A PARADIGM FORKEMETIC ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN:

THE BEGINNINGS OF AKEMETIC ARCHITECTURAL

DESIGN LANGUAGE

by

James Preston Riley, Jr.Bachelor of Architecture

Hampton UniversityMay 1994

Submitted to the Department of Architecture on May 10, 1996in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of

Master of Science in Architectural Studies

at theMassachusetts Institute of Technology

June 1996

©1996 James Preston Riley, Jr.All rights reserved

The author hereby grants M.I.T. permission to reproduce and to distribute publiclypaper and electronic copies of this thesis document in whole or in part.

Signature of AuthorJ mes'Presto# Riey,/Jr.Pepartment of/ hitecture

Iav 10. 1996

Certified by

William L. PorterNorman B. and Murial Leventhal

Professor of Architecture and PlanningThesis Supervisor

Accepted byRoy Strickland

Associate Professor of ArchitectureChairman, Department Committee on Graduate Students

JUJL 1D 1996UBRAR!E

2

Thesis Readers

Nasser RabbatAssociate Professor of the History of ArchitectureAga Khan Development Professor in the History of Islamic Architecture

Simon WiltzAssociate Professor of ArchitecturePrarie View Agriculture and Mechanical UniversityPrarie View, Texas

A Paradigm for Kemetic Architectural Design:The Beginnings of a Kemetic Architectural Design Language

by

James Preston Riley, Jr.

Submitted to the Department of Architecture on May 10, 1995

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree

Master of Science in Architectural Studies

ABSTRACT

Kemetic [Egyptian] architecture is highly recognizable. In particular, there was a distinct

monumentality to its religious architecture. As well, familiar design characteristics

permeated many of them. These edifices continue to be a source of discussion and debate.

Opposing interpretations range in opinion; from traditional and conservative to embedded

with scientific and mathematical knowledge. In this thesis, I investigate one facet of the

Kemetic architectural tradition. I will first define tradition and architectural tradition.

Second, I will identify the main themes. They include the Kemetic architectural continuity;

the Kemetic architectural design principle; and, the determinants of the architectural

design principle. The themes assist in further understanding underlying components of

Kemetic architecture. To demonstrate these points, the Kemetic temple plan is used as a

reference point for discussion. In the conclusion, it is my intention to bridge opposing

areas of discussion to enhance them and advance the comprehension of Kemetic

architecture.

Thesis Supervisor: William L. PorterTitle: Norman B. And Murial Leventhal Professor of Architecture and Planning

4

Acknowledgments

Asante Sana [thank you] to the Creator and Ancestors for your guidance, enlightenment

and inspiration. Your perseverance, resilience, struggle and sacrifice will forever be

venerated. I am your child and I owe you my existence.

Asante Sana to my family: especially my mother, Brenda Riley; my father, James Riley; my

sisters, Kathy Riley and Sharon Scott; and my brother-in-law, Daran Scott. You all paved

a road that made my travel passable. My accomplishments are do to your continued love,nurture and support. I am the summation of your combined efforts and will forever be

indebted to you.

Asante Sana to my extended family, the Black Graduate Student Association at M.I.T.

You all have been the safe haven needed to survive in a hostile environment. I could not

have completed my journey through this institution without you. Your friendships are

cherished.

Asante Sana to the Graduate Education Office. Especially Dean Issac Colbert and Dean

Margaret Tyler. In addition, Asante Sana to Dean Ayida Mthembu. Your words of

wisdom and advice contributed to my acclimation to M.I.T. and educational development.

Asante Sana to Nadine Champagne, Cheryl Taylor, Sheron Johnson, Mignon Lawson,Deirdre Lawrence, and Robbin Chapman. Your friendships and words of encouragement

enhance my life.

Asante Sana to Larry Sass, Greg Anderson, Sean Daughtry, Steve Murphy, Kimani Stancil

and Michael Berhan. Your brotherhood is appreciated and I love you for it.

Asante Sana to my readers, Nasser Rabbat and Simon Wiltz; and my advisor, Bill Porter.

Your assistance and guidance allowed the completion of this thesis.

Last, I dedicate this thesis to my grandmothers, Zelma Jenkins and Flora Bell Riley. You

were the source to my earth and seed. Your transcendence to the Ancestral Realm left a

void in my life that will never be filled. You will always be remembered and loved.

