A radiographical study of the feline urinary system
15
Copyright is owned by the Author of the thesis. Permission is given for a copy to be downloaded by an individual for the purpose of research and private study only. The thesis may not be reproduced elsewhere without the permission of the Author.
Transcript of A radiographical study of the feline urinary system
A radiographical study of the feline urinary systemCopyright is
owned by the Author of the thesis. Permission is given for a copy
to be downloaded by an individual for the purpose of research and
private study only. The thesis may not be reproduced elsewhere
without the permission of the Author.
A RADIOGRAPHICAL STUDY OF THE FELINE
URINARY SYSTEM
A d is s er ta t ion pres ented in par t i a l fulfilment
of t h e requ i rements for the
Ma s ter o f P h i l osophy
in the Faculty of Veterinary Science
at Massey University
Al though .
radiogra phi c a l techn i ques to examine the
ur inary sy stem are we l l estab l i shed in dogs and human s, these
techniques have not been wi dely accepted or appl i ed t o examine
the f e l ine uri nary sy stem . Considerab l e confusion and contro
ver sy exi s t regarding anatomical features and rad iographical
inter pretation of the f e l in e urinary system. Much of the
curren t ly avai l able informa t i on on the f e l ine ur inary sy stem
has been assumed f rom comparative s tudi e s in other species,
par t i c u l ar ly the dog .
Thi s s tudy comprises a comprehens ive l i terature review
of the anatomy and radiography in the f e l ine urinary t ract and
inc ludes resu l t s of a l imi t ed radiographical study of the
urinary trac t in 27 c l in i ca l ly normal cat s .
The cat s s tudi ed were prepared for radiography and
rest rai ned with variou s anaes thet i c agen t s and techni ques . Rad io
graphi cal examinat ions of the urinary sy s tem invo lved standard
rad iography, and the use of an image intensifier connected wi th
a t e l ev i sion moni tor and 70 mm spot f i lms . The kidney was
studi ed u sing p l ain radiography, intravenous and int r amuscu l ar
exc retory urography, renal ar teriography and renal venography .
Wi th these techn i ques the kidney l ocat i on, si ze, out l i ne, radio
graphi c a l den s i ty and bl ood supply were observed . Changes in
kidney po s i t ion in various pos tures relative to the l umbar
ver t ebrae were a l so studied • . The ureter a l course, s i z e and
b lood supply wer e studied f o l l owing excretory urography and in
some cats the presenc e of vesi co-ureteral ref lux enabl ed retro
grad e uret erography . The l ocat ion, shape, size and radiograph
ical den s i ty of the ur inary b l adder were s tudied by p l ain
rad iography , excretory rad iography and retrograde cy stography
i n c l ud i ng po si t ive, negat ive and doub l e contrast techn i que s . The
urethr a l c our se , shape, s i ze and sex dif ferences were s tudied by
retrograde and micturating urethrography. Following the radio graphi c a l studi e s , a l l cats were euthani zed and thei r urinary
..___
ii
S e l ec tive f inding s of thi s study are as fo l l ows . The
i n t erna l struc tures of the kidney , name ly the cortex , medu l l a ,
ren a l column s , pelvic diverticu l i , pelv i s and renal ves se l s
i i i
were visua l i z ed.u sing contrast radiography . The interna l venous
drainage of the kidney was demonstrated by selec t ive renal veno
graphy . As previously de s cribed in the l i terature , the kidney
l oc ation varied in ind ividu a l cats pos ture respiratory phase and
the geometrical rel ationshi p between the x-ray tube and the
anima l . However the ang l e of the l ongi tudinal axi s , the l ength
and width of the kidney and the ratio between the l eng th of the
kidney and lumbar vertebrae were rel atively consi stent . The
proxima l uret ers had a character i s t i c s tep- wi se course. Vesico
uretera l ref lux was observed in 36% o f cats s tud i ed during m i c
turating cy sto-urethrography but no evidence of thi s ref lux was
found in c at s sedated with xy lazine . A l though the urinary
bl adder expanded proportiona l ly during i l l ing , i t a ssumed an
hour-glass- shape during mi c turi tion . The ma l e urethra narrowed
at the l eve l s of the prostate and bu l bourethral g l an d s . The
f ema l e urethra formed a bu l bous enl argement immediat ely proxima l
·
· --..
