A review of autobiographical memory studies on patients with ......* Correspondence:...

RESEARCH ARTICLE Open Access

A review of autobiographical memorystudies on patients with schizophreniaspectrum disordersYujia Zhang1†, Sara K. Kuhn2†, Laura Jobson3† and Shamsul Haque1*†

Abstract

Background: Patients suffering from schizophrenia spectrum disorders demonstrate various cognitive deficiencies,the most pertinent one being impairment in autobiographical memory. This paper reviews quantitative researchinvestigating deficits in the content, and characteristics, of autobiographical memories in individuals withschizophrenia. It also examines if the method used to activate autobiographical memories influenced the resultsand which theoretical accounts were proposed to explain the defective recall of autobiographical memories inpatients with schizophrenia.

Methods: PsycINFO, Web of Science, and PubMed databases were searched for articles published between January1998 and December 2018. Fifty-seven studies met the inclusion criteria. All studies implemented the generativeretrieval strategy by inducing memories through cue words or pictures, the life-stage method, or open-endedretrieval method. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) Statementguidelines were followed for this review.

Results: Most studies reported that patients with schizophrenia retrieve less specific autobiographical memorieswhen compared to a healthy control group, while only three studies indicated that both groups performedsimilarly on memory specificity. Patients with schizophrenia also exhibited earlier reminiscence bumps than thosefor healthy controls. The relationship between comorbid depression and autobiographical memory specificityappeared to be independent because patients’ memory specificity improved through intervention, but their level ofdepression remained unchanged. The U-shaped retrieval pattern for memory specificity was not consistent. Boththe connection between the history of attempted suicide and autobiographical memory specificity, and therelationship between psychotic symptoms and autobiographical memory specificity, remain inconclusive. Patients’memory specificity and coherence improved through cognitive training.

Conclusions: The overgeneral recall of autobiographical memory by patients with schizophrenia could beattributed to working memory, the disturbing concept of self, and the cuing method implemented. The earlierreminiscence bump for patients with schizophrenia may be explained by the premature closure of the identityformation process due to the emergence of psychotic symptoms during early adulthood. Protocol developed forthis review was registered in PROSPERO (registration no: CRD42017062643).

Keywords: Schizophrenia, Autobiographical memory, Cuing methods, Self-memory system, CaR-FA-X model

© The Author(s). 2019 Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, andreproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link tothe Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver(http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated.

* Correspondence: [email protected]†Yujia Zhang, Sara K. Kuhn, Laura Jobson and Shamsul Haque contributedequally to this work.1Department of Psychology, Jeffrey Cheah School of Medicine and HealthSciences, Monash University Malaysia, Jalan Lagoon Selatan, 47500 BandarSunway, Selangor Darul Ehsan, MalaysiaFull list of author information is available at the end of the article

Zhang et al. BMC Psychiatry (2019) 19:361 https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-019-2346-6

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BackgroundSchizophrenia spectrum disorders (hereinafter referred toas schizophrenia) are chronic mental disorders with alifetime prevalence rate of about 1% of the populationworldwide [1, 2]. The symptoms of these disorders typic-ally emerge between the mid-teens to mid-30s, with thedisease onset in males being slightly earlier than in fe-males [1, 3]. Patients with schizophrenia demonstratesignificant cognitive deficiency, which is considered tobe the primary reason for impairments in social func-tioning [4, 5]. Cognitive deficits in the domains of auto-biographical memory (AM), working memory,processing speed, and cognitive control are prevalent[6–9]. Impairments in social cognition and theory ofmind (ToM) are also widely reported [10, 11]. The aimof this paper is to review research examining one corecognitive deficit in patients with schizophrenia: deficitsin AM. Specifically, we aimed to review the research thatinvestigated: (a) deficits in AM content and structure;(b) how insight, depression, and history of attemptedsuicide affected the memory of patients with schizophre-nia; and (c) theoretical accounts that were attributed tothe defective recall of AMs among these patients. Stud-ies in this area implement different cuing techniques;thus, a secondary aim was to consider whether AMmethodology influenced results.We are interested in the AMs of patients with schizo-

phrenia because deficits in this type of cognition signifi-cantly impair an individual’s self-identity, ability to learnfrom experiences, and social communication. The mostrecent systematic review on AM in patients with schizo-phrenia summarised findings concerning the compo-nents of AM among patients with schizophrenia, andother mental disorders, in the case where AM has beenstudied [12]. This comprehensive review included 78full-text articles selected from PubMed and PsycINFOand published since the inception of those databasesthrough July 2015. The results illustrated that AMcomponents such as form, content, awareness at re-trieval, and lifespan distribution were impaired in pa-tients with schizophrenia compared to normalcontrols. The reviewers concluded that defective AMis a major cognitive impairment in people sufferingfrom schizophrenia [13].The current systematic review focuses on similar re-

search questions, but also considers three additional andimportant aspects. First, it has re-examined various the-oretical frameworks proposed to explain defective AMsin patients with schizophrenia, including the Self-memory System [14]. Second, as 14 new articles on thesame topic have appeared in the literature since the pub-lication of the last review, we included them in thecurrent review to give an up-to-date overview of thesefindings. We also included an additional 15 articles

published before the last review that were not previouslyconsidered by the reviewers. Third, since the previousreview examined the intervention programmes used toimprove patients’ AMs and found contradictory evi-dence, we aimed to offer an in-depth analysis of whysome interventions worked and why some failed to pro-duce any positive outcomes.In this systematic review, features of AM in patients

with schizophrenia were considered through the lens ofthe Self Memory System (SMS) [14] and the CaR-FA-Xmodel [15]. According to SMS [14, 16], the retrieval ofAM is guided by complex interactions among an indi-vidual’s working self, conceptual self, and the autobio-graphical knowledge base. The term “working self” inSMS refers to “a .complex set of active goals and associ-ated self-images” [17]. The conceptual self, however,contains the socially constructed schema and categoriesthat define the self, other people, and an individual’s typ-ical interaction with the environment. It is learnedthrough socialisation, schooling, and religious practices.The SMS model postulates that recall of AM requiresactivation by cues to access participants’ autobiograph-ical knowledge base. Participants elaborate upon thegiven cue (often presented in the form of cue words)through mental imagery, which is then used to accessthe autobiographical knowledge base comprising lifetimeperiod knowledge, general event knowledge, and event-specific episodic memory. Lifetime period knowledge re-fers to the general knowledge of significant others, com-mon locations, actions, activities, goals, and plans thatare characteristic of that period (e.g., when I was atboarding school) [14]. Lifetime period knowledge oftenrepresents thematic information in memory description,which can overlap with other thematic knowledge. Gen-eral event knowledge is more specific. A general eventrepresents a set of related events and contains differentpieces of memories that can be grouped into the sametheme (e.g., I went to Penang with my friends, and wedrove on the highway along the seaside and ate a lot offood that night). The key feature of episodic memory isvividness, in which people form mental imagery of theirpast experiences. Vividness encompasses the sensory-perceptual details of an event, including sounds, smells,movements and emotions [14].AM specificity depends on the goals of working self.

The idea of “self-discrepancy,” coined by Higgins [18], isoften used to interpret this process. A large self-discrepancy—which is the discrepancy found among theactual self, ideal self, and ought self—normally causes anegative feedback loop, while a small discrepancy resultsin a positive feedback loop [14]. These feedback loopshave a direct effect on an individual’s current goals, in-tentions, or motives, which either inhibit or facilitate theeffort to access the autobiographical knowledge base. If

Zhang et al. BMC Psychiatry (2019) 19:361 of 36

a positive feedback loop is formed, AM specificity ishigher; in a negative feedback loop, specificity is re-duced. A person’s ability to recall detailed past experi-ences indicates a high integration between goals and theworking self [14]. Therefore, the less integrated the goalsand working self, the less likely one is to access eventspecific knowledge; thus, more general (or lifetimeperiod) knowledge is retrieved. According to Conwayand Pleydell-Pearce [14], when there is an incongruitybetween the goals of working self and the autobio-graphical knowledge base, the SMS breaks down interms of its normal functionality. If the SMS remainsnonfunctioning, and the disagreement between thesetwo components unresolved, symptoms of confabula-tion, disjunctions, or schizophrenic delusions mayoccur [14, 17].Overgeneral AM is common among patients suffering

from various mental disorders such as anxiety [15], de-pression [19], and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)[20]. Deficiencies in social problem solving and feelingsof increased hopelessness are associated with overgen-eral AM [21]. Three hypotheses have been proposed toexplain this phenomenon, collectively known as theCaR-FA-X model, and consisting of: the capture and ru-mination (CaR) hypothesis, functional avoidance (FA)hypothesis, and impaired executive control (X) hypoth-esis [15]. According to the capture and rumination hy-pothesis, people suffering from anxiety, PTSD, ordepression, show a tendency to dwell upon events andthoughts which may monopolise working memory cap-acity, limiting the cognitive resources required to con-struct specific AMs [15]. Patients tend to ruminateabout things that concern them. In a cued recall para-digm, they map the cues onto their current concerns ra-ther than elaborate the cues adequately to initiate asearch for a specific AM [22]. This mapping of cues andpersonal concerns results in the retrieval of abstract,self-related knowledge rather than specific AMs [23].According to the functional avoidance hypothesis, pa-

tients retrieve overgeneral AMs to avoid negative affectlinked to their traumatic life experiences [24]. The re-trieval of detailed AMs, especially the traumatic ones,leads to distress among patients. Overgeneral AMs arenegatively reinforced to protect them from excess suffer-ing [25]. Lastly, the impaired executive control hypoth-esis suggests that construction of an AM requires thecentral executive of working memory to initiate andmaintain the search within the autobiographical know-ledge base [14]. Any kind of interference with thisprocess—either by distracting attention or overloadingworking memory—would lead to early search termin-ation and thus, overgeneral AMs [19].A recent meta-analysis [13] conducted on 20 studies,

which included 571 patients with schizophrenia and 503

comparison participants, revealed that patients hadlower levels of AM specificity, provided less detailedmemories, and reported less conscious recollection thanhealthy controls. A large-to-medium effect size was re-ported for those three AM parameters. The meta-analysis also examined different methods being used toinduce AMs in the patient population and whether thosemethods influenced the findings. No evidence was foundto suggest it did. Several theoretical explanations wereprovided for why patients with schizophrenia were lesslikely to construct specific AMs (i.e., AMs that are lessspecific in meaning, recall time, people involved, and lo-cation or setting), including difficulty retrieving eventsthat occurred in less than 1 day. First, the authors of themeta-analysis—in line with the CaR-FA-X model—pro-posed that dysfunctional executive functions, due to pre-frontal cortex dysfunctions at both structural andmolecular levels, are responsible for the patients not be-ing able to construct AMs with enough detail.Secondly, patients’ impaired ability to encode AM de-

tails results in the retrieval of less specific AMs. Due toexecutive dysfunction, the patients face difficulty linkingand organising details of the memory for future recall; aphenomenon known as defective strategic encoding [26].These relational memory impairments described inschizophrenia [27, 28] point to defective functioning ofthe hippocampus [29]. A significant positive correlationwas observed between left hippocampal volume and thenumber of AM details recalled [30], suggesting that al-teration of the hippocampus may contribute to AM im-pairment observed in patients. However, it is quitedifficult to examine the relationship between defectivestrategic encoding and AM specificity as personal lifeevents normally take place several years before the AMtest. In addition, the events occurring before onset of thedisease—likely to be the beginning of the defective stra-tegic encoding—also suffer from less detailed recollec-tion. Thirdly, patients with schizophrenia often havetraumatic histories and employ emotional regulationprocesses, such as cognitive avoidance, which may pre-vent them from recalling AMs with enough detail. Nor-mally functioning people, [31–33] as well as people withhigh stress levels, [34] were also found to use these sameemotional regulation processes.The results summarised above from this published

meta-analysis [13] are updated and expanded upon inthe current review. For example, we have reexaminedthe types of memory activation methods being used inpublished studies. We aim to also address a range ofother issues related to patients’ AM. First, although themeta-analysis examined if different cueing methods in-duced AMs with varying specificity, we have reassessedthis aspect as several new studies have been publishedsince the 2016 meta-analysis. Second, we were curious


to know whether patients’ current level of insight, co-morbid depression, and history of attempted suicide in-fluenced their memory recollection. Third, we relookedat the distribution of patients’ AMs across the lifespan.Although this aspect was thoroughly reviewed by Ricarteand colleagues [12], we aim to discover if their resultswould be altered due to the recent publication of severalnew studies. Fourth, the theoretical accounts highlightedin the meta-analysis received limited support, so we havethoroughly examined the interpretations offered by vari-ous authors and summarised them. Finally, we examinedliterature reporting the effects of various interventionprogrammes on the improvement of patients’ memoryspecificity.

MethodProtocol developed for this review was registered inPROSPERO, an international prospective register forsystematic reviews (registration no: CRD42017062643),and was executed according to the Preferred ReportingItems for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses(PRISMA) Statement and flow diagram [35] (see Fig. 1).The researchers searched PsycINFO, Web of Science,

and PubMed databases for articles published betweenJanuary 1998 and December 2018. Search terms were:“autobiographical memory”, “episodic memory”, “lifestory”, or “narrative”; and “schizophrenia”, “schizophre-nia spectrum disorders”, “psychosis”, or “delusions”.

Inclusion criteria were that studies must be quantitative,and: (a) published in an English language journal from1998 to December 2018; (b) report on autobiographicalmemory (AM) data accumulated from patients withschizophrenia according to the Diagnostic and StatisticalManual of Mental Disorders (DSM-III, DSM-IV, andDSM V), or the International Classification of Diseases(ICD-9, or ICD-10) criteria; (c) compare AM perform-ance among patients with schizophrenia, and also tohealthy controls; and (d) report on at least one measureof features, content, or specificity of AM.The first and last authors of this paper assessed article

quality using 14 criteria developed by Kmet and col-leagues [36], including: research objective, design,method, participant, measures, sample size, data analysis,results, and conclusion (see Appendix A). They assessedand scored each paper independently and assigned art-icle scores from 0 to 2 reflecting the degree to which thespecific criteria were met or reported on (i.e., yes = 2,partial = 1, no = 0). Items not applicable to a given cri-teria were marked N/A and excluded from the final cal-culation. Discrepancies between the two reviewers wereresolved through discussion.

ResultsLiterature searchThe initial database literature search for the current re-view produced 3340 titles, of which 759 from Ovid

Fig. 1 PRISMA-chart


MEDLINE, 1240 from PsycINFO, 1338 from Web of sci-ence, and 3 from other sources. After screening the ti-tles, 485 articles were retained as the duplicates wereremoved. A total of 352 articles were further removedfrom this list after screening the abstracts, keeping only133 articles for full-text review. The screening of full-text articles excluded another 76 articles. The remaining57 articles were finally included in the current systematicreview, and their data were extracted (see Table 1).We present results in four sections reflecting the four

main themes extracted from the literature: (1) methodsto activate AM; (2) features of AM retrieved by patientswith schizophrenia; (3) enhancing memory specificityand coherence; and (4) theoretical accounts employed tointerpret the results.

Autobiographical memory activation methodsThere were three activation/retrieval methods imple-mented in the reviewed studies: cue word/picturemethods, life stages methods, and open-ended methods(see Table 2).

Cue word/picture methodSeventeen studies used cue words or pictures to evokeautobiographical memories (AMs) from patients withschizophrenia (see Table 2). Cues included pictures orpositive and negative emotion words (e.g., the wordshappy and joyful were used as positive cues; the wordsinsecure and lazy as negative cues). The cue word/pic-ture methods implemented in 12 studies were adaptedfrom Williams and Broadbent [90]. The form (e.g., pre-sented verbally or on cards) and number of cues in thereviewed studies varied. Several studies presented twocue sets (positive and negative) [38, 42, 43, 47, 54, 67,72, 83], while others used three sets (positive, negative,and neutral) or defeat-related cues [52, 60, 63, 68, 80].Sets of cue words employed varied. For example,McLeod and Wood [47] used happy, proud, relieved,pleased, excited, and hopeful as positive cue words, whileTaylor and Gooding [60] used the words tender, excited,friendly, peaceful, and pleasant. Picture cues were alsoused [51], including 120 pictures (i.e., positive, negative,and neutral images) from the International Affective Pic-ture System to stimulate participants’ emotions to evokespecific memories [91]. One study [65] used cue-within-the-cue words adapted from an earlier study [105]. Afterthe patients retrieved a specific AM for each cue word,they were asked to title the memory; this title was usedto evoke another memory in a subsequent trial [65].One study [77] applied the Narrative of Emotion Task,asking participants to construct their experiences basedon simple (i.e., happy; sad), complex (i.e., surprised; sus-picious), and self-conscious (i.e., ashamed; guilty) emo-tion words. Another study [55] used the Schedule for

Deficit Syndrome [94] to prompt AMs through the useof emotion words (e.g., happiness, enjoyment, sadness,upset, and irritation).

