
44
the finding that learners filter input by being aware of the form and its uses in order for
this input to become intake (VanPatten, 1996) are also key components of the model.
The model introduces metalinguistic terms to help learners and teachers work with tense
and aspect in a way that will benefit the acquisition process.
The Model
The present model appeals to different learning styles. It attempts to trigger the
use of memory strategies that help students to store and retrieve information; cognitive
strategies that enable learners to understand and produce new language; compensation
strategies that allow learners to communicate despite deficiencies in their language
knowledge; metacognitive strategies that allow learners to control their learning through
organizing, planning, and evaluating; affective strategies that help learners gain control
over their emotions, attitudes, motivations, and values; and social strategies that help
learners interact with other people (Richards & Lockhart, 1996, pp. 63-64)2. It also
includes the metalinguistic components to allow learners to reflect on their own tense-
aspect system when approaching the English system.
The model is a representation of the English tense-aspect system made up of four
components: the concepts of public and personal time, the notion of events enclosed in
time intervals, the representation of these intervals within the perception of time, and the
integration of the first three components into a system as a whole.
This model does not treat events in a linear fashion, but rather as events that can
be recalled, experienced, and anticipated at the learner’s choice. It also accounts for the
2 For further explanation of learning strategies see Richards, 1996, Chapter 3; Ehrman, Leaver & Oxford, 2003;.and Ehrman & Leaver, 2003.
45
fact that not all events within the personal time frame represent actual intervals in the
public time.
Public Time and Personal Time
Two key components that have been part of SLA research in tense and aspect are
personal time and public time. As pointed out in Chapter 1, public time is when we divide
time by events or event substitutes. This division is unidirectional and towards the future.
Thus, our experience of time and events is serial and unidirectional. Personal time is
when we define a point of orientation that is not the one defined by public time. This
creates personal time intervals that have no measurable length and are related to the
personal point of orientation what Bull (1960) calls the axis of orientation.
Thus, the combination of public time with personal time forms the concept of
tense. Tense, a term which most teachers, students, and researchers are familiar with, can
be represented as in Figure 3.1:
Figure 3.1: Representation of tense in a multidimensional model
Tense
Public time (Calendric time) (e.g. It only took me four minutes to finish it.
Personal Time (perceived time) (e.g. It seems it took me hours to finish it.
46
With this figure, we can establish and make differences between personal time
(e.g. I used to eat bread when I was a child.) and public time (e.g. I ate a piece of bread at
seven yesterday) visible to our learners. It represents the starting point to direct their
attention towards the meaning of form. As we know from Bull’s (1960) framework
events are organized within time intervals, and what the model presented here adds to our
understanding of representation of time reference is the emphasis on the distinction
between our perception of time and the establishment of time as a social convention; in
other words, linear time (i.e. public time) versus perceived time (i.e. personal time).
As defined by Bull (1960) public time is linear and unidirectional, it moves
toward the future. Personal time, on the contrary, is not unidirectional and it can be seen
from different perspectives. Events can be recalled, experienced, and anticipated. Some
events do not represent actual intervals of time; therefore, the perception of personal time
should be represented as an area in space (or mind) rather than a single line. This will
help to explain the difference between the events that happened and can be marked on a
calendar such as birthdays, and the events that cannot such as habitual events or general
truths.
I present this model taking into account the philosophical belief that all events are
either future or past (Bull, 1960). The future and the past intersect in order to form the
present tense. An important tenet of this model is the separation of the present tense with
the moment of speech. The latter is the moment at which utterances are said;
independently of the hour, day, or time. The present tense is the space formed from the
intersection of the future and the past; therefore, the space that belongs to the present
47
tense does not have to be taken as a single point on the public time-line, it could be taken
as a space that does not have a definite beginning or a definite end. This space will move
in a linear fashion along with the public time, but contrary to the linear time it is not
represented by specific marks in the public time (see Figure 3.2).
Figure 3.2: The relationship of past and future and the creation of the present
This figure shows the spatial and temporal location of any event on the time line.
The present here is represented as the shared space in time, both personal and public,
between the future and the past. And the past and future are represented as spatial ovals
because of the complexity of temporal expressions, and the fact that all expressions,
spoken or written, are not specifically marked as events on the public time-line (e.g.
conditionals, activities in progress, among others). Therefore, tense will enclose these
three conceptions of time (past, present, and future).
Moment of speech
FuturePast
Present
Tense
48
Time Intervals, Memory Indices, and the Present Tense
The combination of grammatical aspect (i.e. view point aspect) and lexical aspect
(i.e. inherent semantic properties used to refer to a situation) forms the concept of time
intervals. Bull (1960) states that a time interval happens when an event is used as an axis
of orientation. This axis of orientation is what I call here “a memory index.” These time
intervals position events in specific slots in the model. It is up to the learner to determine
which tense the events belong to according to the axis of orientation that s/he chooses.
