A relação entre riqueza, timē, axia e moira nos poemas ... · Propõe-se, então, suscitar que...

A relao entre riqueza, tim, axia e moira nos poemas homricos

La relacin entre riqueza, tim, axia y moira en los poemas homricos The relation between wealth, tim, axia and moira in the Homeric

poems Adriana Santos TABOSA1

Resumo: Este artigo analisa o conceito de riqueza e sua relao com a equao tim-axia-moira e a relao entre os conceitos fundamentais de tim agalmata contidos nos poemas homricos. Abstract: This paper analyzes the concept of wealth and its relation to the equation tim-axia-moira and the relation between the fundamental concepts of tim agalmata contained in the Homeric poems. Keywords: Axia Homer Moira Tim. Palavras-chave: Axia Homero Moira Tim.

ENVIADO: 07.05.2014 ACEITO: 29.05.2014

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Introduo No proposta deste artigo debater sobre a questo dos poemas homricos refletirem ou no o mundo micnico, que ruiu por volta de 1.200 a. C. Este artigo tem por objeto analisar a ideia de riqueza e sua relao com a equao

1 Professora da Universidade Estadual de Feira de Santana. E-mail: [email protected].

mailto:[email protected]

COSTA, Ricardo da e SANTOS, Bento Silva (orgs.). Mirabilia 19 (2014/2)

Nicolau de Cusa (1401-1464) em Dilogo Nicols de Cusa (1401-1464) en Dilogo

Nicholas of Cusa (1401-1464) in Dialogue Jun-Dez 2014/ISSN 1676-5818

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tim-axia-moira e a relao entre os conceitos fundamentais de tim agalmata contidos nos poemas. Pretende-se analisar quais so os elementos que caracterizam a riqueza presentes nos poemas. Se os signos pr-monetrios cumpriam uma funo simultnea de elemento qualitativo e quantitativo, ou seja, de apreender uma expresso abstrata do valor, na qual se mensuraria nas aquisies destes objetos, seja na partilha do esplio ou pelas regras do dom, o preo ou valor do objeto em si, a apreciao do objeto ofertado ao mesmo tempo em que avalia segundo o mrito, como se estabelecia uma equiparao entre indivduos e estes objetos? Prope-se neste artigo que nos poemas homricos a isomoiria se fundamenta entre duas medidas do valor: o valor em si de um objeto e o valor segundo o mrito de cada um. Isto , o objeto um signo exterior do mrito de cada um e a aquisio de determinado objeto significava o reconhecimento da estima, da apreciao, da compensao pblica que cada um recebia, segundo o seu mrito. Parte-se do princpio de que essa isomoiria se reflete posteriormente na isonomia. O princpio de igualdade nos poemas homricos (DETIENNE,

1981: 46) est representado na expresso (no meio). Havia entre o meio e o que era comum a definio deste duplo valor. O ato de por os

objetos da partilha , implica alm do sentido literal do termo, o sentido de estabelecer uma igualdade entre duas propores e o que est

disposio de todos. Quando os objetos eram dispostos perdiam seu carter original de , objeto marcado por um direito de propriedade, e se tornavam coisas comuns (). Era nesse momento da partilha em que se estabelecia o valor em si do objeto que servir de signo exterior do mrito de cada um. Julga-se que isso uma reminiscncia do que deliberar Aristteles, ao tentar determinar qual o critrio de medida do valor nas relaes de troca no interior de uma comunidade. Os indivduos precisam ser equiparados para haver a troca e para haver a sociedade. Para Aristteles, o valor, a base da medida, e a prpria medida, a , a necessidade dos indivduos uns para os outros e de todos para a comunidade, ou seja, o valor de cada um seria o que correspondesse comum. Aristteles diz que aquilo que distribudo s