Life stages methodThe life stages method was found in 15 studies. TheAutobiographical Memory Interview (AMI) [95],employed in five studies (see Table 2), was the secondmost often used assessment. In AMI, participants areasked to recall three events in great detail from each lifestage: childhood, early adulthood, and recent life. TheAutobiographical Memory Enquiry (ABME) [97], themost frequently used measure, appears in six studies(see Table 2) to induce patients’ AM in four life stages:(a) childhood to age 9, (b) ages 10 to 19, (c) age 20 to 1year before the test, and (d) the current year. The Auto-biographical Memory Inquiry [96]—quite similar toABME—appears in two studies (see Table 2), and alsoelicited the recollection of patients’ AMs in four lifestages. The sole difference between these two measureslies in the representation of the second and third stages.The Autobiographical Memory Inquiry’s second stage isfrom age 11 to the age of symptom onset, and the thirdstage is from the age of onset to 1 year before the test[96]. Two studies (see Table 2) employed the German E-AGI (Erweitertes Autobiographisches Gedächtnisinter-view) [98] to elicit AM recollection. It prompts memor-ies for five life stages: preschool, primary school,secondary school, early adulthood (i.e., until the age of35), and the most recent 5 years. One recent study [87]employed the Questionnaire of Autobiographical Mem-ory (QAM), including two scales measuring semanticand episodic AM recalled from three different lifeperiods.

Open-ended retrieval methodIn 26 studies (see Table 2), open-ended retrievalmethods encouraged participants to freely recall lifeevents without providing more than necessary precondi-tioned information (e.g., at a certain period of time, or ina certain mood). The two most frequently used open-ended retrieval methods were the protocol from the In-diana Psychiatric Illness Interview (IPII) [104] and themethod to recall self-defining memories (SDMs) [106].While the former method was used in nine studies [45,49, 56, 57, 79, 84, 86], the latter was used in six studies[58, 64, 66, 82, 85]. There were four sessions to completethe IPII. First, participants shared their life stories; nextthey described their psychological conditions, andthirdly, they shared their experience of having these con-ditions. Lastly, participants presented on how their con-ditions affected their lives. The SDMs used in sixstudies, required participants to recall three importantmemories to best define who they are and reflect their


Table

1Extractio

nTables

forSelected

Stud

ies

Nam

eof

theStud

ies

Samplesize

Assessm

ent/Measure

Summaryof

finding

sInterpretatio

nQuality

check

1Feinsteinet

al.(1998)[37]

USA

Stud

y2:

Patients,n=19

Con

trol,n

=10

•AMI*

1)Whe

nAMs,in

term

sof

specificity,w

ere

distrib

uted

over

thelifespan,patientsexhibited

aU-shape

dcurve,meaning

morespecific

mem

orieswererecalledfro

mchildho

odand

recent

yearscomparedto

early

adulthoo

d.

After

initialfailure

inmem

oryrecallfro

mearly

adulthoo

d,somecompe

nsationmay

occur,

allowingforbe

tter

recallfro

mlaterpe

riods,as

wellasa“sup

er-recen

t”effect.A

lso,childho

odmem

oryfro

mtheprem

orbidpe

riodwas

better

encode

dor

moreresistantto

disrup

tion.

0.818

2)Con

trols,ho

wever,sho

wed

arelatively

flatdistrib

ution.

2Kane

yet

al.(1999)[38]

UK

Patients,n=20

Peop

lewith

depression

only,n

=20

Con

trol,n

=20

Samples

werematched

inageandge

nder.

•AMT*

1)Patientsge

neratedless

specificAM

topo

sitivecues

than

negativecues.

Repo

rtingof

overge

neralm

emoryisatypical

respon

sewhilerecalling

atraumaticeven

t.Patientsavoiding

giving

specificde

tails

for

theirpasteven

tsmay

bedu

eto

having

prob

lematicrelatio

nships

inearly

life.

0.955

2)Patientswith

delusion

aldisorder

gene

ratedless

specific(ormorecatego

rical)

AM

than

othe

rgrou

ps.

3)Patientswith

depression

gene

ratedmore

catego

ricalAMscomparedto

othe

rgrou

ps.

4)Patientswith

delusion

aldisorder

recalled

AMsslow

erthan

controls.

3Elvevaget

al.(2003)[39]

Maryland

Patients,n=21

Con

trol,n

=21.

Samples

werematched

inageon

ly.

•Freelyrecollect

episod

esfro

mparticipants’lives.

1)Patientsprod

uced

sign

ificantlyfewer

AMs

than

controlp

articipants.

Possibly“a

gene

ralretrievald

eficit”

inthe

patient

grou

p.Patients’pe

rform

ance

deficit

was

dueto

encoding

oracqu

isition

prob

lems

durin

gthemostrecent

timepe

riod.

Theresearchersbe

lievedthat

patientswere

leftto

theirow

nde

vices;they

didno

tusean

efficient

encoding

strategy.

1.0

2)Patientsprod

uced

moreAMsfro

mthe

timepreced

ingillne

sson

setthan

afterillne

sson

set.

4Riutortet

al.(2003)[40]

France

Patients,n=24

Con

trols,n=24

Samples

werematched

insex,age,anded

ucation.

•AME*

1)Patientsshow

edan

impairm

entof

both

compo

nentsof

AM

(i.e.,sem

aticandep

isod

icmem

ories)andaredu

ctionof

levelsof

specificity,com

paredto

controls.

Thedrug

treatm

entmay

have

contrib

uted

tothepatients’retrievalp

atterns,likeanti-

Parkinson’smed

ication.Ano

ther

reason

could

relate

toade

fect

inen

coding

processes,

provided

that

theillne

sswas

alreadypresen

tbe

fore

theon

setof

symptom

s.(i.e.,neurode

velopm

entalh

ypothe

sis).D

efectiveconstructio

nof

person

aliden

titymay

implya

developm

entalissue

inthefro

ntallobe

.SM

Smod

el:abn

ormality

ofpe

rson

aliden

tity,

which

was

associated

with

redu

cedlevelsof

specificity.

0.955

2)Patientsprod

uced

sign

ificantlyless

specificAMsthan

controlssincetheon

setof

symptom

s.

5Corcoranet

al.(2003)

[41]

UK

Patients,n=59

Con

trols,n=44

Samples

werematched

insexandage.

•AMI*

1)Patientspe

rform

edsign

ificantlyworse

than

controlsin

alltasks.

Odd

even

tsin

childho

od,the

repo

rted

reason

forwhich

couldbe

potentialtraum

atic

childho

odeven

ts.

0.909

2)Patientstend

edto

retrieve

moreod

dAMscomparedto

controls.

3)Theod

dor

negativerecollections

amon

gpatientstend

edto

comefro

mchildho

od.

6Harrison

etal.(2004)[42]

UK

Patients,n=38

•AMT*

1)Patientsrecalledmorecatego

ricalAMs

comparedto

extend

edmem

ories.

Notheo

ryor

theo

reticalframew

orkappliedin

explaining

theresults.

1.0


Table

1Extractio

nTables

forSelected

Stud

ies(Con

tinued)

Nam

eof

theStud

ies

Samplesize

Assessm

ent/Measure

Summaryof

finding

sInterpretatio

nQuality

check

How

ever,the

researchersmen

tione

dthat

patientswererecruitedin

different

stages

ofrecovery;the

refore,the

recouldbe

asampling

bias.The

searelim

itatio

nsof

thestud

y,no

tan

explanationforthefinding

s.

2)Patients’de

pressive

levelswere

sign

ificantlycorrelated

with

avoidancerelatin

gto

psycho

sis.

3)Therewas

asign

ificant

negative

correlationbe

tweenne

gativepsycho

ticsymptom

sandretrievalo

fspe

cific

AM

amon

gpatients.

4)Avoidance

oftraumaticmem

ories

relatin

gto

psycho

sisandspecificity

inAM

weresign

ificant

pred

ictorsforne

gative

symptom

s.

7Iqbaletal.(2004)[43]

UK

Post-psychoticde

pressive

patients,n=13

Patients,n=16

Samples

werematch

inseverityof

illne

ss,g

ende

r,ed

ucation,anddu

ratio

nof

symptom

sor

admission

.

•AMT*

1)Patientswith

depressive

symptom

srecalled

morege

neralm

emory,espe

ciallywith

positive

cue-words,thanpatient

with

outde

pressive

symptom

s.

Autho

rsbe

lievedthat

theseverityof

depressive

symptom

swas

associated

with

positiveor

negativemem

ories.Results

were

supp

ortedby

theidea

from

Williamsand

Broadb

ent[15],thatsymptom

she

lped

toavoidprevious

traumaticexpe

riences

(i.e.,

CARFAXMod

el-avoidancemechanism

).

1.0

2)Nosign

ificancewas

observed

betw

een

grou

psregardingspecificmem

oryretrieval.

3)Patientswith

depressive

symptom

sappe

ared

tohave

better

insigh

t(i.e.,awaren

ess

ofillne

ss)comparedwith

patientswith

out

depression

.

8Danionet

al.(2005)[44]

France

Patients,n=21

Con

trols,n=21

Samples

werematched

inageanded

ucation.

•ABM

E*1)

Patientsratedsign

ificantlylower

than

controlsin

remem

berin

gAMs.

Researchersclaimed

that

drug

treatm

entcould

contrib

uteto

thecurren

tresults.M

oreo

ver,

accordingto

theSM

S,therewou

ldbe

ade

fect

inexecutiveprocesses(i.e.,elabo

rative,

strategic,andevaluativeprocesses).

Theresults

reflected

encoding

oracqu

isition

prob

lems.

0.818

2)Patientsratedsign

ificantlymorethan

controlsto

theeven

tsthat

they

wereun

sure.

3)In

term

sof

detailof

AM,p

atientsscored

sign

ificantlylower

comparedto

controls.

9Lysakeret

al.(2005)[45]

France

Outpatients,n=52

•IPII*

(with

NCR

S*)

1)Lack

ofaw

aren

essin

patientswas

sign

ificantlyrelatedto

narrativein

term

sof

detail,tempo

ralcon

ceptualcon

nection,and

plausibility.

Autho

rsdidno

tprovideanytheo

ryto

supp

ort

theresults.H

owever,the

yexplaine

dthat

positivesymptom

swillim

pact

abstract/flexible

thinking

,hen

ceitmay

have

been

associated

with

plausibilityin

thenarrative.Po

orplausibilityin

narrativereflected

low

functio

nin

socializing.

1.0

2)Lack

ofaw

aren

essin

patientswas

not

3)associated

with

positiveor

negative

symptom

s(i.e.,neurocogn

ition

)andqu

ality

oflife.

4)Lack

ofaw

aren

esswas

associated

with

poor

perfo

rmance

inverbalmem

ory.

5)Associatio

nbe

tweenhigh

levelsof

positivesymptom

swith

poorer

tempo

ral

concep

tualconn

ectio

n,andplausibilityin

narratives

was

observed

.

6)Plausibilityin

narrativewas

associated


Table

1Extractio

nTables

forSelected

Stud

ies(Con

tinued)

Nam

eof

theStud

ies

Samplesize

Assessm

ent/Measure

Summaryof

finding

sInterpretatio

nQuality

check

with

quality

oflife(i.e.,socialfun

ction).

10Lysakeret

al.(2005)[46]

Outpatients,n=16

Con

trol

grou

p:-Blindparticipants,n

=8

-MDD,n

=4

•Narrativeinterview

(with

STAND*)

1)Thequ

ality

ofnarrativein

patientswas

sign

ificantlypo

orer

than

controlsin

term

sof

self-worth

(i.e.,experiencingthem

selves

asvaluableto

othe

rs)a

ndagen

cy(i.e.,abilityto

sensethat

they

canaffect

even

tsin

theirow

nlives),indicatin

gthat

patientsconsider

their

pastto

beof

curren

tsocialvalue,have

apassiveconn

ectio

nto

othe

rs,and

believe

that

theirlives

arecontrolledby

outsideforces.

Autho

rsbe

lievedthat

negativesymptom

s(i.e.,

diminishing

affect;volition

)causedthem

tohave

little

emotion;resulting

inthetelling

ofa

thin

storywith

outmuchcontext.

1.0

2)Neg

ativesymptom

sandne

urocog

nitive

impairm

entwerepred

ictorsof

thepo

orqu

ality

ofpatient

narratives.

3)Noeviden

cethat

observed

narrative

disrup

tions

wereassociated

with

levelsof

depression

/anxiety

orpo

sitivesymptom

s.

4)Awaren

essof

illne

sswas

sign

ificantly

associated

with

insigh

tandjudg

emen

t.

11Lysakeret

al.(2005)[45]

Patients,n=6(average

flexibilityin

abstract

thinking

);n=10

(below

average)

•IPII*

(with

NCR

S*)

1)After

a5-mon

thvocatio

nalreh

abilitatio

n,no

sign

ificant

resultwas

observed

innarrative

cohe

renceam

ongpatients.

Autho

rsbe

lievedthat

patientswith

intact

neurocog

nitiveabilitiesmay

beableto

developmorecohe

rent

storiesaftervocatio

nal

rehabilitation,which

provided

patientswith

working

expe

riences

andhe

lped

them

togain

asenseof

iden

tityandde

veloppe

rson

alpo

tential.

0.818

2)How

ever,the

patient

with

average

flexibilityin

abstract

thinking

seem

edto

improvein

narrativecohe

renceafter5-mon

ths

vocatio

nalreh

abilitatio

n.

12McLeo

det

al.(2006)[47]

UK

Patients,n=20

Con

trols,n=20

Samples

werematched

with

age,ed

ucationlevel,

prem

orbidIQ,levelof

depression

,and

gene

ral

mem

oryability.

•AMI*

•AMT*

1)Patientsshow

edaU-shape

dtempo

ral

gradient,asthey

perfo

rmed

sign

ificantlyworse

inearly

adulthoo

dthan

othe

rpe

riods

oftim

e(i.e.,childho

odandrecent),in

term

sof

person

alfacts.

Autho

rsinterpretedthat

patients’AM

retrieval

processwas

abortedprem

aturely,po

ssibly

reflectingage

nerald

eficitof

respon

seinhibitio

n.U-shape

dpattern:patients’disrup

tionof

encoding

andconsolidationprocessarou

ndtheon

setof

illne

ss(i.e.,lateadolescenceand

early

adulthoo

d).

They

speculated

that

patients’en

coding

deficits

may

bepresen

tedfro

mavery

early

ageandthen

they

remainstableeven

arou

ndthetim

eof

onsetof

illne

ss.

SMS:pe

riodof

late

adolescenceandearly

adulthoo

disatim

ewhe

nAM

know

ledg

eis

beingorganisedto

form

acohe

rent

person

aliden

tity.Goalo

ftheselfplaysamajor

rolein

both

theen

coding

andaccessibility

ofAM

intheno

rmalpo

pulatio

n.Disturbingconcep

tof

selfwas

considered

amajor

factor

inde

velopm

entof

psycho

ticsymptom

s.

1.0

2)Patientsrecalledrecent

person

alfacts

better

than

childho

odpe

rson

alfacts.

3)Con

trolsdidno

tshow

anydifferencein

recalling

even

tsfro

mthreepe

riods

oflife.

4)Patientsrecalledmorerecent

even

tsthan

even

tsfro

mchildho

odandearly

adulthoo

d.

5)Patientsprod

uced

sign

ificantlyless

specificandmorecatego

ricalAMs,andmore

‘uninterpretable’respo

nses

than

controls.

6)Amon

gpatients,thehigh

erprop

ortio

nof

specificAMswas

recalledon

theAMT,and

moreAMson

theAMI.


Table

1Extractio

nTables

forSelected

Stud

ies(Con

tinued)

Nam

eof

theStud

ies

Samplesize

Assessm

ent/Measure

Summaryof

finding

sInterpretatio

nQuality

check

7)Patientsrespon

dedmorequ

icklythan

thecontrolsto

both

positiveandne

gativecue

words.