The beginning or ending point of each time interval is represented by memory indices.
Memory indices are the points within personal time that tell the learner when and for how
long an event takes place. This is related to Bull’s (1960) assertion that every event,
because it takes place in time, has length and three aspects: a beginning, middle, and an
end. The initiative aspect (the absolute beginning) and the terminative aspect (the
absolute end) of events present in extreme form the same problem as instantaneous
events. Both of these aspects are perceptible. This notion triggers my theory about these
memory indices as delimiters of the events (i.e. time intervals in personal time). As dates
and hours are delimiter of events in public time, memory indices are the clues that
learners need in order to recall, experience, or anticipate events. Memory indices can be
of two types: the ones that are completed, and the ones that are hypothetically posited.
The former is represented in this model with the symbol . The former represent the
events in the past or events that started at a certain point before the moment of speech.
The latter represent events that are said not to be real and do not mark the concept of time
either personal or public (i.e. conditionals, future, and habitual and generic events).
49
Memory indices are the graphic representation of the different features related to
grammatical and/or lexical aspect.
In English, we can relate these memory indices to the perception of personal time
and how this relationship affects the choice of grammatical aspect to be used within the
model of tense and aspect. Sentences containing features such as [- punctual], [- telic],
[- dynamic], [- complete] (i.e. simple present] and verbs with the same features (i.e. STA
verbs) leave no memory indices in the time-line. They represent activities that are
considered timeless truths. Utterances containing features such as [+ punctual], [+ telic],
[+ dynamic] and [+ complete] (i.e. sentences with ACH in past tense) leave a single
memory index in the time line. Utterances containing [- punctual], [± telic], [+ dynamic],
and [- complete] (i.e. sentences with ACT and ACC in present tense) leave one memory
index at the beginning of the action and then continue until the action is completed (see
Figure 3.3). If the features are [± punctual], [± telic], [+ dynamic], and [+ complete] (i.e.
all categories in present perfect), this type of predicate leaves one memory index in the
time line with an un-recovered (i.e. invisible) memory index as a right boundary.
As we can see from Figure 3.3., the present tense utterances cannot be situated as
a single mark in the time line. Due to their aspect, they occupy different spaces and
express very different conceptions of time. For example, the simple present does not
mark the time line with a memory index ( ). This happens because the simple tense
represents habitual activities with immediate factuality, activities that occur at the
moment of speech, and more specific timeless truths (Celce-Murcia & Larsen-Freeman,
1999). Therefore, when using a single time line to explain the simple present it is, often
times, difficult.
50
Figure 3.3: Representation of the placement of memory indices according to the aspect features of an utterance.
Time Intervals, Memory Indices, SLA research, and the Past Tense
If we take into account Bardovi-Harlig’s (2000) order of emergence for the past
tense, we find that the simple past precedes the past progressive, and the past progressive
in turn precedes the present perfect, and the present perfect precedes the pluperfect. If we
analyze this sequence of emergence, the aspect that leaves a single memory index
emerges first followed by the one that leaves two memory indices and implies continuity.
Then, we find that the aspect that does not leave a specific memory index comes after
these two that leave well-defined memory indices. Finally, we find the pluperfect which
implies a greater distance from the moment of speech than the others, and also leaves two
Symbols: Single Memory index Single memory index no duration/even completed Single memory index with duration/ event completed Single memory index with duration/event No memory index / timeless not completed.
Moment of Speech
FuturePast
Present
Simple Present: I like grammar. She likes grammar.
Present Perfect Progressive: He has been
studying
Present Perfect: They have gone there.
Present Progressive: We are writing a novel. She is writing a letter.
Tense
51
well-defined memory indices (see Figure 3.4.). Memory indices in the past can be related
to the prototypical features of the past [+ past], [+ telic], [+ punctual], [+ result]
(Andersen&Shirai, 1994). Bardovi-Harlig (2000) affirms that achievements attract the
simple past. This happens because the past shares most features with achievements
according to the relevance principle and the congruence principle (for further explanation
of the Aspect Hypothesis see Bardovi Harlig, 2000: Chapter 4).
Figure 3.4: Order of Emergence of the Past tense and Aspects according to Bardovi-Harlig (2000) represented in the English tense-aspect model
This study relates these findings with the choices that learners make to express
present tense activities. It seems that, in the past or activities implying past events, the
closer the aspect is to leaving a single memory index (i.e. [+ punctual], [+ telic], [+
result]) in the time line, the quicker the structure is incorporated into the learners
FuturePast
Present
Moment of Speech
(4) Pluperfect: They had gone there.
(2) Past Progressive: He was studying math.
(1) Simple Past: I ate soup yesterday.
(3) Present Perfect:
I have been here several times.