6

Table of Contents

Abstract

Acknowledgments

Table of Contents

Table of Figures

Preface

Chapter 1 The Introduction1.0 Thesis Introduction1.1 Kemetic Architecture1.2 The Premise1.3 The Temple

Chapter 2 Architectural Research2.0 Introduction2.1 Kemetic Architectural Tradition2.2 The Architectural Continuity2.3 The Architectural Design Principles

Chapter 33.0 Introduction

3.1 Analysis

3.2 Conclusions

Conclusion

Endnotes

Bibliography

1515162021

2323232838

51515152

55

59

8

Table of Figures

Figure i Map of Ancient Kemet 13

Chapter 2 23

Figure 2.1 Predynastic Burial Graves 26Figure 2.2 Early Dynastic Burial Tombs 26Figure 2.3 Mastaba Tombs 26Figure 2.4 Mastaba of Ptahotep at Saqqara 27Figure 2.5 Typical Armana Villa Plan 1364-1350 B.C.E. 27Figure 2.6 Land House 21st Century B.C.E. 28Figure 2.7 Amarna Villa 28Figure 2.8 View of Step Pyramid at Saqqara 29Figure 2.9 Step Pyramid Complex [oblique view] 29Figure 2.10 Pyramids of Khufu and Khafre at Ghiza 30Figure 2.11 Mortuary Temple of Khafre at Ghiza 30Figure 2.12 View of the Temple of Mentuhotep at Deir el Bahari 30Figure 2.13 Plan of the Temple of Mentuhotep at Deir el Bahari 31Figure 2.14 View of the Temples of Hatshepsut and Mentuhotep 31Figure 2.15 Plan of the Temple of Hatshepsut at Deir el Bahari 31Figure 2.16 View of the Temple of Amon at Luxor 32Figure 2.17 Main Constructions of the Luxor Temple 32Figure 2.18 Plan of the Temple of Amon at Luxor 32Figure 2.19 View of the Temple of Amon at Karnak 33Figure 2.20 Plan of the Temple of Amon at Karnak 34Figure 2.21 Initial Main Construction of Amon Temple at Karnak 35Figure 2.22 Third Main Construction of Amon Temple 35Figure 2.23 Sixth Main Construction of Amon Temple 35Figure 2.24 View of the Temple of Ramses II at Abu Simbel 36Figure 2.25 Plan of the Temple of Ramses II at Abu Simbel 37Figure 2.26 Plan of the Temple of Heru at Edfu 37Figure 2.27 View of Interior Front Pylon at Edfu 38Figure 2.28 Plan of Early Dynastic House 39Figure 2.29 View of Early Dynastic House 40Figure 2.30 Plan of the Temple of Amon at Luxor 41

10

Figure 2.31 Superimposed Plan of Luxor over Ramses II 46Figure 2.32 Superimposed Plan of Luxor over Skeletal Frame 47Figure 2.33 Ceiling of Subsidiary Shrine in the Temple of Hatshepsut 47Figure 2.34 Clerestory of the Hypostyle Hall at Karnak 48Figure 2.35 Column Capitals 49Figure 2.36 Section of the Temple of Ramses II at Abu Simbel 50

Preface

Our way, the way, is not a random path. Our waybegins from coherent understanding. It is a waythat aims at preserving knowledge of who we are,knowledge of the best way we have found to relateeach to each, each to all, ourselves to otherpeoples, all to our surroundings. If our individuallives have a worthwhile aim, that aim should be apurpose inseparable from the way.

Ayi Kwei Armah'

My interest in Kemet, the original name of

Egypt, stemmed from my interest to learn about

my history and culture. As an undergraduate

student, I began to read numerous books

concerning African and African-American history.

I felt the need to immerse myself in the richness of

my heritage. I deemed it imperative to have an

understanding of where and who I came from. If I

did not have knowledge of self, then I did not have

a complete understanding of myself, for, I am the

product of my ancestors.

While investigating my culture, I became

encouraged to apply it to my chosen field of study,

architecture. Around the period of my fourth year

[1992], I became exposed to what was called

"Afrocentric Architecture." Afrocentricity is the

belief in the centrality of Africans. It is African

history, African mythology, African creative motif,

and African ethos exemplifying African's creative

will. It reorganizes African's frame of reference so

that we become the center of analysis and

synthesis. Afrocentric Architecture is the method

of manifesting architecture of African origins.2 It is

the general foundation for the investigation of

more specific areas of study concerning African

and African-American architectural design;

including historical and contemporary design. For

the first time, I had been exposed to architecture

from a perspective of African-centeredness. It

opened my eyes to a new world waiting for further

research and investigation. Kemet became the

centerpiece of my inquiry.

13

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14

1The Introduction

1.0 Thesis Introduction

This thesis will discuss an important aspect

of a long architectural tradition that existed in

ancient Kemet [now known as Egypt] which

spanned almost 2500 to 3000 years and

conventionally divided into the Old, Middle, New

and Late Kingdom periods. Generally speaking,

Kemet produced a unique architecture that

developed due to the nature of its culture.

This chapter will define the platform of the

investigation. First, it will address the topic of

Kemetic architecture. It will discuss the origins of

the architecture, its general evolution to

monumentality and what makes it recognizable.

Second, it will identify the parameters of the

investigation and outline the initial goals of the

thesis. Finally, this chapter will address why the

Kemetic temple will be used as the reference point

for discussion.