The author would l i ke to s incerely thank hi s chi ef
supervi sor, Dr . B . E . Goulden for h i s interest, encouragement,
s t i mulus and suppor t through the experiment s and in the prep
aration of thi s manuscrip t . The kind guidance and advice of
the o ther supervisors, Mr. R . S . Wyburn and Dr . W . T . Clark, i s
also apprec i at ed . The au thor offers h i s sincere t hanks and
app re c iation to Dr . I . L . Ander son for hi s in teres t and for proof
read i ng of thi s manuscr ipt.
I am grateful to the t echnical staff at Massey Univer s i ty
for thei r skilful as s i stance and cooperat ion . Special thanks
ar e due to Mr . T . G . Law who a s s i st ed in preparing the photo
graphs . Grati tude i s also due to Dr . R . E . Harris f o r h i s very
kind advice in analysis of the dat a .
Special thanks are d u e t o Mi s s N . Okawa for preparat ion
of thi s study parti cularly for computer processing of the data
and for typing earlier draf t s of thi s manu scr ip t . To the o ther
typ i s t s, Mr s . J . Pearce who typed the f i r st drafts and Mi s s
K . s. Walker who typed the f inal copy o f thi s manu scri pt, the
au thor is gratefu l .
Las t bu t not least, the author would l ike to r ecogni ze
the patience, understanding and assi stance of his parents,
Mr . Y asuji Kur o sawa, and Mr s . Kau Kurosawa .
"Minasan Taihen Ar igato Gozai Mashi t a . "
iv
A. KIDNEY
4. SIZE . . . . . . . . .
P roximal convo l uted tubu l e • • • • • • • • i i .
i i i .
Loop of Hen l e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D i s t a l convo luted tubu l e
v . Co l l ec ting tubu l e e • • • • • • • • • • • e • • • • e • •
BLOOD SUPPLY
a . Artery
b. Vein
LYMPHATI CS
NERVE SUPPLY
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
e e e 8 e e e e e e e e e e e e e 0 e e e e e V e e e e e e e e e a e e
• • • • • • • • • • • e • • • • • • • • • • e • • • • • • •
High dose urography
Large volume urography . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Subcutaneou s Urography
Retrograde Pyel ography
vi . Function
RENAL ARTERIOCRAPHY
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a. Int roduction e e e e V e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e
b. Pro cedure • • • • • •
c. Equi pment • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •-....! • •
RENAL VENOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
OTHER METHODS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
• • • • • • • • • • • Q • • • • • • • • • • EXCRETORY URETEROGRAPHY
LARGE VOLUME URETEROGRAPHY e e e e e e e e e e • e V e e e e e e e
RETROGRADE URETEROGRAPHY
b. Pos i t ive Cys tography • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
i . Ret rograde cystography • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
c . Dou b l e Contrast Cy stography • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
d . Interpretation of Cys tograms
E... URETHRA RADIOCRAPHY
RENAL ARTERIOGRAPHY
RENAL VENOGRAPHY
Posi t ive Cy s tography
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
URETHROGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a .
b .
a . Dor sal Recumbency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b . Change in Kidney P o s i t ion wi th Posture • • • • • •
c. Change in Kidney P o s i tion due to Other Causes
d. Longi tudinal Axi s o f Kidney . . . . . . . .... . . . .
OUTLINE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SIZE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .
b . I n tramuscu l ar Urography
RENAL ARTERIOGRAPHY
RENAL VENOGRAPHY
LI ST OF FIGURES Figure Page
1 Schematic d i agram of the geometrica l relat ionship of
the x- ray tube , skin marker , l umbar vertebra and kidney ,
and their r adiographical images on radiographs taken in
three diff erent direc tions . • • • • . • • • . . . . . • . • • • • . • • • • • • • • • 49
2 Ventra - do r s a l excret ory urogram showing def ini tions
of kidney 1 ength and wid th . • • • • . . • • • . . . . . . . . . • . . • • • • • • • • 5 1
3 Lateral excr etory u rogram showing methods of measure
ment of kidney l ength and thickness , and vertebral
body length • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 2
4 Ventra- dor s a l excretory urogram showing methods of
measu remen t of kidney dis tance , and location of kidney
compared wi th vert ebrae and vert ebral body l ength • . • • . • • 5 2
5 Schematic diagram o f ventra- dor sal excretory urogram
showing methods of measuremen t of angle of l ongi tud-
ina l axes of kidney . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . • • . . . . . . . . • . • • . • • . • • . 53
6 Lateral mic turating cy sto- urethrogram and its schematic
diagram showing the po sitions of measurement of the
l ongi tudinal and ver tic a l diameters of the urinary
bladder and the urethral diameter in fema l e cats • • • • . • • • 57
7 Latera l mic tu rati ng ure throgram and its schematic
diagram showing the component par t s of the urethra and
the po sitions of measurement of urethral diameter in
ma le cat s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
8 Ventra- do rsal plain radiograph showing the kidneys and