Tense
Symbols: Single Memory index Single memory index no duration/even completed Simple memory index with duration/ event completed Simple memory index with duration/event (n) Order of emergence Bardovi-Harlig (2000) not completed.
52
interlanguage. This is a phenomenon that is yet to be studied under the framework
proposed in this thesis.
Time Intervals, Memory Indices, and the Future Tense
For the future tense we have to take into consideration that English does not use
verbal morphology to represent the future tense as Romance languages do. English relies
on different present tense structures to show future reference (e.g. will/shall+ Verb,
be+going to+ verb, the present progressive) instead (Celce-Murcia et al., 1999; Quirk &
Greenbaum Sydney, 1973). An event in the future, in turn, does not mark the time line as
the other tenses, but it can be represented as personal time within the future space of the
model.
Other Parts of the Model
Some aspectual expressions cross boundaries between one tense and another (e.g.
present progressive crosses boundaries from the present to the future, the present perfect
crosses boundaries from the past to the present), a characteristic that Celce-Murcia &
Larsen-Freeman (1999) have termed “the boundary problem” (p.129) when they talk
about conditionals. This boundary crossing is hard to show in Bull’s (1960) framework.
This is not only true for the conditionals, but also for sentences in the different aspects of
each of the tenses. For example, the present continuous crosses boundaries between the
past and the present tenses; the present perfect also crosses boundaries between the past
and the present tenses. This model takes into account the different aspects and how they
interact with each other within a single time space and not as simple separate events in
53
time. Because these structures and perceptions of time cross boundaries between the three
major tense divisions, they cannot be taken as belonging to only one of the tenses
represented here. They have to be taken into account as part of both tenses to which they
are related to as shown in Figure 3.5 for the case of conditionals.
Figure 3.5: Conditionals in the Tense-Aspect System Model.
This model could serve to guide the development of new pedagogical materials
for teaching tense and aspect. It could also be incorporated into teacher education
materials. I now turn to discuss some of the implications, limitations that arose from the
development of this model.
Moment of speech
FuturePast
Present
Tense
If I had the money, I would buy a car. If I get the money, I will buy a car.
54
Discussion, implications, and limitations
It has been discussed that the perception of time is different for people of different
language backgrounds, which in turn affects the choice people make to construct
(grammatical) sentences. Giacalone Ramat (1997) clearly pinpoints this idea by saying:
“The English progressive is an obligatory category in the verbal system, while in Italian,
as well as in all Romance languages, progressive constructions are an optional variant of
the simple forms.” (267). Therefore, there is further research to be done in order to
determine the perception of time among speakers of different languages, how this affects
the acquisition of tense and aspect of a specific L2, and how the lexical aspect differs
among languages. Giacalone Ramat (1997) also points out,about the latter, that verbs
like see and hear which in English are verbs of inert perception and cannot occur in the
progressive aspect can be used in the progressive aspect in Italian.
Implications
Pedagogical
For instructional purposes, the proposed model implies that teachers should
introduce the concept of personal time (Bull, 1960), and how it interacts with different
features of the language. It is also suggested to appeal to the concept of personal time of
the learners L1 in order to trigger a better understanding of it in the target language. I
hypothesize that making learners search for answers within their own knowledge of tense
and aspect will help them develop strategies to acquire the target language tense and
aspect system in a faster and easier way than if they are asked to memorize structures as
simple mechanical processes which are meaningless for them.
55
In order to do this, we need a pedagogy that accounts for the processes and
strategies learners go through in order to construct form, meaning, and use associations.
Input processing theory and processing instruction (VanPatten, 1996; VanPatten & Lee,
2000) serves as the pedagogy that has demonstrated to be efficient in the teaching of
tense and aspect in Spanish and Romance languages(Lizkin-Gasparro, 2000; Sanz, 2003;
Wong, 2003; VanPatten & Oikkenon, 1996; VanPatten & Sanz; 1995; among others). PI
has been taken as a theoretical framework here for the creation of a model to teach tense
and aspect informed by both SLA theory and by pedagogical approaches to teaching. I
suggest we, as teachers and researchers, aim at creating links between SLA and instructed
language learning.
Material Development
For material developers this implies a rethinking of the space provided to the
creation of form-meaning associations through visuals and reflection along with
mechanical or communicative drills. Learners need to pay attention to the meaning and
use of the grammatical form before they are asked to produce. It does not need to be an
extensive period of time, but learners need to be allowed the time to process the input
they are receiving. If they have limited resources for the processing of input (VanPatten,
1996; VanPatten & Lee, 2003), it is suggested that we give them time to process the input
before we ask them to produce grammatically correct utterances. Thus, I propose to
incorporate models like the one presented here into textbooks that are well informed by
SLA and, more importantly, by pedagogies that translate SLA findings into pedagogical
strategies for the improvement of language learning.