13Bo

eker

etal.(2006)[48]

Germany

Patients,n=22

Con

trols,n=22

Samples

werematched

inage,ge

nder,edu

catio

n,andIQ.

•AMI*(life

perio

ds)

1)U-shape

dretrievalstylewas

observed

.Autho

rsargu

edthat

lack

ofcapacity

inworking

mem

oryandexecutivefunctio

nmay

create

aninability

tomaintainacohe

rent

self.

Nofurthe

rexplanationprovided

regardingthe

AM

inyoun

gadulthoo

d.

1.0

2)Nosign

ificant

differencebe

tween

patientsandcontrolsin

AM

even

tsandfacts

inyouthandrecent

even

ts.

3)Onlysign

ificanceoccurred

durin

gyoun

gadulthoo

d.

4)Correlatio

nwas

notfoun

dam

ong

patientsin

executivefunctio

nsandworking

mem

ories,bu

twas

foun

dforcontrols.

14Lysakeret

al.(2006)[49]

US

Patients,n=64

•IPII*

(with

STAND*)

1)Highe

rlevelo

fnarrativequ

ality

(i.e.,illness

awaren

ess,agen

cy,alienatio

n)was

associated

with

better

socialfunctio

ning

andmotivational

hope

amon

gpatients.

Patients’po

sitivesymptom

smay

makethem

feelthat

they

wereno

tin

controlo

fthe

irlives;

henceasenseof

selfwas

interfe

redwith

.

1.0

2)Po

sitivesymptom

swerelinkedto

lack

ofinsigh

tin

illne

ss,and

aninability

toaffect

even

tsin

theirow

nlives.

3)Neg

ativesymptom

swerealso

linkedto

lack

ofinsigh

tin

illne

ssandlower

senseof

self-worth.

15Cuervo-Lombard

etal.

(2007)

[50]

France

Patients,n=27

Con

trols,n=27

Samples

werematched

inage,ed

ucation,and

gend

er.

•To

recall20

autobiog

raph

icaleven

tsin

asmuchde

tailas

possible.

1)Patients’reminiscencebu

mps

wereearlier

than

forcontrols;p

atients’bu

mps

werefor16

to25

years,whe

reas

controls’b

umps

werefor

21to

25years.

Patients’early

bumps

might

bedu

eto

impairedpe

rson

aliden

tity,which

isa

fund

amen

tald

isturbance

intheirillne

ss.

Defectiveretrievalp

rocesses

may

explainan

overallred

uctio

nin

perfo

rmance

amon

gpatients.Moreo

ver,ade

fectivesenseof

self

may

redu

cetheaccessibility

ofhigh

lyself-

relevant

AMs.Ade

fect

inen

coding

oracqu

isition

processesmay

accoun

tforthe

aggravationof

AM

abno

rmalities

repo

rted

after

theon

setof

thedisease.

SomeAM

abno

rmalities

may

merelybe

caused

bythefact

that

patientshadapo

orer

andmorerestrictedlifethan

norm

alsubjects,

andhe

nce,en

coun

teredfew

mem

orablelife

even

ts.

SMS:Bu

mpabno

rmalities

inpatientsmay

berelatedto

theform

ationof

abno

rmallifego

als.

0.955

2)Patientsratedsign

ificantlylower

inAM

specificity

comparedto

controls.

3)Patientsrespon

dedless

inRemem

ber;

morein

Know

andGuess

toAM

details

(i.e.,

what,whe

re,and

whe

n).

4)Patientsrecalledfewer

AMsrelatedto

births

andde

aths,b

utmorerelatedto

work

anded

ucation,comparedto

controls.

16Neumannet

al.(2007)

[51]

Belgium

Patients,n=20

Con

trols,n=20

Samples

werematch

inage,ge

nder,and

levelo

f

•IAPS*

1)Patientspe

rform

edworse

than

controls.

Patients’respon

sepatterns

couldno

tbe

explaine

dby

drug

treatm

ent,as

therewas

nocorrelationbe

tweenIQ

andmem

ory

perfo

rmance.Rem

embe

rrespon

sesreflected

1.0

2)Patientsrecalledless

AMsthan

controls.


specificAMs,and


Table

1Extractio

nTables

forSelected

Stud

ies(Con

tinued)

Nam

eof

theStud

ies

Samplesize

Assessm

ent/Measure

Summaryof

finding

sInterpretatio

nQuality

check

education.

thelevelo

fconfiden

ce,n

ottherecollected

processes;he

nce,patients’mem

orieswere

weaker.

Deficitin

specificeven

tknow

ledg

ein

patients

couldexplaintheiroverge

neralretrieval

patternoftenassociated

with

asimplefeeling

offamiliarity.

morege

neralm

emoriescomparedto

controls.


negativeAMsthan

controls.

5)Patientsrecalledmorepo

sitivege

neral

mem

ories,whe

reas

controlsrecalledmore

negativespecificAMsandmorene

gative

gene

ralm

emories.

6)Norelatio

nshipwas

observed

betw

een

psycho

sissymptom

sandspecificity

ofAM.

17Warrenet

al.(2007)[52]

UK

Schizoph

renicpatients,

n=12

Peop

lewith

depression

only,n

=12

Con

trols,n=12

•AMI*

•AMT*

1)Schizoph

renicgrou

psscored

high

erin

anxietyandde

pression

than

controls.

2)Clinicalgrou

psge

neratedmore

Overgen

eralmem

oryretrievalissymptom

atic

ofclinicalcond

ition

s(i.e.,d

epression;

schizoph

renia).Itreflectsafund

amen

tal

prob

lem

inmem

oryprocessing

.Theresearchersob

ject

totheview

that

overge

neralityiscaused

bytheavoidanceof

remem

berin

gpe

rson

allyrelevant

even

ts,as

patientsretrievedfewer

publicmem

oriesthan

controls.

Ruminativeself-focus,associated

with

thepain

ofrecalling

specificeven

ts,can

redu

ceworking

mem

orycapacity;hen

ce,b

lock

thesearch

atthelevelo

fcatego

ricalde

scrip

tions.A

lso,

researchersbe

lievedthat

pasttraumamight

play

arolein

thede

velopm

entand

mainten

ance

ofoverge

neralretrievalo

fAM.

0.909

3)catego

ricalAMsthan

controls.

4)Dep

ressed

patientsge

neratedmore

specificAMsthan

patientswith

schizoph

renia.

5)In

term

sof

details

ofAMs,clinicalgrou

psdidno

tdiffer.

6)Con

trolsandde

pressive

patientsrecalled

AMsfaster

comparedto

patientswith

schizoph

renia.

18D’Argem

beau

etal.

(2008)

[53]

France

Patients,n=16

Con

trols,n=16

Allsubjectswerematched

inage,ed

ucation,

prem

orbidIQ,and

levels

ofde

pressive

symptom

s.

•AMT*

1)Patientsrepo

rted

less

specificandmore

catego

ricalrespon

sesthan

controls.

Researchersclaimed

that

deficitin

patients’

AM

was

relatedto

theirability

toretrieve

contextualinform

ationfro

mmem

oryand

positivesymptom

swereassociated

with

deficits

inmem

oryforcontextualinform

ation.

Patients’de

ficits

werein

partrelatedto

disturbanceof

thesenseof

subjectivetim

e,which

represen

tsakeyfeatureof

episod

icmem

ory.

0.773

2)Patientsge

neratedmorespecific

respon

sesforthepastthan

forthefuture.

3)Theprop

ortio

nof

specificrespon

ses

gene

ratedby

patientswerene

gativelyrelated

topo

sitivesymptom

s.

4)Nosign

ificant

correlationwas

foun

dbe

tweenne

gativesymptom

sandthe

prop

ortio

nof

specificrespon

ses.

19Blairy

etal.(2008)[54]

Belgium

Patientswith

AM

interven

tion,n=15

Con

trol

grou

ppatients,

n=12

•AMT*

1)Patientswith

AM

interven

tionappe

ared

torecallmorespecificAM

before

the

interven

tion,andbe

tter

perfo

rmance

comparedwith

controls.

Byapplying

treatm

ent,patients’capacity

for

retrievalw

asim

proved

.Notheo

ryprovided

.How

ever,autho

rsargu

edthat

othe

rthan

toim

provepatients’AM,p

atientsmay

need

toacqu

iresocialskillto

functio

nbe

tter

indaily

life.

0.955

2)Nocorrelationob

served

betw

eenAM

specificity

(beforeandafterinterven

tion)

and

age,ed

ucation,socialfunctio

ning

,illness

duratio

n,po

sitiveandne

gativesymptom

s,cogn

itive

functio

ning

,and

levelo

fde

pression


Table

1Extractio

nTables

forSelected

Stud

ies(Con

tinued)

Nam

eof

theStud

ies

Samplesize

Assessm

ent/Measure

Summaryof

finding

sInterpretatio

nQuality

check

oranxiety.

3)Po

sitivecorrelationob

served

betw

een

AM

specificity

(beforeandafterinterven

tion)

with

executivefunctio

n.

4)Follow

upafter3mon

ths:Patientswith

interven

tionrecalledmorespecificAM

than

before

treatm

ent;ho

wever,nosign

ificant

differencebe

tweenaftertreatm

entand3-

mon

thfollow-up.

20Gruber&

Kring(2008)[55]

US

Stud

y1:

Outpatients,n=34

Inpatients,n=8

Stud

y2:

Outpatients,n=24

Con

trols,n=19

Samples

werematched

inge

nder,age

,edu

catio

n,andmaritalstatus.

Stud

y1

•SD

S*(with

outne

utral

lifeeven

ts)

Stud

y2

•SD

S*(with

neutrallife

even

ts)

1)Stud

y1:Patients’narratives

inne

gative

storieswereless

clear,bu

thadmorede

tail,

than

positiveeven

ts.

Autho

rssugg

estedthat

patientswereableto

talkabou

ttheirpo

sitiveandne

gativelife

stories.How

ever,the

yappe

ared

detached

from

theirem

otionalevent

stories,justlike

controls.

Notheo

riesweremen

tione

d.

1.0

2)Patients’narratives

ofpo

sitiveeven

tsappe

ared

morelikelyto

involveothe

rpe

ople,

comparedwith

negativeeven

ts.

3)Stud

y2:Nosign

ificant

differencein

term

sof

intensity

ofem

otionallife

even

tsbe

tweencontrolsandpatients.

4)Bo

thgrou

psused

emotionwords

inthe

narrativecontextapprop

riately.

5)Less

meaning

clarity

inpo

sitiveand

negativeem

otionnarrativecomparedwith

neutraln

arratives

amon

gbo

thgrou

ps,

sugg

estin

gthat

both

grou

psappe

ared

tobe

detached

.

6)Patientswereas

likelyas

controlsto

tell

theirpastsinvolvingothe

rpe

oplein

asocially

engaging

manne

r

7)Patients’em

otioneven

tnarratives

appe

ared

less

linearthan

controlsin

term

sof

tempo

ralseq

uence.

21Lysakeret

al.(2008)[56]

US

Patientswith

:-Schizop

hren

ia,n

=31

-Schizoaffective,n=20

Samples

werematched

inage,ed

ucation,and

numbe

rof

hospitalisations.

•IPII*

(with

STAND*)

1)Levelo

fmetacog

nitive(i.e.,insight)was

positivelyassociated

with

education;no

twith

ageandhistoryof

hospitalisation.

Autho

rsem

phasised

theim

portance

ofa

biop

sychosocial(i.e.,med

ical,social,and

psycho

logical)approach

fortreatin

gpatients.

1.0

2)Patients’expe

riences

ofbe

ing

3)rejected

wereno

tlinkedto

their

quality

ofnarrative.

4)Patientswho

perfo

rmed

better

inmetacog

nitivetestsandhadless

internalised

stigmatend

edto

narrate

better

quality

oftheirstoriesabou

ttheirillne

ss.

22Ro

eet

al.(2008)[57]

Patients,n=65

•IPII*

(with

SUMD*)

1)Patientswho

denied

symptom

sand

Autho

rsexplaine

dabou

tthecurren

tfinding

0.955


Table

1Extractio

nTables

forSelected

Stud

ies(Con

tinued)

Nam

eof

theStud

ies

Samplesize

Assessm

ent/Measure

Summaryof

finding

sInterpretatio

nQuality

check

US

diagno

sesin

theirstorytelling

appe

ared

tohave

lower

levelsof

awaren

essof

theirillne

ss(i.e.,insight).

that

patientshe

ldarang

eof

beliefsand

attitud

estowards

theirillne

ss,and

thelack

ofinsigh

tmight

beamisinterpretatio

nby

researchers.Furthe

rstud

iesmay

ameliorate

thisconcern.

23Lysakeret

al.(2008)[56]

US

Patients,n=76

•IPII*

(with

NCR

S*)

1)Patientswith

good

insigh

tinto

theirillne

ssin

theirnarrativepe

rform

edbe

tter

regarding

flexibilityof

abstract

thou

ghts;b

etterToM

(i.e.,

ability

toun

derstand

othe

r’sintentions

and

emotions).

Autho

rsargu

edthat

patientswith

schizoph

reniahave

adifferent

levelo

faw

aren

essabou

ttheirow

npsycho

logical

cond

ition

,which

hasan

impact

ontheir

abstract

thou

ghtsandability

toun

derstand

othe

r’sem

otions

andintentions.M

oreo

ver,

theiraw

aren

essof

theircond

ition

contrib

uted

totheirsocialfunctio

ning

.

1.0

2)Patientswith

supe

rficialaw

aren

ess(i.e.,

plausiblelifestorywith

tempo

ralcoh

eren

cy,

butlackingin

detail)werethesameas

patientswith

good

insigh

tin

that

they

perfo

rmed

better

inverbalmem

oryandToM

than

patientswith

poor

insigh

tinto

illne

ss.

3)Patientswith

good

insigh

tor

supe

rficial

awaren

esshadmorefre

quen

tsocialcontact

than

thosewho

hadlow

insigh

t.

24Raffard

etal.(2009)[58]

France

Patientsn=20

Con

trols,n=20

Samples

werematched

inage,ed

ucation,pre-

morbidIQ,and

levelsof

depression

.

•SD

Ms*

1)Nodifferencein

recalling

numbe

rof

specific

self-de

finingmem

oriesbe

tweenpatientsand

controls.

Patientspresen

tsign

ificant

metacog

nitive

deficits.The

lack

ofmeaning

makingplaysa

major

rolein

thecreatio

nandmainten

ance

ofpe

rson

aliden

tity.Hen

ce,few

erself-de

fining

mem

oriesarecentered

onachievem

ent

them

es.

Patients’redu

cedaccess

topastexpe

riences

ofsuccessandincreasedaccess

toep

isod

esrelatedto

theirillne

sscontrib

uted

tomaintaining

ane

gativeview

oftheself.

Bump10–20:concerns

socialiden

tity

form

ation.

Bump:

20–30:concerns

person

aliden

tity

form

ation.Mem

oriesin

thebu

mpareself-

definingas

sugg

estedby

Con

way

andHolm.

1.0

2)Patientsprod

uced

sign

ificantlyfewer

integrated

self-de

finingmem

ories(i.e.,

meaning

making)

than

controls.

3)Patientsprod

uced

sign

ificantlyfewer

words

inde

scrip

tions

ofself-de

fining

mem

oriesthan

controls.

4)Patientsprod

uced

fewer

self-de

fining

mem

oriescharacterised

byachievem

ent

conten

tthan

controls.

5)Patientsprod

uced

substantialamou

ntsof

self-de

finingmem

oriescharacterised

byho

spitalisation/stigmatisationconten

t.

6)Thereminiscencebu

mppe

akfor

controlswas

20–24years;whe

reas

forpatients

itwas

15–19years.

25Meh

letal.(2010)[59]

Germany

Patients,n=55

Con

trols,n=45

Samples

werematched

inage,ge

nder,and

yearsof

education.

•AMI*

1)Patients’ability

toinferem

otions

was

positivelycorrelated

with

ToM.

SMS:de

clarativecogn

itive

tasksactivate

implicitAM,m

eaning

that

theability

torecall

AM

ismorecloselyassociated

with

theability

toinferintentions.