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pessoas deve s-lo de acordo com o mrito de cada um, e que o justo em termos de distribuio tambm deve ser de acordo com o mrito do indivduo (Et. Nic. V, 5, 1131a). preciso lembrar que o conceito de , alm de significar justo, indica tambm, honrado, merecido, devido. Nos poemas homricos, esse mrito podia ser demonstrado nos jogos, nos bens tomados ao inimigo, ou mesmo na concesso do dom. Em suma, considera-se que nos poemas homricos havia um consenso na definio de mrito no ato da isomoiria. Ao contrrio, esse ser um dos maiores problemas identificados por Aristteles, pois apesar de todos os participantes de uma comunidade poltica parecer concordar que o justo em termos de distribuio deve s-lo conforme o mrito, no chegam a uma concluso de qual espcie de mrito. Prope-se, ento, suscitar que no processo de transio do repartir igualitrio, fundado na isomoiria arcaica, para a formao dos direitos igualitrios no momento da instaurao da polis, isto , da isonomia, um dos problemas centrais o de estabelecer o mrito de cada um de acordo com o que cada um traz para a comum. Com o surgimento da polis a isomoiria substituda pela isonomia e a substitui a equao tim-axia-moira identificada nas picas homricas. II. Aret, propriedade e valor Para uma abordagem sobre a ideia de riqueza contida nos poemas homricos, necessrio ter em vista que no possvel dissoci-la das noes de aret,

propriedade () e valor (). Os poemas oferecem muitos exemplos desta relao. Os poemas relatam sobre um mundo situado num tempo em que o verdadeiro ideal era o esprito da aret, no qual os heris corporificavam esse ideal e a propriedade representava a riqueza e o prestgio do oikos, assim como era smbolo do mrito e de reconhecimento pblico de quem a possua. Conforme foi mencionado, os bens possudos no representavam apenas a fortuna e a prosperidade da casa, eram signos exteriores do mrito do possuidor e conditio sine qua non para estima pblica, reconhecimento, de modo que a ktsis tinha relao intrnseca com as noes de axia e tim.




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O incio da Ilada j reporta a essa questo. A Ilada versa sobre a catarse de

Aquiles, que tem incio com a desonra () cometida por Agammnon e que, como consequncia, desperta a sua hybris. A origem desta disputa est diretamente vinculada aos despojos de Troia2. Quando Agammnon usurpa a jovem Briseida, que fora dada a Aquiles como prmio por seu valor, ele comete o pior tipo de ultraje:

[...] :

:

, :

. :

, ;

: , ,

.

:

, .

, , ;

:

. (, , vv. 116-139). [...] Porm um novo prmio preparai-me, sbito; no justo que eu s fique sem recompensa: meu quinho, quem no viu?, passou-se a mos alheias. Ento lhe respondeu Aquiles, ps-velozes: glorioso Atreide, mais que todos vido, que prmio te ho de dar os Aqueus magnnimos? Em parte alguma sei de esplio acumulado; o saque das cidades, ns j partilhamos. No justo partir de novo o repartido. Agammnon, o rei, contestou-lhe dizendo: [...] Queres manter teu bem, e ordenas, quanto a mim, que eu, despojado aceite devolver o meu. Caso os Aqueus um dom, magnnimos me deem, grato a meu corao, por igual me compenso; caso no deem, meu prmio eu pessoalmente o tomo: o quinho que te coube [...]. (Ilada, I, vv. 116-139)3.

O ato de repartir o esplio descrito na Ilada no implica apenas a aquisio de riquezas e escravos, isto , no reside apenas em aspectos econmicos, situa-

2 No apelo de Crises ao deus Apolo, ele suplica vingana ao deus evocando os servios prestados: Ouve-me, Arcongnteo, protetor de Crisa e de Cila sagrada, Esmnteo, rei de Tnedos. Se o templo que te ergui merece teu favor, se coxas gordurosas te queimei de touros e de gordas ovelhas, cumpre o meu desejo: faze os Dnaos pagar o meu pranto com tuas flechas!. possvel identificar nessa passagem um exemplo das noes de retribuio e de pagamento em um contexto religioso entre mortais e imortais. Ou seja, o momento em que Crises solicita ao deus um retribuio pelas oferendas a ele atribudas. 3 HOMERO. Ilada. Vols. I-II. Traduo Haroldo de Campos. 4. ed. So Paulo: Arx, 2003.