u rinary b l adder . • • . . . . . . • . • • • . • . . . . • . . • . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . 63
9 Lateral p l a i n radiograph showing the kidneys and
urinary b ladder • • • . . . • • • • • • • • • . . • • . • • . . • . • . • . . • . • . • • • • • . 63
1 0 Arteriographi c phas e of the excretory urogram • • • • • • • • • . • 6 4
xii
Figu r e Page
1 1 Sel ec tive renal ar teriogram showing the arterial
dis tribu tion o f one branch of a bifurcated renal
artery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 6
1 2 Non-selec tive rena l arteriogram showing the arteria l
supply to the kidney s together with some o ther ma j o r
abdomina l art eries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
1 3 S e l ective renal ar teriogram showing the nephrographic
phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
1 4 Renal venogram showing venou s drainage of the l ef t
kidney . . ·. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
15 Renal venogram showing a doub l e rena l vein from the
right kidney . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
1 6 Ret rograde py el ogram due t o vesico -uret era l ref lux
du ring mic turating cystography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
1 7 Lateral radiograph du ring simu l taneou s exc retory
urography and pneuma- cystog raphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 1
18 Schematic diagram of the kidney and l umbar ver tebrae
of 15 cats showing the variation in kidney location
rel ative to the lumbar vertebrae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 2
1 9 S chematic diag ram o f the rel ationship between the
k idneys and l umbar vertebrae showing variation of the
relative anatomical location in variou s po s tures . . . . . 74
20 Int ravenous u rogram of the kidney s during nephrographic
phase showing the funnel shaped hi l ar no tch and
cortico - medu l l ary separation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
2 1 Excretory urogram showing the out lines o f bot h kidneys 79
2 2 Lateral excretory u rogram showing the appearance of
the rena l pe l ve s , pelvic divert i cu l i , ureters and
u rinary b l adder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
xi i i
Figure
23a Scattergram o f kidney l ength at pos tmortem. . . . . . . . . 84
23b Scatt ergram o f kidney l ength i n urograms taken from
anima l s in dorsal recumbency . . • • • . . . . • . • • • • • • • • • • • • 84
23c S cat tergram of kidney l ength in u rograms taken from
animal s in r ight l ateral r ecumbency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
24 N on - se l ec t i v e r ena l arteriogram showing bi l at eral
doub l e rena l arter i es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 6
25 Photograph of postmo r t em spec imen showing the area
26
27
28
Lat eral mi c turating cystogram • • • • • • • . . . • • • • • . • • . • • • 88
Exc retory ureterograms from three d ifferent cats • . . 90
Do rso - vent ra l exc retory cystogram . . • . . • • • . • • • . . • • . • 9 2
29 Typica l lat era l ret rograde pos i tive cystogram in a
30
m a 1 e cat . ., . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . " • . • • • • . . • . . . . . . . • • • • • . • tl 9 3
Serial mi c turat ing cystograms and compo s i t e l ine
drawing showing changes in the shape of the uri nary
b l adder dur i ng mi cturi t ion . . . • • • • • • • • • . . • . . . . • • • . • •
Dor so- vent ral m i c turating u rethrogram i n a ma l e cat .
9 5
9 7
3 2 Dor so-ventral mi cturating urethrogram i n a f ema l e
cat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
3 3 Schematic d i agrams showing the representation of
po s tures and pro j ec t ions • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . • . • • • • • • • • • • e 1 33
xiv
Tab l e P age
I Ang l e of longitud inal axes of the kidney and i t s
mean , stand ard d eviat ion and stand ard error from
16 c at s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 6
II Hean , s t and ard dev i at ion and s t and ard e rror of
fel ine kidney and lumbar vert ebral sh adow l engths
in u rog ra1ns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Ill Hean , standard d ev i at ion and s t and ard erro r of
measu rement s o f the fel ine kidney at po s tmo rt em . • • • • •
IV Li near reg res sion fo rmu l i of the kidney l ength on
the lumbar vert eb ral l ength as measu red in dors o-
8 1
vent ral and l ef t l ateral u rograms ( mm ) . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 2
V Length of mal e u rethra and f i f th lumbar vertebra
( mm as measu red in l at e ral urethrog rams f rom
fou r c at s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lOO
VI Length of femal e u rethra, ves t i bu lum and f i f th
lumbar vertebra ( mm ) as measu red i n l at e ral
u rethrograms f rom f i ve c at s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l OO
V II Width of urethra as measured in l ateral mi c t u rat i ng
A RADIOGRAPHICAL STUDY OF THE FELINE
URINARY SYSTEM
A d is s er ta t ion pres ented in par t i a l fulfilment
of t h e requ i rements for the
Ma s ter o f P h i l osophy
in the Faculty of Veterinary Science
at Massey University
Al though .