56
SLA Research
For research in SLA, since most of the empirical evidence that informs SLA
comes from instructed language learners; the search needs to be directed towards the
effects of instruction, how it is being delivered, and the acquisition processes. We need to
start building bridges between what learners do and what instruction is supplying to the
process. Not only do learners learn languages in particular stages, but variables that affect
this acquisition process also exist. It is suggested to search for these variables and tease
them out in order to understand the acquisition of second and foreign language by
instructed learners. This model has been created to aid the teaching of tense and aspect
and it still needs to be validated and tested for its effectiveness in SLA.
Limitations The main limitation of this project is the fact that it is still in the developing
stages. Its effect in the enhancement of the acquisition of second/foreign languages is
still to be demonstrated. With this research, also comes the need to develop “user
friendly” aids and methods of presenting tense-aspect systems, which also implies the
need to do research on what aids/presentation methods work best and for what types of
learners.
57
Conclusion As stated in the introduction, teaching grammar to students of English as a Second
or Foreign Language (ESL/EFL) has long been based on drills and fill-in-the-blank tasks
that introduce the syntactic structures as simple mechanical processes without taking into
account the learning process. It has been discussed throughout this study that there are
certain drawbacks to this approach. Grammarians have treated the teaching of grammar
as a process of memorizing structures and substituting lexical items, an approach that has
proven to be ineffective to the acquisition process (Lee & VanPatten, 2000). This study
surveyed available pedagogical work on the construction of form-meaning associations in
the English tense aspect system, the empirical evidence in the SLA research field on the
acquisition of it, its form, its use, and its meaning. Findings from this survey were
compared with the presentation of this system in ESL/EFL textbooks. The results of this
comparison have served as the basis for the creation of a pedagogical model for the
teaching English tense-aspect.
This study also presented an overview of the English tense-aspect system, its
components, recent findings regarding the acquisition processes of tense and aspect used
by second language learners, a description of its form, the model used in ESL/EFL
textbooks for teaching it, and a short overview of the input processing theory, which
served as the pedagogical framework for the present work. This overview was intended to
help to create a bridge from theoretical SLA to a pedagogical grammar for the teaching of
tense and aspect. To fulfill this goal eighteen ESL/EFL books were analyzed to study
what types of teaching activities, and visual aids are used to introduce the English tense-
aspect system.
58
The analysis resulted in a multilevel pedagogical approach to the teaching of the
English tense-aspect system. The model was constructed taking into account the recent
findings and pedagogical implication proposed by SLA researchers in their different
studies on the acquisition of tense and aspect, which were linked to a pedagogy that
accounts for the formation of form-meaning-use associations. This linkage was done in
an attempt to translate these findings and implications into a pedagogical grammar.
Finally a discussion of the implications and limitations of this pedagogical
multilevel model was presented followed by recommendations for future research and/or
developing of pedagogical tools and their presentations in language textbooks.
59
Reference List
Random House Webster's College Dictionary. (1997). (2nd ed.). New York: Random
House.
Andersen, R. W. (1991). Developmental sequences: the emergence of aspect marking in
language acquisition. S. Gass, A. Cohen, & E. Tarone (Editors), Research
methodology in second language acquisition (pp. 305-324). Hillsdale, NJ:
Erlbaum.
Andersen, R. W. (1983). Transfer to Somewhere. S. M. Gass, & L. Selinker (Eds),
Language Transfer in Language Learning (pp. 177-201). Rowley, MA: Newbury
House.
Andersen, R. W., & Shirai, Y. (1994). Discourse Motivations for Some Cognitive
Acquisition Principles. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 16(2), 133-156.
Azar, B. S. (1996). Basic English Grammar (2nd ed.). White Plains, NY: Pearson
Education.
Azar, B. S. (1992). Fundamentals of English Grammar (2nd ed.). White Plains, NY:
Prentice Hall Regents.
Azar, B. S. (1999). Understanding and Using English Grammar (3rd ed.). New Jersey:
Pearson Education.
60
Badalameti, V., & Henner-Stanchina, C. (2000). Grammar Dimensions: FORM,
MEANING, and USE 1 (Plantinum ed.). (Grammar Dimensions: FORM,
MEANING, and USE . Boston, MA: Heinle & Heinle.
Bardovi-Harlig, K. (2002). Analyzing Aspect. M. R. Salaberry, & Y. Shirai (Eds), The
L2 Acquisition of Tense-Aspect Morphology (pp. 129-154). Philadelphia: John
Benjamins Publishing Company.
Bardovi-Harlig, K. (1987). Markedness and Salience in Second-Language Acquisition.
Language Learning , 37(3), 385-407.