Inferringem

otionisassociated

with

social

perfo

rmance,b

ecause

emotionpe

rcep

tionis

anautomaticprocessthat

requ

iresproced

ural

1.0

2)Patientsweremoreim

pairedin

theToM

ability

toinferem

otions.


specific,less

detailed,

andfewer

numbe

rof

AMscompared


Table

1Extractio

nTables

forSelected

Stud

ies(Con

tinued)

Nam

eof

theStud

ies

Samplesize

Assessm

ent/Measure

Summaryof

finding

sInterpretatio

nQuality

check

know

ledg

ethat

isconstantlyrefined

while

practicingit,in

accordance

with

themod

elof

skillacqu

isition

.

tocontrols.

4)Patients’de

ficits

inAMswereassociated

with

deficits

intheability

toinferintentions.

5)Amon

gpatients,therewas

asign

ificant

associationbe

tweenAM

(AMItotalscore)

and

socialpe

rform

ance

(totalscore).

26Taylor

etal.(2010)[60]

UK

Outpatientswith

history

ofsuicideattempts,n=40

Outpatientswith

out

historyof

suicide

attempts,n=20

•AMT*

1)Patientswith

pastsuicideattemptsrepo

rted

sign

ificantlyhigh

erlevelsof

both

depressive

andanxiou

ssymptom

scomparedto

non-

attempters.

Researchersstated

that

patients’retrievalstyle

blockedaccess

topo

tentially

distressing

specificmem

ories,includ

ingthoseof

traumaticandaversive

expe

riences,asaway

ofself-protectio

n.SM

S:theretrievalstyleistiedup

with

one’s

person

algo

alsandself-iden

tity.Mem

orysys

temsmay

disrup

taccess

tomem

oriesthat

are

particularlyaversive

oreg

o-dyston

ic,sothat

patientsavoiddistressingmem

ories.

1.0

2)Traitsof

anxietyandde

pression

were

sign

ificantlyrelatedto

AM

specificity

amon

gpatients.

3)Suicideattemptersweremorelikelyto

recallspecificAMs.

4)Neg

ativecue-words

weresign

ificantlyas

sociated

with

thehigh

estprop

ortio

nof

dis

tressing

mem

ories.

27Saaved

ra(2010)

[61]

Spain

Shortleng

thof

stay

inpatients,n=9

Long

leng

thof

stay

inpatients,n=9


1)Patientswith

along

leng

thof

stay

appe

ared

tohave

less

delusion

andlack

ofcohe

sion

intheirlifestoriescomparedto

patientswith

shortleng

thsof

stay.

Patientswith

along

stay

intheho

mesetting,

with

serio

usparano

idschizoph

renia,wereable

tonarratetheirlives.

0.909

2)Long

stay

patientsseem

edto

recallmore

storiesrelatedto

relatio

nships,activities,and

illne

ss.

3)Patientswith

long

leng

thsof

stay

tend

edto

useless

words

inde

scrib

ingne

gativelife

stories.

4)Long

erstay

patientsused

fewer

words

relatin

gto

themetaphysical(i.e.,de

ath;

parano

rmaleven

ts),andhadbe

tter

inne

rorganisatio

nof

narrativecomparedto

patients

with

shorterleng

thsof

stay.

28Pernot-M

arinoet

al.

(2010)

[62]

France

Patients,n=8

Con

trols,n=8

•Diary-recording

1)Num

berof

Know

respon

sesassociated

with

true

andfalsemem

orieswas

high

erin

patients

comparedto

controls.

Therewas

foun

dto

beahigh

erfre

quen

cyof

Know

ingforfalsemem

oriesin

patients

possiblyaccompanied

with

agreater

frequ

ency

ofconsciou

srecollectionforfalse

mem

ories.

Patients’abilitiesto

estim

atetheplausibilityof

even

tswith

respectto

theircurren

tpe

rson

alplanswereim

paired.

0.909

2)Thefre

quen

cyof

Remem

berrespon

ses

was

lower

inpatientsthan

controlsfortrue

even

ts

3)Thefre

quen

cyof

Remem

berrespon

ses

was

high

erin

patientsthan

controlsforfalse

even

ts.


Table

1Extractio

nTables

forSelected

Stud

ies(Con

tinued)

Nam

eof

theStud

ies

Samplesize

Assessm

ent/Measure

Summaryof

finding

sInterpretatio

nQuality

check

29Pettersenet

al.(2010)[63]

Norway

Patientswith

historyof

suicideattempts,n=16

Patientswith

outhistoryof

suicideattempts,n=16

•AMT*

1)Nodifferencebe

tweengrou

psin

curren

tde

pression

andho

pelessne

ss.

Cog

nitivefunctio

ning

couldbe

thereason

sfor

theresults,how

ever,thisstud

ydidn

’tinclud

eanyne

urop

sycholog

icalvariables.

Hop

elessnessoftenprod

uces

overge

neralA

M,

however,itwas

notob

served

inthisstud

y.Autho

rargu

edthat

itcouldbe

dueto

limited

statisticalpo

wer.

0.955

2)Patientswith

historiesof

suicide

attemptsrepo

rted

sign

ificantlyhigh

ercurren

tsuicideideatio

ncomparedto

patientswith

out

historiesof

suicideattempts.

3)Patientswith

historiesof

suicide

attemptsprod

uced

sign

ificantlyfewer

specific

AMs,andmorege

neralm

emories,compared

topatientswith

outhistoriesof

suicide

attempts.

4)Patientswith

historiesof

suicide

attemptsshow

edasign

ificant

increase

innu

mbe

rof

specificAMsforne

gativeand

neutralcue

words.

30Raffard

etal.(2010)[64]

France

Patients,n=81

Con

trols,n=50

Samples

werematched

inage,levelo

fedu

catio

n,andprem

orbidIQ

(i.e.,

NationalA

dultReading

Test,M

ackinn

on&

Williams,1996).

•SD

Ms*

1)Patientsdidno

tdifferfro

mcontrolsin

the

numbe

rof

specificSD

Msrepo

rted

.Theearlier

bumpcouldbe

dueto

anim

pairm

entin

immed

iate

self-aw

aren

essand

thedisturbanceof

thetempo

rald

imen

sion

ofselfthat

assuresastableandcohe

rent

sense

ofiden

tity(the

bumpisacriticalp

eriodfor

theform

ationandmainten

ance

ofastable

senseof

iden

tity).

Life

scrip

tsisasche

maof

norm

ativeeven

tsthat

arecultu

rally

expe

cted

tooccurat

given

times

inthelifespan.How

ever,p

atientsmight

expe

riencedisrup

tionto

thoseexpe

cted

norm

ativeeven

tsdu

ringillne

sson

set,leading

toisolationandsocialwith

draw

al.

1.0

2)Patientsde

mon

stratedless

meaning

-makingthan

controls.

3)Patientsscored

lower

inachievem

ent

andrelatio

nshipconten

tthan

controls.

4)Patientsrecalledmorelife-threaten

ing

even

tsthan

controls.


cohe

rencyin

context,chrono

logy,and

them

ethan

controls.

6)Con

trols’reminiscencebu

mppe

akwas

20to

24years;patientswas

15to

19years.

31Moriseet

al.(2011)[65]

France

Patients,n=18

Con

trol,n

=17

Samples

werematched

inageandlevelo

fed

ucation.

•Chainsof

mem

oriesby

using

ape

rson

almem

oryas

acue

foranothe

rmem

ory.

1)The“chain”levelexplained

6.9%

ofthe

varianceof

emotionalinten

sity

score,and

15.7%

ofdistinctiven

essscorein

controls.

They

believedthat

patients’mem

ory

characteristicshadlosttheirpo

tentiald

riving

forcein

mem

oryorganisatio

n,andthat

emotionalexperienceassociated

with

mem

oriesmight

play

acompe

nsatoryrolein

respectto

thisorganisatio

n.AM

impairedprefrontalactivity

anda

dysfun

ctionalcon

nectivity

betw

eenthe

amygdalaandtheprefrontalcortex.

0.818

2)The“chain”levelexplained

15.1%

ofthe

varianceof

emotionalinten

sity

scores

and

11.8%

ofdistinctiven

essscorein

patients.

3)The“chain”accoun

tedfor26.9%

ofthe

varianceof

data

incontrols,and

36.2%

inpatients.

32Bernaet

al.(2011)[66]

France

Patients,n=24

Con

trols,n=24

Samples

werematched

inageanded

ucation.

•SD

Ms*

1)31%

ofself-de

finingmem

oriesin

patients

wererelatedto

ape

rson

alho

spitalizationand/

orpsycho

ticsymptom

s;2.5%

ofthemem

ories

relatedto

person

alillne

ssam

ongcontrols.

Thepatientswith

morepron

ounced

negative

symptom

sexpe

rienced

severe

impairm

entsin

giving

meaning

totheirself-de

fining

mem

ories.

Life

alterin

geven

tscanhave

aprofou

ndim

pact

onpatients’pe

rcep

tionof

them

selves,

0.909

2)Patients’meaning

makingwas

sign

ificantlylower

comparedto

controls.


Table

1Extractio

nTables

forSelected

Stud

ies(Con

tinued)

Nam

eof

theStud

ies

Samplesize

Assessm

ent/Measure

Summaryof

finding

sInterpretatio

nQuality

check

espe

ciallyin

thecontextof

apsycho

logical

disorder.The

even

tsbe

comealand

markbo

thfortheselfandin

AM;con

sequ

ently,influen

cepe

rson

algo

als.

3)SD

Mwas

negativelycorrelated

with

level

ofne

gativesymptom

sam

ongpatients.

33Bernaet

al.(2011)[66]

France

Patients,n=24

Con

trols,n=24

Samples

werematched

inage,ed

ucation,prem

orbid

IQ,current

IQ,and

self-

esteem

.

•SD

Ms*

1)71%

ofmem

oriesfro

mpatientsrelatedto

psycho

ticep

isod

es;29%

referred

toothe

rpast

even

tshaving

contrib

uted

totheirillne

ss.

Theresearchersbe

lievedthat

theredu

ced

ability

togive

senseto

illne

ss-related

mem

oriesdo

esno

tseem

topreven

tthese

mem

oriesfro

mpo

sitivelyintegratinginto

the

self.

0.909

2)15.6%

ofmem

oriesfro

mcontrolsrelated

tope

rson

alillne

ssand84%

totheillne

ssof

acloserelative.

3)Patientsprod

uced

lower

meaning

makingthan

controls

4)Illne

ss-related

SDMsweremorene

gative

than

othe

rSD

Ms.

5)Patientsdisplayedmoretraumatic

mem

oriesthan

controls.

6)After

splittin

gthepatientsinto

theon

eswith

good

insigh

tandim

pairedinsigh

t,the

results

indicatedno

differencebe

tweenthem

with

respectto

theprop

ortio

nof

even

tsassociated

with

rede

mption.

34Cuervo–Lom

bard

etal.

(2012)

[67]

France

Patients,n=13

Con

trols,n=14

Samples

werematched

inage,ed

ucation,andverbal

abilities(i.e.,IQ).

•AMT*

1)Nosign

ificant

differenceon

thequ

antityof

AMsandspecificity

scores

amon

gtw

ogrou

ps.

Theresearchersstated

that

therewas

ade

creasedactivationof

thecogn

itive

control

netw

orkandaberrant

activationof

thedo

rsal

striatum

amon

gpatients.

0.864

2)Nosign

ificant

differences

inen

coding

age,remoten

ess,andvalencebe

tweengrou

pswhe

nretrieving

mem

ories.

3)Patientsandcontrolsactivated

asimilar

brainne

tworkdu

ringretrieval,includ

ingthe

corticalmidlinestructures,leftlateralp

refro

ntal

cortex,leftangu

largyrus,med

ialtem

poral

lobe

s,occipitallob

e,andcerebe

llum.

4)Patientsdisplayedredu

cedactivationin

severalo

fthe

seregion

scomparedto

controls,

includ

ingtw

ocorticalmidlinestructures,the

leftlateralp

refro

ntalcortex,leftmed

ial

tempo

rallob

e,occipitallob

e,rig

htcerebe

llum,

andleftlateralven

traltegm

entalarea.

35Ricarteet

al.(2012)[68]

Spain

Patients,n=24

(experim

entalg

roup

)Patientswith

Life

Review

therapy,n=26

(active

controlg

roup

).

•ABM

E*1)

Therewas

asign

ificant

negativecorrelation

betw

eenpre-interven

tionBD

Iscoresand

semantic

association(AM).

They

explaine

dgreaterim

pairm

entin

AMs

that

wereparticularlymarkedforeven

tsthat

occurred

aftertheon

setof

thedisease.The

improvem

entof

moo

dwas

perhapsdu

eto

theinterven

tionas

oneof

thesessions

focused

onself-de

finingmem

ories.

0.909

2)Allparticipantsscored

lower

onconsciou

sretrievalfor

theABM

Ein

P3and

P4comparedto

P1andP2.


Table

1Extractio

nTables

forSelected

Stud

ies(Con

tinued)

Nam

eof

theStud

ies

Samplesize

Assessm

ent/Measure

Summaryof

finding

sInterpretatio

nQuality

check

3)Theexpe

rimen

talg

roup

displayed

sign

ificantlyincreasedAM

specificity

afterthe

interven

tion.

4)Dep

ressionde

creasedafterinterven

tion

inexpe

rimen

talg

roup

,but

notin

control

grou

p.

36Po

theegado

oet

al.

(2012)

[69]

France

Patients,n=25

Con

trols,n=25

Samples

werematched

inage,ge

nder,and

levelo

fed

ucation.

•ABM

E*1)

Patients’self-esteem

was

sign

ificantlylower

than

forcontrols.

Patients’pe

rcep

tionof

thesubjectivetempo

ral

distance

(i.e.TD

)ofpasteven

tsisdistorted,

causingthem

toreplymorefre

quen

tlyon

objectiveeviden

cethan

controlsdo

whe

nassessingthetempo

rald

istanceof

thepast.

Thisdisturbanceisparticularlymarkedin

the

lifepe

riodfollowingtheon

setof

schizoph

renia.

Theam

ount

ofde

tailin

patients’AMswas

not

sign

ificantlycorrelated

with

thesubjectiveTD

ofeven

ts.A

utho

rsargu

edthat

thislack

ofde

tail,tempo

ralo

rno

n-tempo

ral,represen

tson

eprob

ableexplanationforthedistorted

subjectivetim

epe

rcep

tionthat

haslong

been

observed

inschizoph

renia.

0.955

2)Patientsprovidesign

ificantlymore

objectiveexplanations

andrespon

seswith

out

explanations.

3)Patientsprod

uced

sign

ificantlyfewer

specificmem

oriesthan

controls.

4)Patientsrecalledsign

ificantlyless

tempo

raland

non-tempo

ralinformationthan

controlsat

P3andP4.

5)Mem

oryim

portance

was

high

erat

P3than

theothe

rpe

riods.

37Benn

ouna

–Green

eet

al.

(2012)

[70]

France

Patients,n=25

Con

trols,n=25

Samples

werematch

inage,levelo

fedu

catio

n,prem

orbidIQ,and

curren

tIQ.

•TheTw

enty

“Iam

…”

Statem

entTask

1)Patientsappe

ared

tohave

sign

ificantly

lower

AM

specificity

andRemem

berrespon

ses

comparedto

controls.

Less

specificandless

consciou

slyrecollected

AMsin

patientsweredu

eto

preserved

tempo

ralo

rganisation(i.e.,life-tim

epe

riod).

Tempo

ralo

rganisationandcharacteristicsof

emotionwas

intact,but

thethem

aticorganisa

tionandits

distinctivefeatures

ofmem

ories

wereno

t.Patientsde

pend

edno

ton

distinctive

characteristicsof

theeven

t,bu

tseem

inglyon

lyon

emotionalinten

sity.

2)Patientshadalower

prop

ortio

nof

active

“Iam

”statem

entsthan

controls.

3)Patientsrecalledsign

ificantlymore

negativeAMs.

4)Patientswereassessed

lower

inthem

atic

linkby

expe

rimen

ters.

5)“Iam

”statem

ents:

✓Explaine

d19.2%

ofthevarianceof

the

emotionalinten

sity

score;28.3%

ofthe

distinctiven

essscores

incontrols.But,13.7%

;11.4%

ofem

otionalinten

sity

and

distinctiven

essscores

inpatients,respectively.

✓Patientson

lyshow

edsign

ificant

correlationbe

tweenem

otionalintensity

and

them

aticlink.