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se, sobretudo, nos mbitos tico e poltico. O vnculo essencial que existe entre poder e riqueza, seja sob a forma simples de pilhagem de bens, seja sob a da reduo escravido que inclui a apropriao ou pelo menos a completa submisso de indivduos. O ato de repartir do esplio descrito na Ilada tambm um momento em que se revela a isomoiria fundada na relao do valor do prmio proporcionado segundo o mrito de cada um. III. Aret, aristeia e mrito De que modo era reconhecido esse mrito, condio essencial para a isomoiria? Pela aret. O conceito de aret no pode ser interpretado apenas por virtude. O sentido de virtude no comporta a ideia de aret presente nos poemas homricos. O sentido de aret que aparece na pica compreendia, sobretudo, uma fora, uma capacidade. O vigor e a sade so a aret do corpo. A sagacidade e a percepo so a aret do esprito. A segunda noo de aret significava respeito e prestgio. Em seu sentido original, o termo designava um valor objetivo naquele que qualificava uma fora que lhe era prpria, que constitua a sua perfeio, ou seja, a aret era a expresso da fora e da destreza

dos guerreiros, principalmente do herosmo (), no no sentido de uma ao moral separada da fora, mais sim unida a esta (JAEGER, 1995: 25-27). O ideal de nobreza nos poemas homricos s pode ser mostrado em combate. A aristeia dos guerreiros representa a distino mais alta e o contedo da prpria existncia. O cdigo da nobreza possui essa dupla influncia. Nos poemas homricos, o sentido do dever uma caracterstica fundamental da nobreza. A fora formadora da nobreza reside no despertar do sentimento do dever diante do ideal, que o indivduo sempre visava. A aret em Homero o conceito constitutivo do ideal tico da aristocracia. O orgulho da nobreza, fundamentado numa longa sucesso de ilustres progenitores, acompanhado pelo conhecimento de que essa proeminncia s pode preservar por intermdio das virtudes pelas quais foi conquistada. O termo aristoi se reporta a um numeroso grupo; mas no ncleo deste grupo h uma constante luta pelo prmio da aret. No ideal da nobreza homrica a batalha e a vitria so a autntica demonstrao da excelncia humana. No significavam apenas a superao fsica do adversrio, mas a demonstrao da aret conquistada em combate. A aristeia dos guerreiros representa a distino mais alta e o contedo da prpria existncia. O cdigo da nobreza possuiu




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essa dupla influncia. Nos poemas homricos, o sentido do dever uma caracterstica fundamental da nobreza. A fora formadora da nobreza reside no despertar do sentimento do dever diante do ideal, que o indivduo sempre visava. A aret, em Homero, o conceito constitutivo do ideal tico da aristocracia. O orgulho da nobreza, fundamentado numa longa sucesso de ilustres progenitores, acompanhado pelo conhecimento de que esta preeminncia s pode preservar-se por intermdio das virtudes pelas quais foi conquistada. O termo aristoi reporta a um numero grupo, mas no ncleo deste grupo, h uma constante luta pelo prmio da aret. No ideal da nobreza homrica, a batalha e a vitria so a autntica demonstrao da excelncia humana, as quais no significavam apenas a superao fsica do adversrio, mas a demonstrao da aret conquistada em combate. A palavra aristeia, utilizada posteriormente para designar os combates dos grandes heris picos, corresponde a essa concepo. Os heris dedicavam sua vida inteira a uma luta incessante pela supremacia entre seus pares, uma disputa para alcanar o primeiro prmio. Uma demonstrao desta aret varonil se manifesta quando Aquiles prepara os

jogos fnebres em honra a Ptroclo e deposita (no centro) os prmios aos vencedores:

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. (, , vv. 270-286). Mas Aquiles os retm. Uma ampla arena faz dispor; das naus vm dons, caldeiras e trpodes, equinos, mulos e bois crnios-robustos, moas de cintura fina, ferro sidreo-cinza. queles quites, por cleres celebrados, propuseram, no ato, prmios esplndidos: ao ganhador, moa hbil, no lavor perfeita, mais trpodes com asas, vinte e duas medidas; ao segundo gua de seis anos, prenhe

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221

de um mulo, no domada ainda; para o terceiro, uma caldeira no tocada pelo fogo, bela, tetramesurante, alva; para o quarto, dois talentos de ouro; um vaso duplicado, intacto, para o quinto. De p, fala Aquiles aos Dnaos: Atreide, Aqueus de belas cnmides: Eis a os prmios que, na arena, aguardam os aurigas. [...] Estejam, ento, preparados, guerreiros Aqueus, todo e qualquer dentre vs que em seus corcis confie e nos carros bem-jungidos. (Ilada, XXIII, vv. 270-286).