radiogra phi c a l techn i ques to examine the
ur inary sy stem are we l l estab l i shed in dogs and human s, these
techniques have not been wi dely accepted or appl i ed t o examine
the f e l ine uri nary sy stem . Considerab l e confusion and contro
ver sy exi s t regarding anatomical features and rad iographical
inter pretation of the f e l in e urinary system. Much of the
curren t ly avai l able informa t i on on the f e l ine ur inary sy stem
has been assumed f rom comparative s tudi e s in other species,
par t i c u l ar ly the dog .
Thi s s tudy comprises a comprehens ive l i terature review
of the anatomy and radiography in the f e l ine urinary t ract and
inc ludes resu l t s of a l imi t ed radiographical study of the
urinary trac t in 27 c l in i ca l ly normal cat s .
The cat s s tudi ed were prepared for radiography and
rest rai ned with variou s anaes thet i c agen t s and techni ques . Rad io
graphi cal examinat ions of the urinary sy s tem invo lved standard
rad iography, and the use of an image intensifier connected wi th
a t e l ev i sion moni tor and 70 mm spot f i lms . The kidney was
studi ed u sing p l ain radiography, intravenous and int r amuscu l ar
exc retory urography, renal ar teriography and renal venography .
Wi th these techn i ques the kidney l ocat i on, si ze, out l i ne, radio
graphi c a l den s i ty and bl ood supply were observed . Changes in
kidney po s i t ion in various pos tures relative to the l umbar
ver t ebrae were a l so studied • . The ureter a l course, s i z e and
b lood supply wer e studied f o l l owing excretory urography and in
some cats the presenc e of vesi co-ureteral ref lux enabl ed retro
grad e uret erography . The l ocat ion, shape, size and radiograph
ical den s i ty of the ur inary b l adder were s tudied by p l ain
rad iography , excretory rad iography and retrograde cy stography
i n c l ud i ng po si t ive, negat ive and doub l e contrast techn i que s . The
urethr a l c our se , shape, s i ze and sex dif ferences were s tudied by
retrograde and micturating urethrography. Following the radio graphi c a l studi e s , a l l cats were euthani zed and thei r urinary
..___
ii
S e l ec tive f inding s of thi s study are as fo l l ows . The
i n t erna l struc tures of the kidney , name ly the cortex , medu l l a ,
ren a l column s , pelvic diverticu l i , pelv i s and renal ves se l s
i i i
were visua l i z ed.u sing contrast radiography . The interna l venous
drainage of the kidney was demonstrated by selec t ive renal veno
graphy . As previously de s cribed in the l i terature , the kidney
l oc ation varied in ind ividu a l cats pos ture respiratory phase and
the geometrical rel ationshi p between the x-ray tube and the
anima l . However the ang l e of the l ongi tudinal axi s , the l ength
and width of the kidney and the ratio between the l eng th of the
kidney and lumbar vertebrae were rel atively consi stent . The
proxima l uret ers had a character i s t i c s tep- wi se course. Vesico
uretera l ref lux was observed in 36% o f cats s tud i ed during m i c
turating cy sto-urethrography but no evidence of thi s ref lux was
found in c at s sedated with xy lazine . A l though the urinary
bl adder expanded proportiona l ly during i l l ing , i t a ssumed an
hour-glass- shape during mi c turi tion . The ma l e urethra narrowed
at the l eve l s of the prostate and bu l bourethral g l an d s . The
f ema l e urethra formed a bu l bous enl argement immediat ely proxima l
·
· --..
The author would l i ke to s incerely thank hi s chi ef
supervi sor, Dr . B . E . Goulden for h i s interest, encouragement,
s t i mulus and suppor t through the experiment s and in the prep
aration of thi s manuscrip t . The kind guidance and advice of
the o ther supervisors, Mr. R . S . Wyburn and Dr . W . T . Clark, i s
also apprec i at ed . The au thor offers h i s sincere t hanks and
app re c iation to Dr . I . L . Ander son for hi s in teres t and for proof
read i ng of thi s manuscr ipt.