38Heroldet

al.(2013)[30]

Germany

Patients,n=33

Con

trols,n=21

Samples

werematched

inage,ge

nder,and

levelo

fed

ucation.

•AMI*

•E-AGI*

1)In

patients,thevolumes

oftheleftandthe

leftanterio

rhipp

ocam

puswerene

gatively

correlated

with

duratio

nof

illne

ss.

Researchersclaimed

that

long

-term

anti

psycho

ticmed

icationandtheirpo

tential

effectson

brainstructuremustbe

considered

asapo

tentialcon

foun

ding

factor.

Less

frequ

ently

recalledmem

oriesmay

0.864

2)Patientsrepo

rted

sign

ificantlyfewer

episod

icde

tails

than

controls.


Table

1Extractio

nTables

forSelected

Stud

ies(Con

tinued)

Nam

eof

theStud

ies

Samplesize

Assessm

ent/Measure

Summaryof

finding

sInterpretatio

nQuality

check

depe

ndon

hipp

ocam

palfun

ction.

3)Episod

icandsemantic

AM

scores

were

notsign

ificantlycorrelated

with

age,du

ratio

nof

illne

ss.

4)Semantic

AM,b

utno

tep

isod

icAM,w

assign

ificantlycorrelated

with

educationam

ong

patients.

5)Episod

icandsemantic

AM

were

sign

ificantlycorrelated

with

lefthipp

ocam

pal

volumein

patientsforbo

ththeleftanterio

randleftpo

steriorhipp

ocam

pal.

6)Therewas

asign

ificant

correlation

betw

eensemantic

AMsandbo

thleft

hipp

ocam

paland

leftpo

steriorhipp

ocam

pal

volumein

controls.

39Po

theegado

oet

al.

(2013)

[71]

France

Outpatients,n=30

Con

trols,n=30

Samples

werematched

inage,ge

nder,IQ,and

education.

•AMT*

1)Patientsappe

ared

tohave

high

levelsof

depression

,and

lower

self-esteem

compared

tocontrols.

Autho

rsargu

edpatients’low

specificity

may

berelatedto

fewer

respon

sesrelatedto

Field

perspe

ctive,sugg

estin

gthat

less

specificAM

couldno

tallow

thepatientsto

re-experience

theirlifestories.

0.955

2)Specificity

ofAM

inpatientswas

sign

ificantlylower

than

controls.

3)AM

specificity

was

high

erwhe

nrecollectingwas

associated

with

theField

perspe

ctivecomparedto

theObserver

perspe

ctive.

4)Amon

gpatients,no

relatio

nshipwas

observed

amon

glevelsof

anxiety,de

pression

,andself-esteem

,and

scores

intheFieldpe

rspective.How

ever,a

sign

ificant

relatio

nship

was

observed

betw

eenIQ

andtheField

perspe

ctive.

40Ricarteet

al.(2014)[72]

Spain

Patients,n=31

Con

trols,n=31

Samples

werematched

inage,ge

nder,and

yearsof

education.

•AMT*

1)Patientsscored

sign

ificantlyhigh

erin

depression

andruminationthan

controls.

Car-FA-X

mod

elem

ployed

;3functio

nsinvolved

inthedifficulties

toaccess

specific

mem

ories:1)

rumination,2)

functio

nal

avoidance,and3)

executivefunctio

n.In

thisframew

ork,executivefunctio

nis

essentiald

uringtheeffortfulp

rocess

ofge

nerativeretrieval.

AM

impairm

entmay

noton

lyrelate

tode

ficits

occurringat

theretrievalp

hase

inpatients.

Dysfunctio

nsin

cogn

itive

processesinvolved

attheen

coding

phaseor

inthestorageand

organisatio

nph

asemay

also

contrib

uteto

patients’AM

deficits.

0.955

2)Patientsretrievedfewer

specificAMs

than

controls.

3)Nosign

ificant

correlationwas

observed

betw

eenthenu

mbe

rof

specificmem

ories

andanyothe

rfactorsam

ongpatients.

4)Dep

ressionandruminationexplaine

d24%

ofthevarianceof

mem

oryspecificity

incontrols,b

uton

ly2.6%

inpatients.

41Moe

&Doche

rty

(2014)

[73]

Schizoph

renicou

tpatients,

n=50

•Self-de

scrip

tion

1)Qualityof

narrativewas

notassociated

with

levelo

fedu

catio

n.Autho

rssugg

estedthat

deficitin

agen

cyand

relatedn

essto

othe

rswerekeyfactorsam

ong

1.0


Table

1Extractio

nTables

forSelected

Stud

ies(Con

tinued)

Nam

eof

theStud

ies

Samplesize

Assessm

ent/Measure

Summaryof

finding

sInterpretatio

nQuality

check

US

Bipo

larpatients,n=17

Con

trols,n=24

patientswith

schizoph

renia.

2)Sign

ificant

results

wereob

served

betw

eenpatientswith

schizoph

reniaand

controlsin

thequ

ality

ofnarrativein

term

sof

relatedn

ess,levelo

fself-de

finition

,neg

ative-

positiveself-regard,and

self-criticaln

ature,etc.

3)Moreo

ver,sign

ificant

results

happ

ened

betw

eenpatientswith

schizoph

reniaand

bipo

larpatientsin

thequ

ality

ofnarrative(i.e.,

levelo

frelated

ness,levelof

self-de

finition

,and

negative-po

sitiveself-regard).

42Po

theegado

oet

al.

(2014)

[74]

France

Outpatients,n=25

Con

trols,n=25

Samples

werematched

inage,ed

ucation,IQ,and

levelo

fde

pression

.

•AME*

1)Patientspe

rform

edpo

orer

than

controlsin

allcog

nitivemeasures.

Autho

rsconclude

dthat

specificcueing

could

help

patientsbringabou

tmorede

tailin

emotionandcogn

ition

oftheirAM,how

ever,

itmay

notbe

enou

ghto

obtain

riche

rinform

ationin

sensory,tempo

ral,and

contextualinform

ation.Itsugg

eststhat

toelicitmoresensory,tempo

ral,andcontextual

details,req

uiresamorecomplex

encoding

process.

1.0

2)Whe

ntheresearch

provided

less

prob

ing

(i.e.,non

specificcueing

phrases),low

erspecificity

ofAM

was

observed

inpatientsand

theirAM

appe

ared

tohave

less

detailand

richn

esscomparedto

controls.

3)With

moreprob

ing(i.e.,spe

cific

cueing

)in

sensory,tempo

ral,contextual,emotional,

andcogn

itive

areas,patients’AM

was

sign

ificantlylower

inrichn

ess(i.e.,sen

sory,

tempo

ral,andcontextual),bu

tno

tin

details

andspecificity.

43Ricarteet

al.(2014)[75]

Spain

Patients,n=16,w

ithtraining

Patients,n=16,w

ithou

ttraining

•AMT*

1)Patientswho

received

training

show

eda

sign

ificant

increase

inAM

specificity

andde

tail.

DetailedandspecificAMscanbe

learne

dthroug

htraining

amon

gpatientswith

schizoph

renia.Thehypo

thesisof

ruminationin

theCar-FA-X

mod

elwas

employed

toexplain

results;how

ever,itcouldno

tfully

illustratethe

relatio

nshipbe

tweenruminationand

specificity.

0.955

2)Nosign

ificant

change

inde

pressive

moo

dandruminativethinking

stylebe

fore

andaftertraining

forbo

thgrou

ps.

44Heroldet

al.(2015)[76]

Germany

Older

patients,n=25

Youn

gerpatients,n=23

Con

trols,n=21

Allgrou

pswerematched

inge

nder

anded

ucation.

•AMI*

1)Older

patientsshow

edsign

ificant

impairm

entin

episod

icandsemantic

AM

comparedto

controls.

2)Older

patientsrecalledfewer

AM

factsthan

controls.

Thecriticalroleof

thehipp

ocam

pusfor

recollectionwas

emph

asised

bythe

researchers.Furthe

rmore,they

claimed

that

aprog

ressivede

terio

rativecourse

happ

ened

amon

gpatients.

0.864

3)Episod

icAM

(but

notsemantic

AM)was

sign

ificantlycorrelated

with

educationin

the

patient

grou

ps.

4)Hippo

campalvolum

eredu

ctionin

olde

rpatients,which

isalso

detectableto

alesser

extent

inyoun

gerpatients.

5)Hippo

campalvolum

eissign

ificantly

correlated

with

episod

icandsemantic

AM

inpatientsandcontrols.


Table

1Extractio

nTables

forSelected

Stud

ies(Con

tinued)

Nam

eof

theStud

ies

Samplesize

Assessm

ent/Measure

Summaryof

finding

sInterpretatio

nQuality

check

45Bu

ck&Penn

(2015)

[77]

US

Inpatients,n=66

Con

trols,n=50

Samples

werematched

inageandge

nder.

•NET*

1)Con

trolsused

morewords

intheirnarratives

comparedto

patients.

Autho

rsconclude

dthat

assessingsocial

cogn

ition

andlang

uage

features

inpatient

narratives

may

notbe

effectiveforiden

tifying

theirim

pairm

entin

socialcogn

ition

.

1.0

2)Patientsused

fewer

words

associated

with

negativesymptom

s;whe

reas

patients

usingmorewords

appe

ared

tope

rform

better

regardingsocialfunctio

ning

.

3)Patientsused

morepron

ouns

intheir

senten

ces,espe

ciallype

rson

alpron

ouns

(she

,he

,the

y,it,we,I,me,andthem

,etc.),andfirst-

person

sing

ular

pron

ouns

(I;me).

4)Nosign

ificant

differencewas

observed

forusingpo

sitivewords

inapo

sitive

emotionalcon

text,and

negativewords

ina

negativeem

otionalcon

text.

5)Patientswith

ahigh

erfre

quen

cyfor

usingfirst-personappe

ared

toscorelower

inToM.

6)Con

trols’ToM

was

associated

with

negativeem

otionwords

andtheuseof

first-

person

pron

ouns.

46Alle

etal.(2015)[78]

France

Outpatients,n=27

Con

trols,n=26

Samples

werematched

inage,ed

ucation,andIQ.

•Life

narratives

1)Patientsscored

sign

ificantlyhigh

erin

anxietyandde

pression

,and

lower

inself-

esteem

.

Autho

rsbe

lievedthat

patients’lack

ofcohe

rencein

storieswas

relatedto

disorders

oftheself,lack

ofcapacity

inself-reflection,

low

levelsof

executivefunctio

n,men

tal

flexibility,or

metacog

nitiveissues.

1.0

2)Patientsnarrated

theirlifeshorterthan

controls.H

owever,the

rewas

nosign

ificant

differencein

vividn

essin

theirAM

compared

with

controls.

3)In

patients’lifestories,theem

otional

valencewas

less

positivecomparedto

controls.

4)Patients’AM

reason

ing(i.e.,,m

eaning

-making)

andcohe

renceof

storieswere

sign

ificantlypo

orer.

5)Nodifferencewas

observed

inscores

for

cultu

relifescrip

ts.

47Bu

cket

al.(2015)[79]

US

Outpatients,n=41

•IPII*

1)In

patients’narratives,the

iranticipatory

pleasure

was


with

first-

person

pluralpron

ouns

(i.e.,w

e,us,and

our),

andconn

ectio

nto

thepastin

storytelling.

Socializingwith

othe

rscouldmakepatients

feelpleasure.M

oreo

ver,authorspo

intedou

tthat

thecapacity

toexpe

riencepleasure

was

relatedto

one’spast;asseen

inameaning

ful

way

bytheindividu

al.

0.955

2)Also,patients’consum

matorypleasure

was


with

first-person

pluralpron

ouns,and

conn

ectio

nto

thepastin

storytelling.


Table

1Extractio

nTables

forSelected

Stud

ies(Con

tinued)

Nam

eof

theStud

ies

Samplesize

Assessm

ent/Measure

Summaryof

finding

sInterpretatio

nQuality

check

3)Nosign

ificant

relatio

nshipwas

observed

betw

eenpsycho

sissymptom

swith

theability

ofexpe

riencingpleasure.

48MacDou

gallet

al.

(2015)

[80]

Canada

Outpatients,n=24

•To

recollect

3even

tsin

high

lypo

sitive,high

lyne

gative,andne

utral

emotions.

1)Patients’po

orer

perfo

rmance

inep

isod

icmem

oryforne

gativeeven

tspred

ictedtheir

lower

insigh

t(re

gardingsocialconseq

uences)

into

theirillne

ss.

Autho

rssugg

estedthat

AM

perfo

rmance

pred

ictedpatient

insigh

tabou

ttheirmen

tal

illne

ss.

0.909

49Alle

etal.(2016)[81]

France

Stud

y1:

Outpatients,n=20

Con

trols,n=21

Samples

werematched

inage.

Stud

y2:

Outpatients,n=30

Con

trols,n=28

Samples

werematch

inage,levelo

fedu

catio

n,andIQ.

•Life

narratives

with

free

recall(Study

1)•Life

narratives

with

structured

protocol

(Study

2):7

impo

rtanteven

ts.

1)Stud

y1:Nodifferencebe

tweencontrols

andpatientsin

leng

thof

narratives.

Redu

cedglob

altempo

ralcoh

eren

cemay

bedu

eto

lower

levelsof

executivefunctio

ning

.Autho

rsalso

emph

asisethemetho

dof

collectinglifestorieswith

amorestructured

protocol;g

lobaltem

poralcoh

eren

ceam

ong

controlsandpatientswas

enhanced

.

0.955

2)Nodifferencebe

tweengrou

psin

term

sof

localind

icators(i.e.,d

ate,age,lifepe

riod,

anddistance

from

thepresen

t).

3)Stud

y2:Patients’executivefunctio

ning

was

sign

ificantlylower

than

controlsandtheir

narratives

wereshorter.

4)How

ever,p

atients’capacitiesfor

iden

tifying

even

torde

rthroug

hout

the

narratives

(i.e.,g

lobaltem

poralcoh

eren

ce)

werepo

orer

than

controls,and

therewere

moretempo

rald

istortionin

patients’narratives

comparedwith

controlsin

both

stud

ies.

5)With

structured

protocol,con

trolsand

patientsappe

ared

toscorehigh

erin

glob

altempo

ralcoh

eren

ce.

6)Nodifferencewas

observed

intempo

ral

distortio

nandelaborationof

ending

inbo

thstud

ies.

50Holm

etal.(2016)[82]

Den

mark

Outpatients,n=25

Con

trols,n=25

They

werematched

inge

nder,sex,and

levelo

fed

ucation.

•SD

Ms*

•Life

StoryChapters

1)Patientsrepo

rted

morene

gativelife

chapters;highe

ranxietyandde

pression

than

controls.

Neurocogn

itive

functio

ning

(i.e.,including

the

self-reflectionfunctio

n)may

bevitalfor

con

structingcohe

rent

lifestories,andpatients

recruitedin

thecurren

tstud

ywereconsidered

tobe

wellfun

ctioning

.Pasttraumaticeven

ts,

loss

ofsocialinteraction,aw

aren

essof

their

illne

ss,and

ahigh

levelo

fanxietyand

depression

couldbe

reason

sthat

patients

ratedtheirlifestoriesne

gatively.

0.955

2)Patients’ne

gativelifechapterswereno

tcorrelated

with

theirde

pressive

symptom

s.

3)Nosign

ificant

differencein

causal

cohe

rence,self-continuity

andcentralityto

iden

titybe

tweenpatientsandcontrols.

4)Patientswith

good

perfo

rmance

incogn

itive

testshave

high

ercausalcohe

rence

oflifestorychaptersandSD

Ms.

51Alle

etal.(2016)[83]

France

Outpatients,n=27

(no

depressive

symptom

s,and

IQabove70)

Con

trols,n=27

Samples

werematched

in

•Life

narratives

•CES*

1)Nocorrectio

nbe

tweenself-continuity

and

executivefunctio

n,self-esteem

,and

symptom

sof

illne

ss

Metacog

nitivedysfun

ctioncouldplay

arolein

deficitin

self-continuity

(i.e.,p

heno

men

olog

ical

continuity;narrativecontinuity).Pasttraumatic

even

tscouldmakepatientsrate

theirem

otions

asne

gativeregardingtheirpastexpe

riences.