The second chapter will discuss the

products of a Kemetic architectural tradition.

First, it will define tradition and architectural

tradition. Second, it will review the precedent for

the temple plan. Its evolution will be considered

and the variations will be distinguished. Third, it

will address the architectural continuity, a product

of the architecture tradition. An historical

overview of the architecture will be presented to

illustrate the continuity. Lastly, it will investigate

the architectural design principle and its

determinants. Included among the determinants is

symbolism.

The final chapter will assess the outcome

of the investigation.

1.1 Kemetic Architecture

The 3000 years between the Old Kingdom

to the Late Period frame a time that produced

ancient Kemetic architecture. Alexander Badawy

suggested that the elements from early

[predynastic] construction using plant stems were

transferred into mud, then brick and then stone.4

The construction of houses from plant stems or

mud evolved into an architecture of permanence

and monumentality. The latter is what is generally

considered when discussing Kemetic architecture.

The following will describe the origins of the

monumental architecture.

The Third Dynasty [2778-2723 B.C.E.

(before the common era)] saw the conception of

stone architecture depicted for the first time in

monumental scale. Spiro Kostof asserted that the

Zoser Pyramid Complex at Saqqara [designed by

the chief architect, Imhotep] was the first

interpretation of the plant, timber, and brick forms

of stone architecture. The superstructure of the

Step Pyramid evolved from the burial graves of

predynastic times and the mastabas [also built of

stone] of the First and Second Dynasties [their

usage continued until the end of the Middle

Kingdom]. Out of the importance of burial grew

the desire for protection. The use of stone

provided permanent preservation of the body. The

Step Pyramid Complex initiated the change of

royal burial from the mastaba to a superstructure

elaborate and grandiose.

The civilization of Kemet produced a

recognizable architecture. By recognizable, it is

meant that there was a particular character to it

permeated within the physical appearance of the

edifices. Although each edifice varied in scale,

size, and proportion, distinguishing features

marked each design that subscribed to the Kemetic

architectural character. Kostof asserted that

through all the changing regimes of Kemetic

civilization, public architecture changed little.6

Although this statement over exaggerates the

similarities, its underlying tone implies a Kemetic

architecture that is linked by familiar

characteristics.

The monumentality of religious

architecture in particular is one characteristic.

Whether it be the Great Pyramids of Ghiza, the

Temple of Amon at Karnak, or the Temple of

Ramses II at Abu Simbel, aspects of their

monumentality make them recognizable to

Kemetic architecture. Each of these edifices

differed in physical appearance, however, the

massive pyramid of Khufu, the mammoth columns

in the Hypostyle Hall of Karnak and the colossi of

Ramses at the front entrance of the Abu Simbel

temple provided similar qualities that made them

unique to Kemet.

The ability to recognize these edifices in

the period of time known as Kemetic civilization

permitted a tradition to exist. This tradition

stemmed from common architectural practices and

patterns of the past. Included within the evolution

was the necessity to accommodate change and

innovation while simultaneously adhering to many

historical architectural practices. This balance

between innovation and tradition persisted

throughout Kemetic architecture.

Scholarship

Numerous scholars have investigated

Kemetic architecture by examining and

categorizing it. These scholars can be divided into

two groups "traditional" and "non-traditional."

Within these circles, there has been an ongoing

debate concerning the interpretation of Kemetic

architecture. For example, traditional scholars

such as E. Baldwin Smith believed the architecture

was a graphic record of instinctive conservatism.

This statement implies a re-application of known

forms and concepts.' Furthermore, Badawy

suggested a conscious repetition of forms lacking

advanced thoughts other than to prove

appreciation of earlier achievements.8 The

interpretation of the architecture by Smith was

itself conservative. Conversely, R.A. Schwaller de

Lubicz believed that temple architecture in

particular were repositories of knowledge.

Embedded within them were knowledge of the

"ultimate cause" or the "mysteries of Creation."

He suggested that the harmony, proportion, myth

and symbolism of temple's architecture expressed

this knowledge.9 His interpretations differed

greatly in comparison to that of Smith. However,

this is but one example of the variety of

translations concerning Kemetic architecture.

Interpretations are often accepted or

rejected depending on the discipline of the scholar.

More often than not, if the scholar is not within

the discipline of the traditional circle [particularly

Egyptology] then their work is not taken serious

or considered scholarly. The high level of

expertise by traditional scholars cannot be

overlooked. But frequently, the alternative

disciplines of scholars outside of traditional

Egyptology provide a different and fresh

perspective. Their proficiency in other fields

enables them to bring an interpretation that a

traditional scholar may not have considered.

Therefore, much can be learned by balancing both

ends of the spectrum. It is from this premise that I

will begin the discussion.