Bardovi-Harlig, K. (1998). Narrative Structure: Conspiring Factors in Second Language
Acquisition of Tense-Aspect Morphology. Studies in Second Language
Acquisition, 20, 471-508.
Bardovi-Harlig, K. (1992). The relationship of form and meaning: A cross-sectional
study of tense and aspect in the interlanguage of learners of English as a second
language. Applied Psycholinguistics, 13, 253-278.
Bardovi-Harlig, K. (1994). Reverse-Order Reports and the Acquisition of Tense: Beyond
the Principle of Chronological Order. Language Learning, 44(2), 243-282.
Bardovi-Harlig, K. (2000). Tense and Aspect in Second Language Acquisition: Form,
Meaning, and Use (Language Learning Monograph Series . Massachusetts:
Blackwell Publishers, Ltd.
61
Bardovi-Harlig, K. (1992). The Use of Adverbials and Natural Order in the Development
of Temporal Expression. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 30(4), 299-
320.
Bardovi-Harlig, K., & Bergström, A. (1996). Acquisition of Tense and Aspect in Second
Language and Foreign Language Learning: Learner Narratives in ESL and FFL.
The Canadian Modern Language Review, 52(2), 308-330.
Bardovi-Harlig, K., & Bofman, T. (1989). Attainment of Syntactic and Morphological
Accuracy by Advanced Language Learners. Studies in Second Language
Acquisition, 11, 17-34.
Bardovi-Harlig, K., & Reynolds, D. W. (1995). The Role of Lexical Aspect in the
Acquisition of Tense and Aspect. TESOL Quarterly, 29(1), 107-131.
Bayley, R. (1994). Interlanguage Variation and the Quantitative Paradigm: Past Tense
Marking in Chinese-English. S. M. Gass, A. D. Cohen, & E. Tarone (Eds),
Research methodology in second language acquisition (pp. 157-181). Hillsdale,
NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.
Bull, W. E. (1960). Time, Tense, and The Verb: A Study in Theoretical and Applied
Linguistics, with Particular Attention to Spanish. Los Angeles, CA.: University of
California Press.
Butler, L., & Janet Podnecky. (2000). Grammar Links 1: A Theme-Based Course for
Reference and Practice. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.
62
Bybee, J. L., & Dahl, Ö. (1989). The Creation of Tense and Aspect Systems in the
Languages of the World. Studies in Language, 13(1), 51-103.
Cadierno, T. (1995). Formal instruction from a processing perspective: An investigation
into the Spanish past tense. The Modern Language Journal, 79, 179-193.
Celce-Murcia, M., & Larsen-Freeman, D. (1999). The Grammar Book: An ESL/EFL
Teacher's Course (2nd ed.). USA: Heinle & Heinle Publishers.
Dahl, Ö. (2000). Tense and aspect in the languages of Europe (Empirical approaches to
language typology: Empirical approaches to language typology No. 20-6). Berlin,
New York: Mouton de Gruyter.
Dahl, Ö. (1985). Tense and Aspect Systems. Bath: Basil Blackwell.
Dahl, Ö. (2000). The tense-aspect systems of European languages in a typological
perspective. Ö. Dahl (Ed), Tense and aspect in the languages of Europe (pp. 3-
25). Berlin, New York: Mouton de Gruyter.
Elbaum, S. N. (2001). Grammar in Context 1 (3rd ed.). (Grammar in Context . Boston,
MA: Heinle & Heinle Publishers.
Giacalone Ramat, A. (1995). Function and Form of Modality in Learner Italian. A.
Giacalone Ramat, & Grocco Galeas G. From Pragmatics to Syntax: Modality in
Second Language Acquisition (pp. 269-293). Tübingen: Narr.
Giacalone Ramat, A. (1992). Grammaticalization Processes in the Area of Temporal and
Modal Relatiobns. Studies in Sencond Language Acquisition, 14, 297-322.
63
Giacalone Ramat, A. (1997). Progressive periphrases, markedness, and second language
data. S. Eliasson, & E. H. Jahr Language and its Ecology (pp. 261-285). Berlin:
Mouton.
Hwu, F. (2004). On the Applicability of the Input-enhancement Hypothesis and Input
Processing Theory in Multimedia CALL: The Case of Spanish Preterite and
Imperfect in an Input Application. CALICO, 21(2), 317-338.
Kirn, E., & Jack, D. (2002). Interactions I: Grammar (4th ed.). (Interactions . New York:
McGraw Hill/Contemporary.
Klein, W. (1995). The Acquisition of English. R. Dietrich, W. Klein, & C. Noyau (Eds),
The acquisition of temporality in a second language (pp. 31-70). Amsterdam:
Benjamins.
Klein, W. (1995). Frame of Analysis. R. Dietrich , W. Klein, & C. Noyau (Eds), The
acquisition of temporality in a second language (pp. 17-29). Amsterdam:
Benjamins.