1.0

2)Vividn

essof

pasteven

ts(i.e.,


Table

1Extractio

nTables

forSelected

Stud

ies(Con

tinued)

Nam

eof

theStud

ies

Samplesize

Assessm

ent/Measure

Summaryof

finding

sInterpretatio

nQuality

check

age,IQ,and

levelo

fed

ucation.

phen

omen

olog

icalcontinuity)was

lower

inpatients.

3)Patientsappe

ared

tohave

morene

gative

emotions

abou

tthepastthan

controls.

4)Patientsappe

ared

tohave

lower

self-

even

tconn

ectio

nscomparedwith

controls.

52Moe

etal.(2016)[84]

US

Patients,n=47

Con

trols,n=32

Samples

werematched

inageandge

nder.

•IPII*

(with

STAND*)

1)Nodifferences

betw

eencontrolsand

patientsin

word-coun

tfortheirnarratives.

Autho

rssugg

estedthat

idea

density

was

more

relatedto

thenarrativede

velopm

entto

self-

processinsteadof

reflectionin

interactions

with

,orevaluatio

nsfro

m,others.Patient

illne

ssmight

overtake

thesenseof

iden

tityandsense

ofselfandturn

them

into

self-stigma.

Therefore,patientswith

greateridea

density

gained

moreinsigh

t;thereafter,m

ore

depression

,anxiety,and

lower

motivation

inlife.

1.0

2)Patientshadlower

idea

density

(i.e.,

accoun

tof

inform

ation)

intheirnarratives

comparedwith

controls.

3)Patients’idea

densities

wereno

tcorrelated

with

yearsof

educationor

Global

Assessm

entof

Functio

ning

.

4)Patients’idea

densities

werene

gatively

correlated

with

theirpo

sitivesymptom

s;lack

offlow

inspeech.

5)Theiridea

densities

werealso

associated

with

levelsof

insigh

tinto

theirillne

ss,and

senseof

controlinlife.

6)Patientswerede

pressedandanxiou

stend

edto

have

high

erlevelo

fdifficulties

with

motivation.

53Holm

etal.(2017)[85]

Den

mark

Patients,n=25

Con

trols,n=25

Samples

werematched

inage.

•SD

Ms*

1)Patientsshow

earlier

reminiscencebu

mps

(i.e.,15–19)than

controls(i.e.,25–29).

Autho

rsexplaine

dthat

toob

tain

thediagno

sis

impairedtheform

ationof

SDMs.Moreo

ver,

patient’searly

bumpindicatedthat

thepe

riod

ofob

tainingthediagno

sishapp

ened

durin

gearly

adulthoo

d.Furthe

rmore,authorsbe

lieved

that

thene

gativesymptom

sassociated

with

patient’sfewer

SDMs,andmem

ories,may

not

beretained

aftertheon

set.

0.955

2)69%

ofpatient

mem

orieswere

distrib

uted

over

theyearsbe

fore

diagno

sis,

whe

reas

27%

oftheirSD

Mswereafter

diagno

sis,andon

ly4%

ofmem

orieswere

locatedwith

intheyear

ofdiagno

sis.

3)Patientswith

morene

gativesymptom

sappe

ared

torecollect

theirmem

oriesless,

espe

ciallyafterdiagno

sis.

54Willits

etal.(2018)[86]

US

Patients,n=200

Peop

lewith

HIV

ascontrols,n

=55

Samples

werematched

inageon

ly.

•IPII*

(app

liedCoh

-Matrix)

1)Patientsprod

uced

less

speech

inop

en-

ende

dinterviews,andmoreun

ique

words

comparedto

controls,sug

gestingpatients’

tend

ency

tojumpfro

mon

etopicto

anothe

r.

Autho

rsstated

that

results

supp

ortedBleuler

andJung

’sideasthat

peop

lewith

schizoph

reniahave

difficulties

inconn

ectin

gideas,andthey

oftentend

toform

acomplicated

narrativeflow.M

oreo

ver,authors

men

tione

dthedisturbancein

thesenseof

self,

andmetacog

nitiveconcerns

relatedto

theirdifficulties

inconstructin

gtheir

lifestories.

0.955

2)Patientsprod

uced

lower

causal(e.g.,

because),log

ical(e.g.,and),and

contrastive(e.g.,

althou

gh)con

nections

intheirnarratives,

sugg

estin

gpatientsleftothe

rsou

tto

makesenseof

theseessentiallinks


Table

1Extractio

nTables

forSelected

Stud

ies(Con

tinued)

Nam

eof

theStud

ies

Samplesize

Assessm

ent/Measure

Summaryof

finding

sInterpretatio

nQuality

check

intheirlifestories.

3)Patientsprod

uced

high

erintentional

conten

t,andlower

causalandintentional

cohe

sion

,ind

icatingthat

patientsoften

lack

clarity

whe

ncomingto

both

goal

andno

n-go

alactivities

with

othe

rpe

ople

4)Patientsscored

lower

inde

epcohe

sion

comparedto

controls,ind

icatingpatientswere

less

likelyto

providelinks

forpe

opleto

unde

rstand

theirstories

55Alexiadou

etal.

(2018)

[87]

Greece

Patients,n=40

Con

trols,n=40

Samples

werematched

inage,ge

nder,edu

catio

n,andIQ.

•QAM*

1)Con

trolspe

rform

edbe

tter

than

patients

inlistlearning

,story

recall,andverbalfluen

cy.

Due

tosymptom

sof

disorder,p

atientshadless

ofasociallife,he

ncefewer

mem

oriesto

share.

Thismight

berelatedto

theSM

S.SM

S:theworking

selftakestheroleof

control

inretrieving

anden

coding

processes,and

patients’go

alsandintentions

might

berestricted,

henceretrieving

fewer

specific

mem

ories.

Functio

nalavoidance:p

atientsmight

have

uncomfortablefeelings

whe

nrecalling

their

recent

lifeeven

tsdu

eto

theirlifecontext(i.e.,

beingho

spitalised

).

0.955

2)Onlyrecent

lifepe

riodpatients

perfo

rmed

worse

than

controlsin

recalling

mem

ories,aftercontrolling

variables

forverbal

mem

oryandverbalfluen

cy(byusing

hierarchicalregression

analysis).

56Nieto

etal.(2018)[88]

Spain

Inpatients,n=24

Outpatients,n=29

Con

trols,n=69

Samples

werematched

inage,ge

nder,and

education.

•AME*

1)Patientsexpe

rienced

high

erlevelsof

depressive

symptom

scomparedto

controls,

andtheirpe

rform

ance

inworking

mem

ory

taskswas

sign

ificantlyworse

than

controls.

Metacog

nitivede

ficits

couldmakepatients

have

difficulty

ininteractingwith

othe

rs,h

ence

they

hadfewer

things

toshareabou

ttheir

lives.

Thehigh

numbe

rof

norepo

rted

mem

ories

from

childho

odin

patientsappe

ared

tosupp

orttheframew

orkof

theCARFAX

mod

el’sfunctio

nalavoidance

mechanism

.Childho

odtraumawas

considered

afactor

that

contrib

uted

tolaterpsycho

ticsymptom

s.How

ever,autho

rsacknow

ledg

edthat

since

childho

odtraumawasn’tmeasured,

the

finding

ofim

pairedspecificity

ofmem

ories

durin

gchildho

odshou

ldbe

reconsidered

.

1.0

2)Fewer

mem

oriesrepo

rted

bypatients

durin

gchildho

odwas

sign

ificant

comparedto

controls.

3)Thosepatientspe

rform

ingbe

tter

inworking

mem

orytasksprod

ucemore

mem

oriesdu

ringchildho

od,and

morespecific

mem

oriesdu

ringearly

adulthoo

d.

4)To

recallAM

durin

gadolescence,

patientswith

ahigh

ernu

mbe

rof

sensations

andem

otions

appe

ared

tohave

lower

scores

forpsychiatric

symptom

s.

5)Patients’de

pressive

symptom

swere

negativelycorrelated

with

numbe

rof

specific

AMsdu

ringthepreced

ingyear

6)Po

sitivecorrelationob

served

betw

een

lack

ofchildho

odmem

oriesandpsychiatric

symptom

s.


specificAM,m

ore


Table

1Extractio

nTables

forSelected

Stud

ies(Con

tinued)

Nam

eof

theStud

ies

Samplesize

Assessm

ent/Measure

Summaryof

finding

sInterpretatio

nQuality

check

gene

ralA

M,and

expressedfewer

emotions

comparedto

controls.

57Holm

etal.(2018)[89]

Outpatients,n=24

Con

trols,n=24

Samples

werematched

inage,ed

ucation,andlevel

ofde

pression

.


1)Noleng

thdifferences

betw

eenpatientsand

controlsin

theirstories.

Autho

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Table 2 Research Methods for Selected Studies

Generative retrieval type Specific method or measure Studies in chronological order

Cue word/picture method (17 studies) Autobiographical Memory Test [90] ▪ Kaney, et al., 1999 [38]

▪ Harrison & Fowler, 2004 [42]

▪ Iqbal et al., 2004 [43]

▪ Mcleod, Wood, & Brewin, 2006 [47]

▪ Warren & Haslam, 2007 [52]

▪ D’Argembeau et al., 2008 [53]

▪ Blairy et al., 2008 [54]

▪ Taylor et al., 2010 [60]

▪ Pettersen et al., 2010 [63]

▪ Cuervo-Lombard et al., 2012 [67]

▪ Ricarte et al., 2012 [68]


After giving a specific AM in response to a cue word, theparticipants were asked to give a title to the AM. This titlewas then used as a cue to evoke subsequent specificmemories

▪ Morise et al., 2011 [65]

International Affective Picture System [91]. ▪ Neumann et al., 2007 [51]

Narrative of Emotions Task (NET [92];), to provide simple(i.e., happy, sad), complex (i.e., suspicious, surprised), andself-conscious emotions (i.e., ashamed, guilty) to elicit theirstories.

▪ Buck & Penn, 2015 [77]

Participants were asked to provide three events in natureof highly positive, highly negative, and neutral stories. Thescoring system from The Autobiographical Interview(AI [93];)

▪ MacDougall et al., 2015 [80]

Schedule for Deficit Syndrome (i.e., SDS) [94] ▪ Gruber & Kring, 2008 [55]

Life stages method (14 studies) Autobiographical Memory Interview (AMI [95];) ▪ Feinstein et al., 1998 [37]

▪ Corcoran & Frith, 2003 [41]

▪ Mcleod et al., 2006 [47]

▪ Boeker et al., 2006 [48]

▪ Mehl et al., 2009 [59]

Autobiographical Memory Inquiry [96] ▪ Riutort, et al., 2003 [40]

▪ Potheegadoo et al., 2014 [74]

Autobiographical Memory Enquiry (i.e., ABME) [97] ▪ Danion et al., 2005 [44]




▪ Nieto et al., 2019 [88]

Erweitertes Autobiographisches Gedächtnisinterview (E-AGI Interview [98];) in 5 life time periods

▪ Herold et al., 2013 [30]

▪ Herold et al., 2015 [76]

Questionnaire of Autobiographical Memory (QAM),including 1) The Personal Semantic Memory scale (i.e.,semantic AM), and 2) The Autobiographical Incidentsscale (i.e., episodic AM), to access in 3 different life periods

▪ Alexiadou et al., 2018 [87]

Open-ended retrieval method (26 studies) Free recall of 50 events from participants’ lives andassociation of dates to these events [99].

▪ Elvevåg et al., 2003 [39]

Free recall of 20 important events from participants’ livesand attribution of ages and times for each event [100]

▪ Cuervo-Lombard et al., 2007 [50]


self-identities. Two additional studies [39, 50] asked par-ticipants to freely recall a number of past events anddate them. One study [50] used a method [100] origin-ally utilised by Holmes and Conway [100], in which par-ticipants freely recalled 20 important life events andprovided an age and time for each.Another open-ended retrieval method asked partici-

pants to keep a dairy. One study [62] encouraged partici-pants to record four diary entries per day for 1 month,requiring participant motivation to complete this timeconsuming task for a successful study. Another study[70] employed the Twenty-Statements Test comprising“I am” statements to activate AMs and understand par-ticipants’ self-images and related AMs.The Life Story Chapter [102] retrieval method was

employed in one study [82] to elicit AM. It asks partici-pants to recall their stories and divide them into chap-ters. Another three studies [78, 81, 83] used the LifeNarrative method [103] which encourage participants to

write down their seven most important events on cards,and then narrate them into a life story after arrangingthese cards in a temporal sequence.

Features of autobiographical memoryCue word/picture methodMost studies using a cue word or picture method re-vealed that patients with schizophrenia tended to reportless specific AMs [38, 47, 52, 53, 72], fewer total memor-ies [51], and more categorical memories [38, 42, 47, 52,53]. However, one study [67] found no significant differ-ence in specificity of AM between patients and controls.Patients and controls responded differently to positiveand negative cues. One study [38] reported that patientsprovided more specific AMs for negative cue words andless specific memories for positive cue words. These re-sults contradict another study [51] in which patientsresponded to positive picture cues with more specificmemories. One study [55] revealed that patients

Table 2 Research Methods for Selected Studies (Continued)

Generative retrieval type Specific method or measure Studies in chronological order

Singer & Moffitt’s (1992) Self-defining memories (SDMs)questionnaire requiring participants to recall threeimportant memories which help to define who they are.

▪ Raffard et al., 2009 [58]

▪ Raffard et al., 2010 [64]

▪ Berna et al., 2011a [66]

▪ Berna et al., 2011b [66]

▪ Holm et al., 2016 [82]

▪ Holm et al., 2017 [85]

Diary record [101] ▪ Pernot-Marino et al., 2010 [62]

Kuhn & McPartland’s (1954) “Twenty-Statements” Test(TST) of I am statements

▪ Bennouna-Greene et al., 2012 [70]

Life story chapters [102] requiring participants recall theirlife stories, and divide them into different chapters.

▪ Holm et al., 2016 [82]

Life Narrative [103]: to recall 7 the most important pastevents, and narrate a story with those memories

▪ Alle et al., 2015 [78]

▪ Alle, d’Argembeau, et al., 2016 [83]

▪ Alle, Gandolphe, et al., 2016 [81]

Indiana Psychiatric Illness Interview (i.e., IPII) [104]. IPII is toaccess one’s narrative with mental illness, including theirlife story, their understanding of illness, and livedexperience of having such illness, and lastly how theillness control or being controlled.

▪ Lysaker, Davis et al., 2005 [45]

▪ Lysaker, France et al., 2005 [45]

▪ Lysaker, Buck et al., 2006 [49]

▪ Lysaker, Buck et al., 2008 [56]

▪ Roe et al., 2008 [57]

▪ Lysaker et al., 2008 [56]

▪ Buck et al., 2015 [79]

▪ Moe et al., 2016 [84]

▪ Willits et al., 2018 [86]

Narrative interview: “tell a story of your life”, “describeyourself as fully as you can”

▪ Lysaker, et al., 2005 [46]

▪ Saavedra, 2010 [61]

▪ Moe & Docherty, 2014 [73]

▪ Holm et al., 2018 [89]


reported less clear but lengthy descriptions of AMs inresponse to negative cues; yet their memories were morelikely to involve others when responding to positivecues. Patient memory retrieval time varied whenresponding to cues. In two studies [38, 52], patients tooka longer time to complete retrieval compared to con-trols, while in an opposing study [47], patientsresponded more quickly to cues.Anxiety and depression levels were found to be

higher among patients with schizophrenia than con-trols [52, 60], and these levels were positively corre-lated with avoidance relating to their illness [42].Patients with depressive symptoms generated moregeneral memories, especially towards positive cues;however, they seemed to have better insight regardingtheir psychological conditions than patients withoutdepressive symptoms [43]. Additionally, patients’ im-paired ability to produce more specific memories tonegative cues predicted lower insight into their ill-nesses [80].The relationship between patients’ comorbid depres-

sion and memory specificity is not conclusive. One study[60] indicates that patients’ depression levels highly cor-relate with memory specificity. However, two studies[54, 72] reported no such relationship. Risk of attemptedsuicide was high among patients with schizophrenia [1].One study [60] revealed that patients with a history ofattempted suicide reported higher levels of depressivesymptoms and generated more specific AMs comparedto patients without this history. Yet, another study, [63]reported that patients with a history of attempted suicidewere more likely to produce less specific AMs comparedto patients who have no such history.Although patients with schizophrenia who take part in

AM studies are generally stabilised by medication, theirresponses are occasionally “uninterpretable”. Thus, re-searchers find it difficult to make sense of how retrievalcues are related to the given memories for these re-sponses [47]. Specifically, when negative cues are used,some patients’ memory descriptions are quite scattered[38, 60]. In one study [42], the recall of less specific AMswas associated with more negative psychotic symptomsin patients. Another study [53] reported that patientswith greater positive psychotic symptoms were morelikely to produce less specific AMs. However, one study[51] stated no such relationship.Nevertheless, one study [54] notices that patients’

memory specificity is not associated with psychoticsymptoms, social functioning, depression, or anxiety, butwith their executive function. Patients with negativesymptoms offered shorter descriptions of their stories;the more first-person pronouns they used, the poorerunderstanding they had about other’s emotions and in-tentions (i.e., ToM) [77].