1.2 The Premise

This thesis started as an investigation of

"architectural design principles" in Kemetic

architecture. By architectural design principles, I

mean the governing themes that informed the

outcome of the architecture. These themes

required many connections with Kemetic

civilization. They demanded a scientific platform

of knowledge. Also, they needed an understanding

of the social structure of the culture. Furthermore,

they compelled a desire to comprehend the

religious belief system of Kemet. All of these

necessities proved to exceed my level of

knowledge to adequately investigate the

architectural design principles. Therefore, the goal

of the investigation changed.

The notion of a Kemetic architectural

tradition is what this thesis will address. A

tradition implies a continuity. This term means a

conscious attempt to produce and reproduce

architectural artifacts of similar character. Within

the architectural continuity of Kemet, there are

determinants that uphold its existence. Badawy

suggested a harmonic system of proportions that

resulted in the uniformity of the architecture.' 0 I

propose that architectural design principles

another product of the architectural tradition. As

stated previously, architectural design principles

are governing themes that informed the outcome

of the architecture. They served as the underlying

foundation for the architectural continuity. The

architectural continuity could not have existed

without the acceptance of themes that governed

the architecture from one generation to the next.

The investigation will take a look at

examples of architectural precedents that formed

an architectural continuity. It will also address the

topics of symbolism, light and the interrelationship

between architecture, the human body and the

universe. These themes of Kemetic architecture

will be called the determinants of the architectural

design principle. They are postulated to form the

parameters of the investigation. The temple will be

the primary reference point for this investigation.

1.3 The Temple

Kemetic temple architecture will be the

building type used as a model for the investigation.

It is selected because religious architecture was

built to last." It is the best preserved of all

Kemetic architecture. It was better preserved due

to the permanence of stone and the quality of care

the builders bestowed on the architecture. The

monumentality of religious architecture and its

embodiment of the highest social order were

additional reasons for the level of care. It

engendered the beliefs of the culture.

Kemetic philosophy and religion were

scarcely distinguishable.' 2 There was no separation

between church and state. Furthermore, there was

no separation between religion and all aspects of

life, including architecture. Therefore, it was

believed that the temple, a religious structure, was

an everlasting residence [house]. It was a royal

palace in which the Ka [spirit] of the pharaoh or of

the Neter 3 could dwell. De Cenival called the

temple "a machine for maintaining and developing

divine energy." 4 The temples were planned to

represent the divine connection between the

pharaoh and the Neters. As the divine son or

embodiment of the Neters, he built the temple as a

symbol to ensure the prosperity of the nation and

the permanence of the cosmic order." The

transformation of it from a mere human

construction into the image of the celestial horizon

ensured its participation in the superhuman order

and encouraged the generosity of the Neter.'6

2Architectural Research

2.0 Introduction

This chapter will discuss the products of a

Kemetic architectural tradition. First, it will define

tradition and architectural tradition. Second, it will

demonstrate a precedent for the Kemetic temple

plan. This will show the evolution of the temple

plan as an example of the role tradition

participated in Kemetic architecture. Third, the

Kemetic architectural continuity will be addressed.

Finally, the Kemetic architectural design principles

and its determinants will be discussed.

2.1 Kemetic Architectural Tradition

Tradition can be defined as a set of cultural

practices handed down from one generation to the

next. These cultural practices include the

accommodation of change. As certain traditions

are performed, better and more efficient ways of

accomplishing them may develop. These changes

and innovations become apart of tradition. The

renewing of these cultural practices sustain a

preference for the ways of antiquity, reconfirming

the tradition.

It is commonly accepted by Egyptologists

that there was a tradition in Kemet. Even with the

longevity of Kemetic civilization, the tradition

continued through the periods of decadence and

foreign rule. The unification of Upper and Lower

Kemet around 3200 B.C.E. created the first

nation-state.' 7 However, prior to this time, some

scholars believed a pattern of culture had begun.

According to Smith, several of the fundamental

traditions of culture were already fixed.'" For

instance, Asa Hilliard believed that the Medu

Neter [hieroglyphic writing] existed before

unification.' 9 Also, many aspects of their religion

were in place in addition to astronomy, a

calendrical system, myth and mathematics. 20 A

number of predynastic kingdoms existed before

the unification. Essentially, there was a parent

culture, probably to its south, that produced it.2

West believed Kemet inherited a legacy already in

place. It may be implied the character of the

culture was formed before the unification. It was

from this character the Kemetic architectural

tradition came into being.

Architectural tradition can be defined as a

set of architectural practices inherited from one

generation to another. These practices may include

methods of construction, patterns of architectural

design, the use of particular building materials for

certain cultural or religious purposes, amongst

other possibilities. The adaptation of innovative

methods of architecture are incorporated within

the development of the architectural tradition.

Each innovative method implemented helped to

reform the tradition as it evolved.