O conceito de aret est associado ao de honra. Em Homero ele inseparvel da habilidade e do mrito. Segundo Aristteles (Et. Nic. I, 4, 1095b5, 1096a), a honra a expresso natural da medida inconsciente do ideal de aret, a que almeja. O homem homrico almeja a honra para garantir o seu valor prprio, a sua aret. Para o homem homrico a conscincia do seu valor se d atravs do reconhecimento da sociedade a que pertence. Ele um produto de sua classe e mede sua aret por meio de combates entre semelhantes. Um exemplo disso encontra-se na passagem em que Glauco enfrenta Diomedes, e quer se mostrar um adversrio digno deste:

, : ,

,

, .

. (, , vv. 206-211). Gerou-me Hiploco que a Troia me enviou, recomendando que primasse em meio aos outros, superando-os sempre, que a linhagem dos pais no desonrasse, deles que, valentes, em Efira e na vasta Lcia distinguiram-se. Honro-me de provir dessa estirpe e desse sangue. (Ilada, VI, vv. 206-211).

Para o mundo da nobreza retratado por Homero, a negao desta honra era a maior tragdia humana. A nsia pela honra era insacivel e era o fator principal que ocasionava os combates. Por conseguinte, os heris maiores e os prncipes mais poderosos exigiam as melhores honrarias. Em suma, a parte igual dos esplios repartidos convertia-se no signo exterior do mrito. IV. Isomoiria e mrito: a justia na partilha dos bens A partilha dos esplios, como tambm os jogos, atestam um pr-direito (DETIENNE, 1981: 45)4, atravs do qual surgem procedimentos que sero

4 Tambm Gernet: o direito comea a aparecer em cena, no surge como uma tcnica especial e profissional: ele prprio emana da vida dos jogos; h uma continuidade entre o

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222

mais tarde os aplicados em um direito constitudo. Os jogos obedecem a regras. A assembleia dos guerreiros estabelece o espao e dentro dos limites estabelecidos que se desenrolam as provas em que cada um deve mostra-se digno de mrito. Os prmios que so postos em concurso so depositados no

centro ( ). So muitos exemplos na pica que atestam esse costume: no momento em que Aquiles oferta os prmios nos funerais em honra a Ptroclo, ele os pe no centro (Ilada, XXIII, v. 704). Aps os funerais de Aquiles, quando Ttis deposita os prmios que ela havia obtido dos deuses, para a disputa dos chefes aqueus, ela os deposita no centro da assembleia

( ) (Odisseia, XXIV, v.85). Qual o significado de definir esse espao central? Qual a relao disto com a isomoiria e o mrito? A palavra grega significa, colocado ao meio, o ponto mdio, o sinal de igualdade entre duas propores, como tambm, o centro de uma coisa, o que est disposio de todos. O advrbio significa, com moderao. Detienne analisa o significado de priorizando o sentido do centro de uma coisa, do que est disposio de todos. O ato de depositar os bens da partilha no centro, segundo Detienne, porque era o ponto mais vista da assembleia, e, tambm, o lugar reservado a uma bela presa que fazia parte do esplio de guerra dos aqueus. Como prmio dos jogos funerrios, o

esplio dos guerreiros era depositado no centro ( ) (DETIENNE, 1981: 46). possvel interpretar, alm do que observou Detienne, a relao entre o ato de depositar o esplio no centro com o significado mesmo do termo . O centro tambm o meio. O meio em que deve ser estabelecida a igualdade da partilha conforme o mrito. , portanto, alude alm do centro de uma coisa, a igualdade entre duas propores. Isto , a equiparao entre o objeto partilhado e o mrito de quem o recebe. Dessa forma se estabelece a justia na repartio dos bens contida na pica. O meio o espao centrado onde cada um est para os outros, numa relao de reciprocidade.

costume agonstico e o costume judicial (GERNET, Droit et societ dans la Grce ancienne, Paris, 1955).