Cue word/picture studies mostly support the notionthat patients with schizophrenia recall less specific, andmore categorical, AMs, and respond differently to posi-tive and negative cues than controls. The link betweenthe history of suicide attempts and AM specificity, andthe relationship between psychotic symptoms and AMspecificity, remain unclear.

Life stages methodStudies grouped into this category implemented the lifestages method to evoke participants’ AMs. Findings weresimilar to those studies using cue word/picture methods.For instance, AMs among patients with schizophreniaappeared to be less specific [40, 41, 44, 59, 69, 71, 74,88], and fewer in number [44, 59, 69], when comparedwith controls. This method, however, produced uniqueresults. When patients’ AM specificity was distributedover the lifespan, “U-shaped” patterns appeared [37, 47,48]. The patients’ AM retrieval was most impaired forearly adulthood [37, 47, 68], and least impaired for child-hood [37, 68] and recent years [47]. Research [47] sug-gests that early adulthood coincides with the onset ofpsychotic symptoms in many patients, resulting in lessspecific AMs. However, a recent study [87] has not con-firmed these results, showing that patients’ memory per-formance from the recent years was poorer than forcontrols. Another study [88] found that the lack ofmemories from childhood was positively correlated withcurrent psychotic symptoms.When examining personal facts (i.e., semantic memor-

ies) in AMs, patients and controls demonstrated no dif-ference [37]. However, patients performed better whenretrieving recent personal facts than those from child-hood [47]. The capacity for retrieving personal events(i.e., episodic memories) from all life periods was signifi-cantly impaired in patients compared to healthy controls[37]; however, opposing results from another studyfound that the deficit in recalling episodic memoriesonly occurred in the recent life period [87] . One study[41] reported that patients tended to recall strange nega-tive events from childhood, suggesting the possibility ofhaving traumatic life experiences during childhood. In-deed, one review reported a causal relationship betweenchildhood trauma, such as sexual and emotional abuse,and the patients’ current psychotic symptoms [107].Researchers [68] revealed that mild depression corre-

lated strongly with better memory recollection amongpatients with schizophrenia without retrieval training.They found that from 10 years old to the age of symp-tom onset (approximately 18–19 years), patients’ depres-sion symptoms were lower while AM specificity washigher. This is consistent with the U-shaped retrievalpattern. After memory retrieval training [68, 75], patientmemory retrieval improved, yet, there was no significant


correlation between emotion and AM retrieval, indicat-ing memory specificity levels were not related to changesin emotion (e.g., feelings of depression). Similar resultswere observed in another study [71] that found no rela-tionship between depression and recollection.Related to the ToM, one study [59] focused on how

retrieval patterns illustrated that patients’ AM deficitswere more strongly associated with a lack of ability toinfer other’s intentions than to understand their emo-tions [108–110]. The researchers [59] indicated that pa-tients with schizophrenia may have difficultyunderstanding other’s intentions or behaviors such asinterpreting the meaning of conversations or body lan-guage. Another study [68] reported that patients’ capaci-ties to retrieve past events were strong predictors ofsocial performance.One study [69] revealed that patients offered largely

objective explanations of the importance of their mem-ories, whereas controls provided mostly subjective expla-nations for their recalled memories. Older patients (i.e.,mean age = 56) demonstrated significant impairment inAM (i.e., both episodic and semantic memories) com-pared to younger patients (i.e., mean age = 33) [76]. Twostudies [47, 68] employed cue word and life stagesmethods to collect patient AMs. These studies revealedthat patients recollected more specific events when givenword cues and recollected a greater number of totalevents in the life stages method.

Open-ended retrieval methodTwenty-six studies [39, 45, 46, 49, 50, 56–58, 61, 62, 64,66, 70, 73, 78, 79, 81–86, 89] used open-ended retrievalmethods. Under this method, the studies were morelikely to focus on the quality of AMs, such as meaningmaking, content, insight, self-worth, coherence, temporalconceptual context, plausibility, and so on. In addition,the results were similar to those that used cue word/pic-ture and life stages methods. Patients with schizophreniaproduced fewer memories than controls [39], and theirmemory specificity was lower [50, 70]. Additionally, pa-tients produced more memories with high specificitypreceding the age of psychotic symptom onset [39], sup-porting the U-shaped memory retrieval from the lifestages recollection method [37, 47].The patients recollected most of their memories from

22 years of age as opposed to 27 years of age for controls;and patients’ reminiscence bumps were also earlier [50].Similarly, two studies [58, 85] reported patients’ reminis-cence bumps to be temporally located from ages 15–19,and controls’ bumps from ages 20–24, or 25–29, re-spectively. Patients tended to recall more past events re-lated to work and education than for births and deaths[50]. Controls were more likely to recall their pastthrough intense emotional events [50], supporting other

results [69] indicating that patients provide an objectiveexplanation for important events while controls providea subjective explanation.One study [58] reported that patients with schizophre-

nia had a tendency to recall more memories relating tohospitalisation or stigmatisation rather than achieve-ment, as compared with controls. A similar theme wasfound in one study [66] in which patients with schizo-phrenia tended to retrieve more traumatic memoriesthan controls: 71% of these memories related to psych-otic episodes while 29% related to other events that con-tributed to their disorders. Three studies [78, 82, 83]discovered that patients often rated their past as nega-tive; however, recalling negative experiences was not as-sociated with their level of depressive symptoms [82].The content of memory produced by patients ap-

peared to be less coherent regarding the context andtheme. As far as the meaning making of events, studiesrevealed that patients produced less meaning makingthan controls [58, 64, 66, 78, 86]. Additionally, patientstended to use less temporal coherence [81] and lesscausal (e.g., “because”), logical (e.g., “and”), and contrast-ive (e.g., “although”) words in their storytelling [86]. Butnot all patient samples showed the same tendencies.Holm and colleagues [82] reported neither significantdifferences between controls and patients in terms ofAM causal coherence and centrality to identity, nor thelength of stories, their temporal coherence, number oflife chapters, or themes produced [89].Compared with healthy controls, patients’ AMs ap-

peared to be lower in self-worth and agency [46, 73],meaning that they tended to connect with others pas-sively, viewed the self as negative, and believed that theirlives were not under their own control. These findingsare supported by a recent study [89] stating that patientsexpressed their lack of fulfillment in agency and inter-personal relationships.Patients’ insight into their own mental health condi-

tions affected their AMs. Patients who denied the diag-noses or symptoms tended to have lower insight [57].The patients with low insight produced less detailedAMs that lacked temporal conceptual connection andplausibility [45]. Vocational rehabilitation enhanced theAM coherence of patients with average insight, but didnot for those with lower levels of insight [45]. Some pa-tients with more insight seemed to have increased socialfunctioning (i.e., ToM) [49, 56] and abstract thoughts[48], and were more motivated and hopeful [49] in life.However, others appeared to be more depressive andhave lower motivation in life [84]. Patients’ poor levelsof insight were associated with more psychotic symp-toms [49] and with poorer quality AMs [107]. However,their AM quality was not associated with their past ex-periences of being rejected socially [56].


In terms of patients’ language, the more first-personplural pronouns (i.e., we, us, and our) used, the more an-ticipatory pleasure and greater connection with theirpast they experienced [79], indicating that socializingwith other patients was pleasant. Patients who stayedlonger in care homes produced stories that delineatedrelationships and home activities, and were more coher-ent and less delusional compared to the stories producedby patients whose stay in care homes was shorter [61].In one study, patients were able to experience vividnessof their past just like healthy controls [78], but an oppos-ing result was observed in another study [83] in whichthe level of vividness was found to be lower in patients.

Theoretical accountsVarious SMS schemes were employed in eight out of 57reviewed articles to interpret why patients with schizo-phrenia often recall less specific AMs. According tothese eight studies, this phenomenon of patient AMnon-specificity might be due to the abnormality of per-sonal identity [40], the disturbing concept of self [47],the goal of avoiding distressing memories [60], orunclear goals and intentions [47, 59, 87]. A defect inexecutive function was also suggested [44]. The uncon-ventional reminiscence bump [50] and frequency ofreporting inconsistent memories [62] in patients withschizophrenia was attributed to the abnormal formationof life goals. Additionally, vague descriptions were pro-vided while applying the SMS framework; it was notmade clear how the goals and identity of an individualcould play a role in the memory retrieval process.Only three studies employed the CaR-FA-X model to

illuminate the possible reason for less specific AMs inpatients with schizophrenia [43, 72, 75]. The first study[72] emphasised that the executive function is crucialduring retrieval. The second study [63] stated that avoid-ance played a role in producing overgeneral AM amongpatients. The third study [53] employed the ruminativehypothesis in the CaR-FA-X model to explain the reduc-tion in specificity in AM among patients, however, theresult was not supportive to the theory as the patients’ruminative thinking pattern remained unchanged al-though their AM specificity significantly improvedthrough training.Some studies highlighted the importance of working

memory, executive function [48, 67, 81, 89], and meta-cognition [45, 56, 58, 64, 78, 80, 82–84, 86, 88] inexplaining high quality AM (e.g., AM with specificity, in-ternal coherence, length of narratives, and temporal con-ceptual context). A few studies mentioned thatschizophrenia itself disturbed patients’ AM, especiallythe onset of the illness [68, 69] and its psychotic symp-toms [45, 46, 49, 53, 66, 85]. Other studies stated that

patients’ attitudes [57] or emotional states [63, 65, 70]had a significant impact on their memory retrieval.Results from the remaining papers did not apply any

theoretical framework but offered some general interpre-tations. Some authors discussed inefficient encodingstrategies as the reason for patients recalling fewer AMs[39, 40, 50], while others emphasised the abundance ofunpleasant life experiences [38, 41, 60] and general re-trieval deficit [39, 47, 51]. Two studies mentioned thatpatients with schizophrenia follow an overgeneral mem-ory retrieval pattern without much elaboration [52].

Enhancing memory specificity and coherenceSeveral studies [45, 54, 68, 74, 75, 81] reported that pa-tients’ memory specificity and coherence could be im-proved through both intervention and memoryactivation methods. Two studies from Ricarte and col-leagues [53, 91], using different intervention and re-trieval methods (i.e., life stage and cue-word), reportedsimilar results that patient’s AM specificity and detailimproved. However, the study [53], which employed LifeReview therapy resulted in no change in patients’ moodsor ruminative thinking patterns. The other study [91],which utilised event-specific training, resulted in differ-ences in patients’ depression levels. These competing re-sults are perhaps due to the intervention’s trainingobjectives. Life Review therapy focused on positive pastevents, but did not make patients feel better afterwards.Event-specific training was more likely focusing on pa-tients’ self-defining memories, which would be helpful indecreasing their depressive mood.Blairy and colleagues [54] supported the results that

AM specificity could be improved. They employed Cog-nitive Remediation therapy—exercising the recollectionof memories through a written dairy. Although theywere able to generate specific AMs, patients’ low moodsremained. Holm and colleagues [89] discovered thatpatients reported greater unfulfilled communion, in-dicating that they wished to have close relationshipsor friendships. Future research could explore thecorrelation between patients’ moods and having closerelationships.Lysaker and colleagues [41] reported that narrative co-

herence of patients with an average level of insight wasimproved in a 5-month vocational rehabilitationprogramme. They believed that through working andinteracting with others in the workplace, patients gaineda sense of identity and recognised their personal poten-tial, which then enhanced their narrative coherence.However, insight might be hard to obtain. One studystated that insight is culturally structured since patients’insight levels are positively correlated with the insight oftheir family members [111].


Potheegadoo and his team [74] discovered that byadopting specific cues, patients with schizophrenia wereable to recollect memories in detail with no difference inspecificity from controls. The specific cues provided(e.g., “how did you feel when this event happened?”; “doyou remember the thoughts you had at that very mo-ment?”) might help patients to elaborate further whileretrieving and constructing their memories. Patientsmight have difficulty expressing from their narrativeexactly what researchers are looking for (i.e., a matchwith the scoring standard), as previous studies mentionthat patients’ ToM is weaker than controls [59, 68, 77].More importantly, this study [74] highlighted an ideathat the lack of specificity in AMs could be due to a lackof communication or elaboration skills, as the patients’illness caused them to withdraw from social interactions.Alle and colleagues [82] discovered similar results

from adopting a more structured protocol to elicit pa-tients’ AM (i.e., asking patients to write down the 7 mostimportant events on 7 cards; narrate them into a fullstory after arranging them in temporal sequence). Eitherproviding more specific cues, or a more structuredprotocol, would likely help patients with schizophreniagenerate more specific memories. Future research couldconcern itself with the best method for accessing AM inpatients with schizophrenia.

DiscussionThis systematic review has extracted four themes, whichhelped to answer our research questions. The first themesummarises all the memory activations methods com-monly used in previous studies. The second theme high-lights the features and content of patients’ AM togetherwith the role of comorbid depression and history of sui-cidal attempt in memory specificity. The third themesynthesises the theoretical accounts of patients’ memory.The fourth theme summarises the ways by which onecould enhance patients’ memory specificity and coher-ence. We discuss some additional findings on the rela-tionships between psychotic symptoms and patients’memory specificity.

Memory activation methodsResearch invariably shows that all studies used the gen-erative retrieval strategy: giving cues to evoke autobio-graphical memories. The presentations of cues were ineither words, pictures, life stages, or open-ended ques-tions. Some results appear common across studies re-gardless of cuing method. For example, patients withschizophrenia retrieve less specific AMs compared tocontrols—only three studies [58, 64, 67] illustrated nodifference in AM specificity, and one study [89] statedno difference in length, number of life chapters, or tem-poral macrostructure.

Suicide attempts, comorbid depression, and AMspecificityComorbid depression was common among patients withschizophrenia, with several studies reported patientshaving higher levels of depression compared to controls[52, 60, 71, 72, 78, 82, 88]. However, the relationship be-tween patients’ level of depression and memory specifi-city was not clear. One study [60] indicated thatpatients’ depression levels were correlated with theirmemory specificity, while others showed no relationshipbetween depression and memory specificity [54, 72], nar-rative disruption [46], negative life chapters [82], ormemory recollection in the Field perspective [71]. It wasalso found that although patients’ AM specificity im-proved through intervention, their levels of depressionremained unchanged [54, 75], indicating the independ-ence of depression and memory specificity. Evidenceshows that patients with depressive symptoms have bet-ter insight than those without depression [43]. Anotherstudy revealed that patients with higher levels of insightwere more depressed; thus, were less motivated in life[84].The patients with a history of attempted suicide gener-

ated more specific AMs compared to patients withoutsuch history [60]. However, another study showed thatpatients with a history of attempted suicide were morelikely to produce less specific AMs compared to patientswithout this history [63]. These contradictory resultscould be attributed to the sample size and types of pa-tients involved in the studies. While the first study re-cruited only outpatients (N = 60), the second studyinvolved mostly inpatients (N = 23) and a smaller num-ber of outpatients (N = 9). In a recent study, outpatientsperformed better in several neurocognitive tasks, such asprocessing speed, working memory, and attention, com-pared to inpatients [112]. Better neurocognitive functionamong outpatients could explain why they, despite hav-ing a history of attempted suicide, were able to producemore specific AMs than inpatients.