I am grateful to the t echnical staff at Massey Univer s i ty
for thei r skilful as s i stance and cooperat ion . Special thanks
ar e due to Mr . T . G . Law who a s s i st ed in preparing the photo
graphs . Grati tude i s also due to Dr . R . E . Harris f o r h i s very
kind advice in analysis of the dat a .
Special thanks are d u e t o Mi s s N . Okawa for preparat ion
of thi s study parti cularly for computer processing of the data
and for typing earlier draf t s of thi s manu scr ip t . To the o ther
typ i s t s, Mr s . J . Pearce who typed the f i r st drafts and Mi s s
K . s. Walker who typed the f inal copy o f thi s manu scri pt, the
au thor is gratefu l .
Las t bu t not least, the author would l ike to r ecogni ze
the patience, understanding and assi stance of his parents,
Mr . Y asuji Kur o sawa, and Mr s . Kau Kurosawa .
"Minasan Taihen Ar igato Gozai Mashi t a . "
iv
A. KIDNEY
4. SIZE . . . . . . . . .
P roximal convo l uted tubu l e • • • • • • • • i i .
i i i .
Loop of Hen l e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D i s t a l convo luted tubu l e
v . Co l l ec ting tubu l e e • • • • • • • • • • • e • • • • e • •
BLOOD SUPPLY
a . Artery
b. Vein
LYMPHATI CS
NERVE SUPPLY
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
e e e 8 e e e e e e e e e e e e e 0 e e e e e V e e e e e e e e e a e e
• • • • • • • • • • • e • • • • • • • • • • e • • • • • • •
High dose urography
Large volume urography . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Subcutaneou s Urography
Retrograde Pyel ography
vi . Function
RENAL ARTERIOCRAPHY
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a. Int roduction e e e e V e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e
b. Pro cedure • • • • • •
c. Equi pment • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •-....! • •
RENAL VENOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
OTHER METHODS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
• • • • • • • • • • • Q • • • • • • • • • • EXCRETORY URETEROGRAPHY
LARGE VOLUME URETEROGRAPHY e e e e e e e e e e • e V e e e e e e e
RETROGRADE URETEROGRAPHY
b. Pos i t ive Cys tography • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
i . Ret rograde cystography • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
c . Dou b l e Contrast Cy stography • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
d . Interpretation of Cys tograms
E... URETHRA RADIOCRAPHY
RENAL ARTERIOGRAPHY
RENAL VENOGRAPHY
Posi t ive Cy s tography
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URETHROGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a .
b .
a . Dor sal Recumbency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b . Change in Kidney P o s i t ion wi th Posture • • • • • •
c. Change in Kidney P o s i tion due to Other Causes
d. Longi tudinal Axi s o f Kidney . . . . . . . .... . . . .
OUTLINE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SIZE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .
b . I n tramuscu l ar Urography
RENAL ARTERIOGRAPHY
RENAL VENOGRAPHY
LI ST OF FIGURES Figure Page
1 Schematic d i agram of the geometrica l relat ionship of
the x- ray tube , skin marker , l umbar vertebra and kidney ,
and their r adiographical images on radiographs taken in
three diff erent direc tions . • • • • . • • • . . . . . • . • • • • . • • • • • • • • • 49
2 Ventra - do r s a l excret ory urogram showing def ini tions
of kidney 1 ength and wid th . • • • • . . • • • . . . . . . . . . • . . • • • • • • • • 5 1
3 Lateral excr etory u rogram showing methods of measure
ment of kidney l ength and thickness , and vertebral
body length • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 2
4 Ventra- dor s a l excretory urogram showing methods of
measu remen t of kidney dis tance , and location of kidney
compared wi th vert ebrae and vert ebral body l ength • . • • . • • 5 2
5 Schematic diagram o f ventra- dor sal excretory urogram
showing methods of measuremen t of angle of l ongi tud-
ina l axes of kidney . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . • • . . . . . . . . • . • • . • • . • • . 53
6 Lateral mic turating cy sto- urethrogram and its schematic
diagram showing the po sitions of measurement of the
l ongi tudinal and ver tic a l diameters of the urinary
bladder and the urethral diameter in fema l e cats • • • • . • • • 57
7 Latera l mic tu rati ng ure throgram and its schematic
diagram showing the component par t s of the urethra and
the po sitions of measurement of urethral diameter in
ma le cat s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
8 Ventra- do rsal plain radiograph showing the kidneys and
u rinary b l adder . • • . . . . . . • . • • • . • . . . . • . . • . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . 63
9 Lateral p l a i n radiograph showing the kidneys and