Klein, W., Dietrich, R., & Noyau, C. (1995). Conclusions. R. Dietrich, W. Klein, & C.
Noyau (Eds), The acquisition of temporality in a second language (pp. 261-280).
Amsterdam: Benjamins.
Krashen, S. D. Formal Grammar Instruction: Another Educator Comments ... TESOL
Quarterly, 26, 409-411.
64
Krashen, S. D. (1985). The Input Hypothesis. S. D. Krashen The Input Hypothesis:
Issues and Implications (pp. 1-55). New York: Longman.
Krashen, S. D. (1983). Newmark's "Ignorance Hypothesis" and current SLA theory. S.
M. Gass, & L. Selinker (Eds), Language Transfer in Language Learning (pp. 135-
153). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
Lee, J. F. (2004). On the Generalizability, Limits, and Potential Future Directions of
Processing Instruction Research. B. VanPatten (Ed.), Processing Instruction:
Theory, Research, and Commentary (, Chap. 16, p. 311321). Mahwah, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Lee, J. (2002). The incidental acquisition of Spanish: Future tense morphology through
reading in a second language. StudiesStudies in Second Language Acquisition,
24, 55-80.
Lee, J., Glass, W., Cadierno, T., & VanPatten, B. (1997). The effects of lexical and
grammatical cues on processing past temporal reference in second language input.
Applied Language Learning, 8, 1-23.
Lee, J., & VanPatten, B. (1995). Making communicative language teaching happen.
Boston, MA: McGraw Hill.
Lee, J., & VanPatten, B. (1995). Making communicative language teaching happen.
Boston, MA: McGraw Hill.
65
Liskin-Gasparro, J. (2000). The Use of Tense-Aspect Morphology in Spanish Oral
Narratives: Exploring the Perceptions of Advanced Learners. Hispania, 83, 830-
844.
Long, M. H. (1990). The Least a Second Language Acquisition Theory Needs to Explain.
TESOL Quarterly , 24(4), 649-666.
Long, M. H. (1990). Maturational Constraints on Language Develpment. Studies in
Second Language Acquisition, 12, 251-285.
Mahnke, M. K., & O'Dowd, E. (1999). Grammar Links 2: A Theme-Based Course for
Reference and Practice (Grammar Links . Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company.
Maurelatos, A. (1981). Events, processes, states. P. Tedeshi, & A. Zaenen (Editors),
Syntax and Semantics: Tense and Aspect (pp. 191-212). New York: Academic
Press.
McLaughlin, B. (1987). The Natural Order Hypothesis; The morpheme studies. B.
McLaughlin Theories of second-language learning (pp. 30-35;66-69). London:
Arnold.
Meisel, J. M. (1987). Reference to Past Events and Actions in the Develpment of Natural
Second Language Acquisition. C. W. Pfaff (Ed), First and second language
acquisition processes (pp. 206-223). Cambridge, MA: Newbury House.
Montrul, S. (2001). Agentive Verbs of Manner of Motion in Spanish and English as
66
Second Languages. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 23, 171-206.
Montrul, S., & Slabakova, R. (1999). The L2 Acquisition of Morphosyntactic and
Semantic Properties of the Aspectual Tenses. A. T. Perez-Leroux, & J. Liceras
The Acquisition of Spanish Morphosyntax . unknown: Kluwer.
Murphy, R., & Smalzer, W. R. (2002). Basic Grammar in Use: Reference and Practice
for Students of English (Grammar in Use . New York: Cambridge University
Press.
Murphy, R., & William R.Smalzer. (2000). Grammar in Use: Intermediate: Self-study
reference and practice for students of English (2nd ed.). New York: Cambridge
University Press.
Perdue, C., & Klein, W. (1992). Why does the production of some learners not
grammaticalize? Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 14, 259-272.
Pienemann, M. (1989). Is Language Teachable? Psycholinguistic Experiments and
Hypotheses. Applied Linguistics, 10(1), 52-79.
Quirk, R., & Greenbaum Sydney. (1973). A Concise Grammar of Contemporary English.
New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Publishers.
Richards, J. C. (2000). New Interchange: English for International Communication
INTRO Student's Book (New Interchange . New York: Cambridge University
Press.
67
Richards, J. C., Hull, J., & Proctor, S. (1997a). New Interchange: English for
International Communication Student's Book 1 (New Interchange . New York:
Cambridge University Press.
Richards, J. C., Hull, J., & Proctor, S. (1997b). New Interchange: English for
International Communication Student's Book 2. New York: Cambridge University
Press.
Richards, J. C., Hull, J., & Proctor, S. (1998). New Interchange: English for International
Communication Student's Book 3. New York: Cambridge Univerisity Press.
Richards, J. C., & Lockhart, C. (1996). Reflective Teaching in Second Language
Classrooms (Cambridge Language Education Cambridge University Press.