Kostof called Kemetic architecture a

balance between "innovation and tradition."23 De

Cenival asserted that the evolution of Kemetic

architecture does not present itself as a continuous

movement accompanied by the progressive

insertion of new elements which eliminated the old

ones, but as a balance choice of features all of

which existed side by side.2 The development also

included breaks from tradition. For example, there

was an architectural tradition prior to Akhenaton

[Amenhotep IV] of the Eighteenth Dynasty [1372-

1354 B.C.E.]. The re-orientation of the traditional

religion from the Neter Amon to Aten created a

change in architecture. However, the architectural

tradition must have had an effect on Akhenaton's.

Equally, his architecture had an effect on

succeeding pharaohs attempting to redirect the

architectural traditions of the past. Each part of

this episode contributed to the evolution of the

Kemetic architectural tradition. The following

section will use the temple plan as an example for

the development of an architectural tradition.

Figure 2.125Predynastic burial graves illustratingdeceased in fetal positions

Figure 2.226Early dynastic burial tombs showing spatialarrangements

Figure 2.PBurial site of mastaba tombs

The Evolution of the Temple Plan

This section will illustrate the relationship

between the house and the temple. The

relationship will describe the evolution of the

temple floor plan and its essential spatial elements.

These spatial elements are the forecourt, the

hypostyle hall and the inner sanctuary. This section

will also give two possibilities why this evolution

may have occurred.

Smith believed that temples gradually

transformed from houses of the living to religious

use." The burial of the deceased in the floors of

houses suggests one reason why the model of the

house came into religious use. It was a primary

prototype of the grave superstructure. For

example, the rectangular brick superstructures at

Negadeh were thought of as houses. The brick

exteriors reproduced a house form with a

forecourt and two doors. During the Old and

Middle Kingdom, they became the standard type

of tomb called mastabas.

In Lower Kemet at Tarkhan, a First

Dynasty cemetery had tombs that were like mud-

brick houses with the deceased buried in shallow

holes with sand filling the rest of the house to

make a mastaba tomb. According to Smith, each

tomb had a small courtyard, like an entrance

vestibule or chapel, before which the offerings

were made as if at the door of a house. These

tombs had the essential elements of the mastaba

Figure 2.431Plan of mastaba of Ptahotep, SaqqaraSpaces include a north vestibule, a corridor,a hall of Ptahotep, an ante-room, a chapelof Ptahotep and a chapel of Akhethotep

Figure 2.532Typical Armana Villa, 1364-1350 B.C.E.Illustrates spatial hierarchy with vestibule,living room and bedrooms to rear

tombs such as an entrance vestibule or chapel, a

chamber, and an interment beneath the floor.3 0 The

plan of the mastaba of Ptahotep at Saqqara

characterizes the use of these spatial elements.

The mastaba and the notion of burial

evolved into the mortuary temple, most notably

for the pharaoh. The Step Pyramid Complex

serves as an example. It contained the basic spatial

elements that echoed traditions of the past and

later seen in other temples. The basic entrance, the

colonnade, the courtyard and the mortuary temple

[similar to the inner sanctuary] were fundamental

spaces that resembled the spatial arrangement of

the house and mastaba. They held a similar

hierarchy that later developed in the temples of the

Middle, New and Late Kingdom periods although

they varied in size, scale and proportion.

The basic parts of the temple were the

traditional and essential house elements. This was

another reason for the relationship between the

house and the temple. They consisted of the

temple forecourt and courtyard [entrance vestibule

for reception and portico], the hypostyle hall

[columned hall as living area] and the inner

sanctuary [apartments or bedrooms as private

quarters]. The fundamental house spatial elements

[located in the brackets] were what was needed

Figure 2.63Restored perspective of a "land house"Demonstrates opened vestibule, columnedportico and private spaces in the rear

Figure 2.735Restored perspective of "Armana Villa"Illustrates wall enclosure of house anddivision of exterior spaces, including theopen vestibule in front of house

for the concept of the temple to evolve.

It must also be mentioned that the house

was a mark of power and the dwelling of the

ruling family possessed special social and religious

distinction. Therefore, it was important that the

temple [a religious and royal palace] carry the

traditional design elements of the house. This idea

implies the meaningful role of the architectural

tradition. Also, the desire to renew established

spatial elements suggests the possibility of an

architectural continuity.

2.2 The Architectural Continuity

This section will address the idea of a

Kemetic architectural continuity. A historical

overview of temple architecture will illustrate the

renewal of hierarchical spatial elements. The

purpose is to display the adherence to the spatial

hierarchy of secular to sacred space despite the

variations of the design solutions; particularly due

to site constraints and other determining factors.

Generally speaking, Kemetic architecture

is believed to have lacked individual self-

expression. What was built was for the benefit of

the state, therefore, for the benefit of the people.