223

V. Os keimlia como valores simblicos Cada keimlion tinha sua prpria histria. Quando se falava dele ou o exibia, se recordava a quem ele havia pertencido, em que ocasio e de onde o havia adquirido e, sobretudo, quanto valia. Era como se durante a circulao seu valor houvesse aumentado e se acumulasse, transmitindo a quem o recebia o prestgio de quem o havia possudo. Ou seja, as coisas no estavam separadas das pessoas e os objetos pessoais estavam destinados a ser parte do morto. Em outros termos, eram os bens que acrescentavam a parte das riquezas que cada um possua e que levaria consigo para a tumba. Assim as coisas, se uma unidade de medida tivesse determinado valor de um dom, declarava o prestgio do doador. Predominava uma noo concreta e preferente do valor, que no se reportava ao conceito de unidade de medida. Um exemplo em que possvel identificar essa relao do valor () de um dom e do prestgio do doador a troca de armas entre Glauco e Diomedes. Essa troca um , um sinal de reconhecimento, um smbolo, uma contrassenha de hospitalidade. Glauco e Diomedes trocam suas armas em respeito aos seus ancestrais que haviam permutado presentes entre si. A hospitalidade obedecia a regras precisas. O sentido do dom e do contra dom vai alm de uma forma primitiva de troca, um sinal de reconhecimento de igualdade no interior da aristocracia:

:

:

: ,

.

, ,

. ,

. :

, .

,

.

: ,

, . (, , vv. 215-237).

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224

De fato considero que s e desde muito um hspede paterno. O divo Eneu, por vinte dias, a Belerofonte imculo acolheu, certa vez no palcio. Deram-se, um ao outro, regalos de amizade: Eneu um cinturo de prpura refulgida; Belerofonte uma copa, ouro puro, duplicada; quando parti, deixei-a em casa. De Tideu, no lembro. Era uma criana quando me deixou e, em Tebas, com o exrcito acaio veio a perecer. Em Argos, para mim, sers hspede e amigo; se um dia eu for Lcia, tu me hospedars. Evitemos, portanto, cruzar nossas lanas, ainda que sejam em campo de batalha. [...] Troquemos, pois, as armas; do penhor paterno, orgulhoso nosso, saibam todos. Falou. Saltam ambos dos carros; do-se um aperto de mos, pacto de f. Aqui, Zeus empanou o senso de Glauco, que a Diomedes cedeu armas de ouro em troca de arns brnzeo: cem bois permutados por nove! (Ilada, VI, vv. 215-237).

Esse exemplo serve para mostrar que seria perigoso limitar de modo arbitrrio esse tipo de troca associando ao valor dos objetos que circulavam. O ouro e a prata tm um papel essencial de aprovisionamento de riquezas, mas s habitualmente algum padro de valor. O ouro e a prata so uma realidade da sociedade homrica, constituem certos objetos de preo que fazem o prestgio da aristocracia: os bens possudos e depositados nos tesouros dos palcios. O ouro no intervm nisto que se denomina troca de pagamento imediato. Os aqueus trocavam vinho por bronze, ferro, peles, bois e escravos com os habitantes de Lemnos, mas no por ouro:

[...] ,

, .

.

, , ,

, , . (, , vv. 466-473). Nisso, apearam numerosas naus de Lemno, com vinho a mando de Jasnide Euneu, filho de Hipspile e do heri Jaso, pastor de povos. Mil medidas para os dois Atreides, de presente. Aos demais Aqueus, longos cabelos, se vendia vinho. Permutavam-no, uns, com bronze; com ferro polido, outros; com bois vivos e com peles, tambm com escravos. (Ilada, VII, vv. 466-473).