Richards, J. C., & Sandy, C. (2000). Passages: An upper-level multi-skills course
Student's Book 2. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Robinson, R. E. (1995). The Aspect Hypothesis Revisited: A Cross-Sectional Study of
Tense and Aspect Marking in Interlanguage. Applied Linguistics, 16(3), 344-370.
Robinson, R. E. (1990). The Primacy of Aspect: Aspectual Marking in English
Interlanguage. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 12, 315-330.
Rohde, A. (1996). The aspect hypothesis and emergence of tense distinction in
naturalistic L2 acquisition. Linguistics, 34, 1115-1138.
Salaberry, M. R. (1998). The development of aspectual distinctions in academic L2
French. Canadian Modern Language Review, 54, 508-542.
68
Salaberry, M. R. (1999). The Development of Past Tense Verbal Morphology in
Classroom L2 Spanish. Applied Linguistics , 20(2), 151-178.
Sanz, C. (2003). Computer Delivered Implicit versus Explicit Feedback in Processing
Instruction. B. VanPatten (Ed), Processing Instruction: Theory, Research, and
Commentary (pp. 241-256). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Sanz, C. (1997). Experimental tasks in SLA research: Amount of production, modality,
memory, and production processes. W. R. Glass, & A. T. Pérez-Leroux (Eds),
Contemporary perspectives on the acquisition of Spanish (Vol. 2pp. 41-56).
Somerville: Cascadilla Press.
Savignon, S. (1972). Communicative competence: An experiment in foreign language
teaching. Philadelphia, PA: Center for Curriculum Development.
Schmidt, R. (1990). The Role of consciousness in second langauge learning. Applied Linguistics, 11, 129-158.
Sciarone, A., & Meijer, P. (1993). How free should students be? A case from CALL:
Computer-assisted language learning. Computers and Education, 21(1-2), 95-102.
Shirai, Y. (1999). The Prototype Hypothesis of Tense-Aspect Acquisition. Proceedings of
the Third Pacific Second Language Reserach Forum: (pp. 151-164). Tokyo: The
Pacific Second Language Research Forum.
Shirai, Y., & Kurono, A. (1998). The acquisition of tense-aspect marking in Japanese as a
second language. Language Learning, 48, 245-279.
69
Slabakova, R. (2002). Recent research on the acquisition of aspect: An embarrasment of
riches? Second Language Research , 18(2), 172-188.
Slabakova, R. (2000). Transfer Revisited: L2 Acquisition of Telicity in English by
Spanish and Slavic Native Speakers. Linguistics, 38(4), 739-770.
Slabakova, R., & Montrul, S. (2002). Aspectual Tenses in Spanish L2 Acquisition: A UG
Perspective. Y. Shirai, & R. Salaberry (Editors), Tense-Aspect Morphology in L2
Acquisition . Amsterdam: Benjamins.
Slabakova, R., & Montrul, S. (1999). Aspectual Tenses in Spanish L2 Acquisition: A UG
Perspective [Article available online at
http://www.uiowa.edu/~linguist/faculty/slabakova/personal/Benjamins.pdf ].
Slabakova, R., & Montrul Silvina. (2002). On viewpoint aspect interpretation and its L2
acquisition. R. Salaberry, & Y. Shirai (Editors), Tense-Aspect Morphology in L2
Acquisition (pp. 365-395). Amsterdam: Bejamins .
Smith, C. S. (1997). The Parameter of Aspect (2nd ed.). Dordrecht: Kluwer.
Smith, C. S. (1983). A theory of aspectual class. Language, 59, 479-501.
Soo, K.-S., & Ngeow, Y.-H. (1998). Effective English as a second language instruction
with itnteractive multimedia: The MCALL project. Journal of Educational
Multimedia and Hypermedia, 7(1), 71-89.
Tarone, E., Gass, S. M., & Cohen, A. D. (1994). Research methodology in second-
language acquisition. Hillsdale, N.J. : L. Erlbaum.
70
Thewlis, S. H. (2000). Grammar Dimensions: Form, Meaning, and Use (Platinum ed.).
Boston, MA: Hainle & Heinle Publishers.
Thomas, M. (1994). Assessment of L2 Proficiency in Second Language Acquisition
Research. Language Learning, 44(2), 307-336.
Trévise, A., & Porquier, R. (1986). Second Language Acquisition by Adult Immigrants:
Exemplified Methodology. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 8, 265-275.
van Zante, J., Daise, D., Norloff, C., & Falk, R. (2000). Grammar Links 3: A Theme-
Based Course for Reference and Practice (Grammar Links: A Theme-Based
Course for Reference and Practice . Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company.
VanPatten, B. (2004). Processing Instruction: Theory, Research, and Comentary.