There did not exist an art for the sake of art. It

served a higher purpose and that purpose rarely

diverged from the ways of tradition; particularly in

temple architecture. Aesthetic concerns were

Figure 2.8"3Restored perspective of Step Pyramid

Figure 2.9"Oblique view of Step Pyramid Complexillustrating spatial organization

secondary to symbolic [primarily religious] ones.

The temple was especially indicative of the

society's intimate relationship with religion.

Eventually, the adherence to tradition may have

led to similar design elements and themes

reappearing in edifices; ultimately, reflecting in

harmonious ties in architecture over successive

dynasties.

Step Pyramid Complex at Saqqara

The Step Pyramid Complex was built

during the Third Dynasty [2778-2723 B.C.E.] of

the Old Kingdom for the pharaoh Zoser by the

architect Imhotep. The entrance into the complex

penetrated through a wall [33 feet] which enclosed

the complex. The enclosed area was a rectangular

space 607 by 304 yards. The entrance led to either

a northern hallway which connected to Heb-Sed

Court or the eastern Hall of Colonnade that had a

series of wall supports and connected to the Great

Court. The Heb-Sed Court joined to its east the

Temple of Ausar [Osiris to the Greeks]. The Great

Court had adjacent to its northwest corner a space

that led past the Step Pyramid and connected to

the Court of the Southern Palace, the Serdab and

the Court of the Northern Palace. To its east, the

Serdab linked the Mortuary Temple [located on

the northern side of the Step Pyramid]. The

northern most point of the enclosed site contained

the Great Altar.

Figure 2.103Restored perspective of the Pyramids ofKhufu [right] and Khafre [left]

Figure 2.11Mortuary Complex of Khafre depicting thehierarchy of spatial arrangement

Restored view of Temple of Mentuhotep

The Pyramid Complex of Khafre at Ghiza

The Pyramids of Ghiza were also built

during the Old Kingdom, but during the Fourth

Dynasty [2723-2563 B.C.E.]. In particular, the

Pyramid of Khafre [Chephren] furnished a well

preserved indication of the tomb chapel. Its

entrance was the enclosed corridor of the

causeway leading down to the valley. A chamber

for the guardian was to the right of the entrance

and a vestibule with magazines leading off from it

were to the left. The vestibule had a short passage

which gave access to a T-shaped reception hall.

An opened court surrounded by rectangular piers

followed the hall. To the west of the court were

five parallel sanctuaries where the pharaoh was

worshipped under his five official titles. The public

was not allowed beyond these chapels and only

the priests could penetrate to the inner storerooms

and the holy of holies."

The Mortuary Temple of Mentuhotep

The mortuary temple of Mentuhotep of the

Eleventh Dynasty [2131-2000 B.C.E.] at Deir el

Bahari was constructed during the Middle

Kingdom. The ground plan is on three levels. The

lowest level had a colonnade and was intersected

by a sloping ramp. The ramp led to the next level

which housed the temple. On the roof of this level

sat a pyramid. To the northwest side were six

small chapels. Adjoining the temple was a smaller

Figure 2.1341Plan of the Temple of MentuhotepIllustrates ramp to terrace, three floorlevels, pyramid and inner sanctuary cut intocliff

. .. . . .

Restored view of the Temple of Hatshepsut

Figure 2.154Plan of Hatshepsut demonstrating ramps,terraces, halls, shrines and inner sanctuary

pillared hall, with a shaft that led to a burial

chamber. The last room contained the holy of

holies. It was hewn out of the rock of the cliff. A

second burial chamber was built into the pyramid

itself.

The Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut

The mortuary temple of Queen Hatshepsut

of the Eighteenth Dynasty [1503-1482 B.C.E.]

was erected during the New Kingdom [1580-1314

B.C.E.]. The landscape, terrace architecture gave

it a general resemblance of Mentuhotep's. Each

sat side by side at the foot of a cliff.

The entrance courtyard led to an inclined

ramp and to the first terrace. This terrace

terminated with the facade of a colonnade that

supported the second terrace. A second ramp led

to it. The colonnade to the left of the ramp was

dedicated to the expedition to Punt [present day

Somalia, the mythical homeland of the Neters].

The colonnade to the right was dedicated to the

divine birth of Hatshepsut. The hewn cut Chapel

of Anubis adjoined the Hall of Birth. The

sanctuary of Hathor adjoined the colonnade

dedicated to the Punt expedition. The upper

terrace had a Hypostyle Hall that served as a

vestibule. Behind the Hypostyle Hall was another

large court, northwest of it was the altar and Hall

-T. .......... . 2

Figure 2.16"Restored view of the Temple of Amon atLuxor

M.. t:

3

g~g

Figure 2.174s5Temple at Luxor displaying two majorconstruction phases. To the lef the coveredtemple, the forecourt, a colonnade and theold shrine. To the right, the enclosure of thecolonnade and an additional forecourt.

of Amon [holy of holies] driven into the rock.

Southwest was the Queen's funerary chapel and

its annexes, also driven into rock.