A situao diferente nos exemplos em que o pagamento no era imediato e pode mesmo ser por muito tempo diferido nos termos do dom e contra dom sendo o meio correspondente a essa realidade. Isto se aplica a anomalia do acordo entre Glauco e Diomedes. Diomedes prope uma troca equilibrada, o termo imediato nos quais Glauco se situa nas relaes de hospitalidade

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reek&can=a%29ndrapo%2Fdessi0&prior=d'




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patrimoniais e oferece como o seu av, ouro, que para ele, um crdito antecipado. Havia uma razo para que bens oferecidos para pagar uma fiana fossem equivalentes daqueles utilizados para comprar bens de subsistncia. O que se denomina por preo de um bem a expresso hierrquica das esferas que reagrupam diferentes produtos da mesma equivalncia de valor, embora, no em nvel individual de cada artigo tomado parte. Contudo, com o surgimento da polis, da comunidade de cidados cujo centro () passa a ser o espao pblico da agora, comeou-se a distinguir mbitos e situaes sociais privilegiados nos quais se abria caminho para uma noo abstrata do valor e, com ela, o uso de um numerrio, de uma unidade de medida que permitia relacionar os valores das coisas exibidas ou trocadas como simples nmeros. O que marcou sobretudo a separao das expresses qualitativas do valor foi o regime das oferendas votivas. Assim, o requeriam a caracterizao prpria do rito e da necessidade de avaliar com exatido os possveis substitutos das oferendas. Porm, no apenas isso. No sacrifcio, como nos jogos, havia uma srie de objetos que funcionavam como uma forma estendida do valor, mas tambm se manifestava a tendncia de manter fixado um dos termos de equivalncia em que todos os demais pudessem se refletir e pesar, portanto, uma forma geral do valor. Entre todas as coisas apreciadas que se consagravam, o boi, vtima sacrifical por excelncia, smbolo de abundncia e de favor divino, foi o que assumiu a funo de medida do valor. O uso do boi como instrumento de avaliao foi estendendo-se pouco a pouco do mbito do culto a todos os demais mbitos que haviam propiciado a transio para novas expresses quantitativas do valor. Como no exemplo da lista de prmios expostos por Aquiles (Ilada, XXIII, vv. 703-705; 884-885). Ou a grande quantia de riquezas com as quais Laertes havia comprado Euricleia:

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,

, . (, A, vv. 426-435). No andar superior Telmaco recolheu-se ao tlamo belssimo de muros altos, muitssimas questes ao dirigir-se ao leito. A seu lado Euricleia, fiel e atenta filha de Opos Pisenoride, iluminava os passos: fora Laerte que a comprara entre os haveres, na flor da idade, vinte bois valendo, smile da cara esposa, to benquista ela era em casa, mas nunca sua mulher, que a sua esposa enciumara. (Odisseia, I, vv. 426-435)5.

A medio religiosa pela qual o boi se impusera como medida do valor estava na natureza das coisas. Em uma sociedade que s conhecia novas formas polticas com a definio de sedes comuns, dentro dos mesmos muros, ao redor dos templos dos deuses (Odisseia, VI, vv. 6-8), em que como expresso de magnificncia preferiu o dom dos deuses antes que o dom dos homens, apenas o culto podia dar forma s primeiras expresses abstratas do valor. Por outro lado, a interveno de uma instncia no econmica na superao da noo concreta do valor estava, por assim dizer, ditada pelo vnculo inextrincvel entre os processos de produo e de distribuio e os demais aspectos da vida social, tal como deixa entrever a pica. O uso do boi como medida do valor teve que alterar profundamente o modo de entender a troca, e o dom, com suas antigas regras, acabaria perdendo o seu significado. As recompensas por uma ao podiam seguir denominadas por dons, porm, a rigor, do dom s conservou-se o nome:

[...] , .

, :

, :

: , . (, , vv. 210-216). Pensam tornar j que venceram a polis? Sondar tudo e voltar a salvo para ns; com isso, o audaz conquistaria grande glria debaixo do cu, junto aos seus; prmio de preo teria; cada qual dos navarcas lhe regalaria uma ovelha de pelo negro e o seu cordeiro: oblao, dom sem par. (Ilada, X, vv. 210-216).

5 HOMERO. Odisseia. Traduo Trajano Vieira. So Paulo: Editora 34, 2011.

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