Distribution of AMs across the patients’ lifespanStudies [37, 39, 47] examining AM specificity illustratepatients having a U-shaped distribution, meaning theyrecollected more specific memories from childhood andrecent years than early adulthood. However, the U-shaped retrieval pattern was absent in a recent study[87]. The lifespan distribution of patients’ typical AMsdemonstrated an earlier reminiscence bump comparedto healthy controls: 15–19 years for patients, and 20–24years for functioning individuals [50, 58]. The partici-pants’ average age at events was 22 years for patients and27 years for controls. The early reminiscence bump forpatients is probably due to the early onset of their ill-ness; in many cases in their early adulthood, which may


have resulted in the reduced recollection of memoriesfrom that period [113]. When functioning individualswere able to adequately encode events from early adult-hood, the patients faced difficulty in doing so because ofinsomnia [114] and other neurodevelopmental abnor-malities [115, 116]. As the patients were likely to showreduced awareness of the events taking place at a timewhen their disease symptoms started to surface, theirmemory recollection from that period dropped, resultingin the early closure of their reminiscence bump.The identity account of the reminiscence bump [64,

117–119] could be employed to make sense of thesefindings. Normally, young people develop their self-identity during adolescence and early adulthood [120]. Ifan individual goes through a normal developmentalprocess, there will be a privileged encoding of many ofthe events occurring during this period and later inte-grated with their lifelong narratives, thus enhanced ac-cessibility to those memories later in life [121]. If anindividual shows symptoms of schizophrenia duringearly adulthood, events occurring at that time would re-ceive reduced attention and likely be disintegratedwithin their personal narrative. This is the reason for pa-tients showing an inability to recall more memories fromthis period, resulting in an early closure of their reminis-cence bump. The question that now arises what happenswith the patients’ identity development process whenthey start experiencing schizophrenic symptoms for thefirst time. Does identity development pause during thisperiod and recommence after a certain period when theystart receiving medical care? Future research shouldfocus on the seemingly uneven development of self-identity in patients with schizophrenia and how doesthat influence their memory recollection.

Effects of psychotic symptoms on AMA few studies have ascertained that psychotic symptomsrelate to certain AM characteristics among patients withschizophrenia. Studies revealed that negative psychoticsymptoms (i.e., social withdrawal; decreased or lostspeech; emotional response) were related to patients’AM specificity [42], self-defining memories [66], numberof memories recalled after diagnosis [85], elaborationusing fewer words [77], and negative symptoms, whichpredicted the poor quality of the narrative [46]. Sinceworking memory was found to be a predictor of negativesymptoms [122], a deficit in patients’ working memorymight have affected their capacity to reminisce abouttheir past.Additionally, positive psychotic symptoms (i.e., halluci-

nations and delusions) were found to be related to AMspecificity in one study [53]; however, the results werenot corroborated in other studies [51, 54]. Furthermore,Alle and colleagues [83] discovered that the symptoms

of illness were not related to self-continuity among out-patients (outpatients vs. inpatients appears to be an im-portant variable in this research, but the type of patientsamples are not clear in some studies). Also, positivesymptoms appear to be associated with poorer temporalconceptual connection and plausibility in patient narra-tives [45], perhaps due to their low capacity for realityevaluation which is associated with positive symptoms[123]. A recent study [88] found that patients with fewerpsychotic symptoms were likely to recall their memoriesfrom adolescence with more emotion and sensation.

Theoretical accountsThe second research question was what kind of theoret-ical accounts were employed to explain overgeneral AMin patients with schizophrenia. Several interpretationswere offered aligning with the SMS framework [14]. Pri-marily, patients’ overgeneral recall of AMs resembledGeneral Event or Lifetime Period Knowledge as stated inthe SMS. Issues such as abnormality in personal identity[40], disturbing self [47, 60], and unclear goals and in-tentions in patients with schizophrenia [47, 59] wereheld responsible for the less specific AMs. Impairmentsin executive function were also suggested to be respon-sible [44]. Although there was no explicit indication inany study currently reviewed, the goals of working self—according to the SMS of Conway and Pleydell-Pearce[20]—might play a key role in the lack of AM specificity.The recall of less specific AMs indicates that patient

goals of working self inhibit the construction of detailedmemories by sampling information from the autobio-graphical knowledge base. This inhibition could be dueto the discrepancy between the ideal self and actual self.There may be a large gap between knowledge of the pastactual self and the perception of the ideal self. The largerthe gap between selves, the more likely it is that a nega-tive feedback loop is created [14], resulting in memorysuppression or confabulation [17]. The discrepancy be-tween selves could be rooted in the developmental his-tory of patients with schizophrenia.We have observed that participating patients in the

reviewed studies accessed medical support at the time ofdata collection. Their psychotic symptom onset beganearlier, approximately in their late teens or early adult-hood [37, 39, 40, 65, 72, 124], a crucial period for adultidentity development [125]. A struggle with psychoticsymptoms at that time may have delayed the process ofidentity formation. Without proper support, training, orguidance, these individuals were not likely to functiondaily in work and relationships, causing a tendency tomisinterpret others. Hence, it is inevitable that their de-velopmental background, including a delay in adult iden-tity formation, contributed to their goals of working self,


which are affected by a significant discrepancy betweenselves.The discrepancy between selves may results from the

cuing method too, especially when emotional word cueswere used to activate memories. The emotional wordsor pictures are more likely to induce discrepancy in par-ticipants’ current self and ideal self. Schoofs and col-leagues reported that cues create self-discrepancy,causing the retrieval of less specific AMs by functioningstudent participants [126]. Similar findings were re-ported among elderly people [127] as well as patientswith borderline personality disorder and depression[128]. There has been no study so far examining the re-lationship between self-discrepancy and overgeneral AMamong patients with schizophrenia. This could be afocus of future studies.Several studies suggested that people produce more

general than specific memories because they want tominimise their self-discrepancy [126–129]. It is proposedthat control of self-discrepancy is the nature of the goalsof working self [14, 17]. The control of self-discrepancyis quite similar to the concept of a protective mechan-ism, as depicted in the functional avoidance hypothesisof the CaR-FA-X model. The protective mechanismfunctions to reduce discomfort and intense emotion[15]. There has been evidence demonstrating that un-wanted memories might be directly suppressed, evencausing later forgetting [130–133] among healthy people.As a few researchers report [134, 135], sharing non-specific memories is a type of self-defense mechanismamong people with personality disorder. For example, inan extreme attempt to minimise the gap between selves,it is possible for patients to say: I cannot remember, or Ido not know, as their goals of working self guide them toescape a situation and maintain self-coherence.The CaR-FA-X model was used to explain less specific

AMs in patients with schizophrenia [12]. In the reviewedarticles, the executive function hypothesis was frequentlyemployed for this purpose. This hypothesis suggests thatto recall a specific and detailed AM, one has to initiateand conduct a conscious search within the autobio-graphical knowledge base which requires executivefunctions [14]. As the executive function is often im-paired in patients with schizophrenia, they show re-duced capability to construct specific AMs. Thecapture and rumination hypothesis was mentioned inonly two studies reviewed. According to the captureand rumination hypothesis, patients with schizophre-nia are often preoccupied with disorganised thoughtsor intrusive images, causing them a high level ofanxiety [136–138] or depression [138–140], whichmay take up a huge portion of their working memorycapacity; resulting in reduced cognitive resources toform specific AMs [15]. The functional avoidance

hypothesis did not receive any support from the studieswe have reviewed.Since the working self is crucial in the retrieval of AM

and is incrementally shaped through the developmentalprocess, examining patients’ upbringing would informresearch by providing a better understanding of patients’working selves. Although studies reviewed in this paperclearly show patients retrieving incoherent AMs, there isa dearth of evidence for the connection between cuesdispensed and elicited memories. There is a potentialgap between how patients and researchers make sense ofpatients’ reported memories; content labelled as uninter-pretable may result from researchers’ judgments orperceptions.Future research concerning AM in patients with

schizophrenia could investigate their developmentalstages, AM content, and sense making, particularly re-garding their past. To attain these objectives, the life-story-interview method over the cue-word methodseems better suited. Although the cuing method hassome methodological advantages (e.g., consistency acrossparticipants), the life-story method can offer completepatient life narratives and highlight the most importantinfluences, experiences, circumstances, issues, themes,and lessons of a lifetime [141, 142]. To ascertain how pa-tients with schizophrenia make sense of their life andconstruct personal meaning and reality, the life storyinterview method is quite useful [143, 144]. This methodis better able to show how patients organise, interpret,and create meaning from their life experiences, and howthey maintain a sense of continuity.

Memory enhancement in patientsSeveral studies have reported that patients’ memory spe-cificity and coherence could be improved through struc-tured interview protocols with specific cues, cognitivetraining, and rehabilitation [45, 54, 68, 74, 75, 81]. Inter-estingly, the memory coherence was only improved inpatients who had at least a moderate level of insight[41]. When the interviewers asked very specific ques-tions or presented with a specific cue, the patients wereable to recall further detail of their life experiences.However, it is not made clear in the current studies ifthis memory enhancement was resulted from the cue it-self or the process was moderated by a third factor, suchas patients’ ToM. When more specific questions wereasked, patients were able to realise what the interviewer’sexpectation was; therefore, produced additional detail oftheir experiences. Future research should investigate therole of ToM regarding patients’ capability of recallingAMs. Various training and therapeutic interventionshelp to improve patients’ AM specificity, but the under-lying cognitive processes deserve further examination. Itis critical to understand if these interventions improve


the patients’ self-perception and reduce their self-discrepancy, therefore positively affecting their memoryrecall.

Strength/limitationsThis systematic review has incorporated all the most re-cent empirical research on the AM of patients withschizophrenia. Unlike previous reviews, it has revealedthat memory activation method itself plays a critical rolein whether an individual would recall a specific or over-general AM. This review highlights how the SMS frame-work could explain overgeneral and incoherent AMs ofpatients with schizophrenia. This review has, however, afew limitations. It only included quantitative studies. Re-sults from both qualitative and quantitative studiesshould be analysed for a more comprehensive under-standing of the AM of people with schizophrenia. An-other limitation is that some studies involved onlyoutpatients, some only inpatients, and others utilisedboth. Even some studies did not clearly mention the typeof patients they involved in their studies. Additionally,the patients participating in the reviewed studies were atdifferent stages of recovery because they were all under-going treatment. These factors may have affected the re-sults reported.

Directions for future researchBased on the reviewed research and extracted results, weoffer some specific guidelines for future research. First,to see how patients with schizophrenia organise theirpast autobiographical knowledge, researchers could util-ise the life chapters approach. This method has beenused to investigate how patients suffering from majordepressive disorder organise autobiographical knowledgewithin their past and potential future life chapters [145].Future researchers could ask their patients with schizo-phrenia to list their past and future life chapters in ameaningful way (e.g., college education, job with HSBC)and sort a given list of positive and negative attributesaccording to those chapters. It would be interesting tosee if the patients delineate their life chapters with morenegative than positive attributes compared to healthycontrols, and if there are any differences between attri-butes picked for their past and future life chapters. Thiskind of research could shed light on aspects of pastknowledge that are associated with schizophrenic symp-toms. Second, future studies could compare AMs of in-patients and those at different stages of recovery. Third,it would be interesting to see how AM relates to othercognitive processes (e.g., rumination, avoidance, problemsolving) in this population and how AM problems con-tribute to and maintain symptoms.Finally, we suggest cross-cultural research on AM in

psychosis as previous research has shown that

functioning individuals representing either collectivist orindividualistic cultures report AMs differently [146, 147].We also recommend future research on memory train-ing approaches and mechanisms of change in emotionsand symptoms. Some longitudinal studies could be con-ducted, as there are few such studies on patients withschizophrenia. It would also be interesting to comparecontent and appraisals of memories produced by pa-tients with schizophrenia. We strongly recommend re-search investigating life scripts produced by thispopulation and a comparison of their life scripts withthe cultural life scripts of healthy controls.

ConclusionThis review, following the PRISMA Statement guide-lines, synthesised empirical findings published in 57 arti-cles examining AMs in patients with schizophrenia. Thefeatures and content of AM, memory activation method,lifespan distribution of patients’ memories, and relatedaspects have been discussed. This review illustrates thatmost studies accumulated AMs through the generativeretrieval process. Cuing methods such as words, pic-tures, life stages, and open-ended questions were used.Patients with schizophrenia were found to frequently re-call more overgeneral memories. The patients who werestill experiencing psychotic symptoms at the time of datacollection were more likely to produce incoherent mem-ories. While examining the lifespan distribution of spe-cific memories, it was found that patients recalled morespecific memories from childhood and recent years, butvery few from early adulthood, forming a U-shaped dis-tribution; however, this finding was not overwhelminglyconsistent. Moreover, a typical reminiscence bump wasfound, but the patients’ bump started earlier than thebump exhibited by healthy controls. While patients ex-hibited the bump for 15–19 years of age, the controls ex-hibited it for 20–24 years of age.The review indicates that patients’ AM specificity can

be improved through retrieval training or by employingstructured interview protocols with specific retrievalcues. Patients’ personal insights contributed to how theynarrate their life stories, as their insight impacted ontheir mood. The relationship between history of suicidalattempt, level of depression and AM specificity was notconclusive; likely to be influenced by a third variable,such as patients’ stage of recovery, and patient type (i.e.inpatients or outpatients). Directions for future researchto improve AM specificity in this clinical populationwere presented.To explain overgeneral AM in schizophrenia, eight ar-

ticles employed the SMS framework, three used the Car-FA-X model, and the rest did not use any theoretical ac-count. The discrepancy between selves, dysfunctionalworking memory, unclear goals and intentions, and


weaker ToM among patients, was held responsible forovergeneral AM. The reduction in recall of specific AMsfrom early adulthood was attributed to the lack of cogni-tive processing of the events due to the emergence ofpsychotic features during that period. Due to disease on-set, events occurring during early adulthood were notprocessed to become integrated within the patients’ life-long narrative, thus they were poorly recalled. Therefore,the earlier reminiscence bump for typical AMs in pa-tients could be attributed to the early closure of theadult identity formation process.

AbbreviationsABME: Autobiographical Memory Enquiry; AM: Autobiographical Memory;AMI: Autobiographical Memory Interview; CaR-FA-X: Capture and Rumination,Functional Avoidance, and Impaired Executive Control; DSM: Diagnostic andStatistical Manual of Mental Disorders; E-AGI: Erweitertes AutobiographischesGedächtnisinterview; IAPS: International Affective Picture System;ICD: International Classification of Diseases; IPII: Indiana Psychiatric IllnessInterview; PRISMA: Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews andMeta-Analyses; PTSD: Post-traumatic Stress Disorder; SDMs: Self-definingmemories; SMS: Self-Memory System; ToM: Theory of Mind

AcknowledgementsThe authors acknowledge the School Research Office for providingcontinuous administrative support to Yujia Zhang when she has conductedthis systematic review.

Authors’ contributionsSH and YZ conceived the review and finalised the review plan. They alsoassessed the quality of the selected articles according to the PRISMAStatement guidelines. SH, YZ, SKK, and LJ were all involved in writing themanuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Authors’ informationYujia Zhang is a clinical psychologist and currently conducting research forher PhD at Monash University Malaysia. Her PhD work focuses onautobiographical memories of individuals suffering from schizophreniaspectrum disorder.Sara Kuhn is a graduate student at the Department of Psychology, Universityof North Dakota, USA.Laura Jobson is Senior Lecturer in the School of Psychological Sciences andTurner Institute of Brain and Mental Health at Monash University, Australia.She is a clinical psychologist with research interests in autobiographicalmemory, depression, and PTSD.Shamsul Haque is Associate Professor in the Department of Psychology,Jeffrey Cheah School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Monash UniversityMalaysia. He has research interest in the construction of autobiographicalmemory in psychiatric patients.

FundingThe Department of Psychology at Jeffrey Cheah School of Medicine andHealth Sciences, Monash University Malaysia has offered the open accesspublication funding support. The funding body has no role in the design ofthe study and collection, analysis, and interpretation of data and in writingthe manuscript.

Availability of data and materialsData sharing is not applicable to this article as no datasets were generatedor analysed during the current study.

Ethics approval and consent to participate“Not applicable”.

Consent for publication“Not applicable”.

Competing interestsYujia Zhang is supported by a Higher Degree by Research Scholarship fromMonash University Malaysia.

Author details1Department of Psychology, Jeffrey Cheah School of Medicine and HealthSciences, Monash University Malaysia, Jalan Lagoon Selatan, 47500 BandarSunway, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia. 2Department of Psychology,University of North Dakota, Grand Forks, North Dakota, USA. 3Turner Instituteof Brain and Mental Health and School of Psychological Sciences, MonashUniversity, 18 Innovation Walk, Clayton Campus, Wellington Road,Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC 3800, Australia.

Received: 7 December 2018 Accepted: 27 October 2019

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