The Temple of Amon at Luxor

The Temple of Amon at Luxor [originally

called Shemayit-Ipet, the Southern Place] dates

probably to the beginning of the Eighteenth

Dynasty [1580-1314 B.C.E.], when the Twelfth

Dynasty [2000-1785 B.C.E.] shrine had fallen to

ruins. Its importance lie in the repeated additions

[accretion] and alterations to the original structure

by succeeding generations of pharaohs. It was

originally built by Amenhotep III [1412-1376

B.C.E.], New Kingdom.

The entire construction can be broken

down into two main phases. The first phase of the

temple construction included the covered temple

or inner sanctuary and the great hypostyle hall.

The second phase added the outer forecourt for

the public [called the court of Ramses II]. An

entrance pylon gave access to the final addition.

The temple had a large forecourt [148 feet

wide and 184 feet long] surrounded by three sides

by two rows of bundled, papyrus-bud columns. It

was preceded by a traditional pylon. Beyond the

court came the Hypostyle Hall followed by smaller

halls and the sanctuary of Amon [holy of holies]

with the chapels of Mut and Khonsu at the sides.

Before his death, Amenhotep started construction

Figure 2.18"Plan of the Temple of Amon at Luxor

Restored site perspective of the Temple ofAmon at Karnak

of a double [processional] colonnade of gigantic

columns with spreading, campaniform papyrus

capitals that led up to the entrance pylon. Upon

completion, there were fourteen columns, each

fifty- two feet high. On axis with the inner

sanctuary some distance to the north of the

temple, stood a small shrine in granite built several

decades earlier by Tuthmoses III [1504-1450

B.C.E.].

A century and a half after the completion

of Amenhotep's temple, Ramses II [1301-1235

B.C.E.] added a northern court [forecourt] to it,

with porticoes on all four sides. In front of its

massive pylon he set up colossi of himself, four

standing and two sitting. Two tekhenw [obelisks]

flanking the main entrance were added as well.

This court was shaped in a parallelogram, it is

believed, to account for the bent axis of the

temple. It incorporated the Tuthmoses III shrine

on the inner face of the pylon.

The Temple of Amon at Karnak

The Temple of Amon at Karnak was

originally known as Ipet-Isut, "the most select of

places" or "the most holy of places."" It was both

a center for religion and education. Karnak was

the largest complex of temples in Kemet and the

largest in the world with twenty temples, shrines

and sacred halls. The sacred enclosure covered

61,775 acres. The temple consecrated to Amon

Figure 2.20"Plan of the Temple of Amon at Karnakillustrating spatial organization: forecourt,Hypostyle Hall, middle halls, old shrine[inner sanctuary], and the Festival Hall atthe rear

was the largest. It was constructed by the

accretion method. After final extensions were

made, it was 1220 feet long and 338 feet wide.

This was space enough to accommodate the

cathedrals of St. Peter's, Milan and Nortre Dame

of Paris."

As stated before, this process consisted of

additions and alterations by succeeding pharaohs.

In the case of the Temple of Amon, it was

generally to the front of larger courtyards and

pylons. It was consistently enlarged, embellished

and maintained from 2000 B.C.E. until the birth of

Christ. Although it was repeatedly altered, the axis

was never changed.

It was believed that some work was by

Amenhotep I [1557-1530 B.C.E.], but it wasn't

until Tuthmoses I [1530-1520 B.C.E.], New

Kingdom, made Waset [Thebes] the capital of

Kemet that the old shrine was incorporated into

the building of the new temple. The old shrine

[inner sanctuary or holy of holies] was dedicated

to Amon on the site during the Twelfth Dynasty-

[2000-1785 B.C.E.] of the Middle Kingdom. It

was incorporated into what are now the ruins of

the east end.

There were nine major constructions to the

Temple of Amon, including the major initial

construction begun by Tuthmoses I. His architect,

Ineny, built a colonnaded court with Ausarid

statues around the Middle Kingdom temple

Figure 2.215Initial major construction of Temple ofAmon at Karnak: original shrine,colonnaded court, hall of columns and twopylons

Figure 2.220Third major construction of KarnakTemple: the Festival Hall

V :. ... .. ....... .. :: : :: :3 ..J........... .......

..........

Figur ........

... .... ... .... ...2. .. .. .. .Sixth ajor cnstrucion.ofKarnaTemple Hyposty.e Hal an. wtke

preceded by two pylons to the west. Between the

pylons, he constructed a hall of columns built of

cedar. These were enclosed by a perimeter wall.

Hatshepsut [1520-1484 B.C.E.] started the

process of accretion by unroofing the central part

of the hall with cedar columns and erecting two

tekhenw [obelisks] in the space. Tuthmoses III

[1504-1450 B.C.E.] encased the tekhenw up to

eight feet and remade the hall leaving the top of

them projecting above the roof. He also made two

Halls of Annals between the pylons of Tuthmoses

I. Twenty years later, he extended the temple

eastward by building a Festival Hall, the Heb-Sed

jubilee complex. Behind this hall, a small temple

dedicated to Amon-Re-Herakhty was built.