Mahwah, NJ: Lawerence Erlbaum Associates.
VanPatten, B. (1985). Communicative value and information processing in second
language acquisition. P. Larson, E. Judd, & D. S. Messerschmitt (Eds), On
TESOL: A brave new world for TESOL (pp. 89-100). Washington, DC: TESOL.
VanPatten, B. (1996). Input processing and grammar instruction. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
VanPatten, B. (1984). Processing Strategies and Morpheme Acquisition. F. R. Eckman,
L. H. Bell, & D. Nelson (Eds), Universals of Second Language Acquisition (pp.
88-98). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
VanPatten, B., & Cadierno, T. (1993). Explicit instruction and input processing. Studies
in Second Language Acquisition, 15 , 225-243.
71
VanPatten, B., & Fernández, C. (2003). The Long-Term Effects of Processing
Instruction. B. VanPatten (Ed), Processing Instruction: Theory, Research, and
Commentary (pp. 273-289). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
VanPatten, B., Lee, J., & Ballman, T. (2000). Vistazos: Un curso breve. Boston, MA:
McGraw Hill.
VanPatten, B., Lee, J., & Ballman, T. (2000). Vistazos: Un curso breve. Boston, MA:
McGraw Hill.
VanPatten, B., & Oikennon, S. (1996). Explanation vs. structured input in processing
instruction. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 18, 495-510.
VanPatten, B., & Sanz, C. (1995). From input to output: Processing instruction and
communicative tasks. F. R. Eckman, P. W. Highland , J. Lee, & R. R. Weber
(Eds), Second Language Acquisition Theory and Pedagogy (pp. 169-185).
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
VanPatten, B., & Wong, W. (2003). Processing Instruction and the French Causative:
Another Replication. B. VanPatten (Ed), Processing Instruction: Theory,
Research, and Commentary (pp. 97-117). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates.
Vendler, Z. (1967). Verbs and times. Z. Vendler (Ed), Linguistics and philosophy (pp.
97-121). NY: Cornell University Press.
72
Verkuyl, H. (2001). Aspectual Composition: Surveying the Ingredients. Proceedings of
the Ultrech Perspectives on Aspect ConferenceProceedings of the Ultrech
Perspectives on Aspect Conference (pp. 201-219). Utrech: Univerteit Utrech.
Verkuyl, H. (1999) Events or Indices [Web Page]. URL
http://www.let.uu.nl/~Henk.Verkuyl/personal/eoi.pdf [2002, November 25].
Verkuyl, H. (1972). On the Compositional Nature of the Aspects. Dordrecht: Reidel.
Verkuyl, H. (1993). A theory of Aspectuality. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Verkuyl, H. J. (2001). Aspectual Composition: Surveying the Ingredients. Proceedings of
the Ultrech Perspectives on Aspect ConferenceProceedings of the Ultrech
Perspectives on Aspect Conference [Article available online at
http://www.let.uu.nl/~Henk.Verkuyl/personal/ ] (pp. 201-219). Utrech: Univerteit
Utrech.
Werner, P. K., Nelson, J. P., & Steedman, M. (2002). Interactions Access: Grammar (4th
ed.). (Interactions . New York: McGraw Hill/Contemporary.
Werner, P. K., & Spaventa, L. (2002). Mosaic 1: Grammar (4th ed.). (Mosaic . USA:
McGraw Hill/Contemporary.
White, L. (1989). The logical problem of second language acquisition. L. White
Universal Grammar and Second Language Acquisition (pp. 35-55). Philadelphia,
USA: John Benjamins Publishing Company.
73
White, L. (1990). Second Language Acquisition and Universal Grammar. Studies in
Second Language Acquisition, 12, 121-133.
White, L. (1992). Universal Grammar: Is It Just a New Name for Old Problems? S. M.
Gass, & L. Selinker (Eds), Language Transfer in Language Learning (pp. 217-
232). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Wolfram, W. (1985). Variability in Tense Marking: A Case for the Obvious. Language
Learning, 35(2), 229-253.
Wolfram, W., & Hatfield, D. (1985). Interlanguage Fads and Linguistic Reality: The
Case of Tense Marking. D. Tannen, & J. E. Alatis (Editors), GURT '85
Languages and Linguistics: The Interdependance of Theory, Data, and
Application . Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press.
Wolter, B. (2001). Comparing the L1 and L2 Mental Lexicon: A Depth of Individual
Word Knowledge Model. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 23, 41-69.
Wong, W. (2003). Processing Instruction in French: The Roles of Explicit Information
and Structured Input. B. VanPatten (Ed), Processing Instruction: Theory,
Research, and Commentary (pp. 187-206). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates.
Young, R., & Strauch, A. O. (1994). Nitty Gritty Grammar: Sentence Essentials for
Writers. New York: Cambridge University Press.