urinary b ladder • • • . . . • • • • • • • • • . . • • . • • . . • . • . • . . • . • . • • • • • . 63
1 0 Arteriographi c phas e of the excretory urogram • • • • • • • • • . • 6 4
xii
Figu r e Page
1 1 Sel ec tive renal ar teriogram showing the arterial
dis tribu tion o f one branch of a bifurcated renal
artery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 6
1 2 Non-selec tive rena l arteriogram showing the arteria l
supply to the kidney s together with some o ther ma j o r
abdomina l art eries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
1 3 S e l ective renal ar teriogram showing the nephrographic
phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
1 4 Renal venogram showing venou s drainage of the l ef t
kidney . . ·. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
15 Renal venogram showing a doub l e rena l vein from the
right kidney . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
1 6 Ret rograde py el ogram due t o vesico -uret era l ref lux
du ring mic turating cystography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
1 7 Lateral radiograph du ring simu l taneou s exc retory
urography and pneuma- cystog raphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 1
18 Schematic diagram of the kidney and l umbar ver tebrae
of 15 cats showing the variation in kidney location
rel ative to the lumbar vertebrae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 2
1 9 S chematic diag ram o f the rel ationship between the
k idneys and l umbar vertebrae showing variation of the
relative anatomical location in variou s po s tures . . . . . 74
20 Int ravenous u rogram of the kidney s during nephrographic
phase showing the funnel shaped hi l ar no tch and
cortico - medu l l ary separation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
2 1 Excretory urogram showing the out lines o f bot h kidneys 79
2 2 Lateral excretory u rogram showing the appearance of
the rena l pe l ve s , pelvic divert i cu l i , ureters and
u rinary b l adder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
xi i i
Figure
23a Scattergram o f kidney l ength at pos tmortem. . . . . . . . . 84
23b Scatt ergram o f kidney l ength i n urograms taken from
anima l s in dorsal recumbency . . • • • . . . . • . • • • • • • • • • • • • 84
23c S cat tergram of kidney l ength in u rograms taken from
animal s in r ight l ateral r ecumbency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
24 N on - se l ec t i v e r ena l arteriogram showing bi l at eral
doub l e rena l arter i es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 6
25 Photograph of postmo r t em spec imen showing the area
26
27
28
Lat eral mi c turating cystogram • • • • • • • . . . • • • • • . • • . • • • 88
Exc retory ureterograms from three d ifferent cats • . . 90
Do rso - vent ra l exc retory cystogram . . • . . • • • . • • • . . • • . • 9 2
29 Typica l lat era l ret rograde pos i tive cystogram in a
30
m a 1 e cat . ., . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . " • . • • • • . . • . . . . . . . • • • • • . • tl 9 3
Serial mi c turat ing cystograms and compo s i t e l ine
drawing showing changes in the shape of the uri nary
b l adder dur i ng mi cturi t ion . . . • • • • • • • • • . . • . . . . • • • . • •
Dor so- vent ral m i c turating u rethrogram i n a ma l e cat .
9 5
9 7
3 2 Dor so-ventral mi cturating urethrogram i n a f ema l e
cat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
3 3 Schematic d i agrams showing the representation of
po s tures and pro j ec t ions • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . • . • • • • • • • • • • e 1 33
xiv
Tab l e P age
I Ang l e of longitud inal axes of the kidney and i t s
mean , stand ard d eviat ion and stand ard error from
16 c at s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 6
II Hean , s t and ard dev i at ion and s t and ard e rror of
fel ine kidney and lumbar vert ebral sh adow l engths
in u rog ra1ns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Ill Hean , standard d ev i at ion and s t and ard erro r of
measu rement s o f the fel ine kidney at po s tmo rt em . • • • • •
IV Li near reg res sion fo rmu l i of the kidney l ength on
the lumbar vert eb ral l ength as measu red in dors o-
8 1
vent ral and l ef t l ateral u rograms ( mm ) . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 2
V Length of mal e u rethra and f i f th lumbar vertebra
( mm as measu red in l at e ral urethrog rams f rom
fou r c at s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lOO
VI Length of femal e u rethra, ves t i bu lum and f i f th
lumbar vertebra ( mm ) as measu red i n l at e ral
u rethrograms f rom f i ve c at s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l OO
V II Width of urethra as measured in l ateral mi c t u rat i ng