Amenhotep III [1408-1372 B.C.E.] added a

forecourt to the west, erected an entrance pylon

and built an avenue of ram-sphinxes.

Ramses I [1314-1312 B.C.E.] later erected

a pylon and probably started the great Hypostyle

Hall in between his pylon and that of Amenhotep

III. Sety I [1312-1298 B.C.E.] completed the

Hypostyle Hall. It contained 136 columns which

stood in sixteen rows. The central aisle of the

temple contained twelve columns [in two rows]

which were sixty-nine feet in height; the capitals

were in the shape of open papyrus umbrels. The

central aisle columns paralleled to each of the

remaining rows, which were forty-two feet in

height and whose capitals were closed papyrus

Figure 2.24"View of front facade of the Temple ofRamses II at Abu Simbel with four sittingcolossi of himself

buds. The difference in height was filled by a stone

grille or clerestory. This great hall measured 338

feet in width and 170 feet in length.

One hundred years later, Ramses III

[1198- 1166 B.C.E.] built a temple partly in front

of the existing entrance pylon of Ramses I. The

Libyan pharaohs of the Twenty-Second Dynasty

[950-730 B.C.E.] built the final forecourt, called

the court of Bubastides, which was laid out to be

larger than any other part of the temple. The

construction of the forecourt was completed by

Taharqa [698-663 B.C.E.], the Ethiopian pharaoh

of the Twenty-Fifth Dynasty. He built the last and

largest pylon which remained the main entrance to

the facade. The pylon was 370 feet wide, 49 feet

thick, and 142.5 feet high; a total of 54,000 square

feet. The forecourt was 93,000 square feet; 276

feet long and 338 feet wide.

There were other constructions at this site,

including alterations by Ramses II [1301-1235

B.C.E.], Ramses IV [1160-1155 B.C.E.] and

during the Ptolemaic period [323-30 B.C.E.].

Considering the old shrine dates back to the

Middle Kingdom, the complex was a history of

some 2000 years of Kemetic architecture.57

The Temple of Ramses II at Abu Simbel

The Temple of Ramses II [1301-123 5

B.C.E.] at Abu Simbel in Upper Kemet was

constructed during the Twenty-Fifth Dynasty,

New Kingdom. The temple was almost entirely

Plan .of .Tepl oame II illustrating....

adjcet all ad nnr sacur

Figure 2.26~Plan of tTemple of Hneru at illurtnspatialtrgaationth forecourt, mide hyostl,hadjacent spces andth innerur

s. ..ctFigure 2.25 6Plan ofth Temple of ers at Edfusrtndemiaornstatinth forecourt, thed hypstl,

hail, adjacent spaces and the innersanctuary

hallowed out of a cliff. The facade pylon was

carved into the rock cliff and was preceded by

four colossal figures of a seated Ramses II. Upon

entering the temple, the first hall was said to

represent the traditional forecourt of the typical

mortuary temple. At the west end were three

doors. The side ones led into lateral chambers and

the central one opened into the main hall. Beyond

the hall was an antechamber preceding the inner

sanctuary [holy of holies] in which four Neters,

Ramses, Ptah, Amon, and Harakhty were seated in

hierarchic dignity.

The Temple of Heru at Edfu

The Temple of Heru [Horus to the Greeks]

at Edfu was erected during the Late Period. This

was the period when Greece conquered and

occupied Kemet. The construction began in 237

B.C.E. under Ptolemy III Euergetes I and the final

decorations were finished in 57 B.C.E. Although

Kemet was occupied by alien conquerors,

traditional elements were adhered to. The temple

plan illustrated these elements.

The pylon introduced the main entrance to

the temple. A pillared court followed the entrance.

A large vestibule opened on to a wider and higher

than the rest of the temple [excluding the entry

pylon]. A suite of three [hypostyle] halls in

enfilade was flanked by secondary chambers

including a treasury and staircase. The central

sanctuary [holy of holies] housed the Neter of

Heru in a stone shrine.

Figure 2.27"Restored view of the inner front pylon inthe forecourt of the Temple of Heru at Edfu

p Conclusion

The examples in this section illustrate the

renewal of traditional spatial elements. It displays

the adherence to the spatial hierarchy in spite of

the numerous alternatives of each design solutions.

Underlying themes may have governed the

devotion to spatial hierarchy specifically and

architecture in general. The following section will

address architectural design principles and its

determinants as a technique to regulate

architectural design.

2.3 The Architectural Design Principle

This section will define the architectural

design principle and an example of its utilization

will be reviewed. Several of its determinants will

be defined and investigated to illustrate how they

effected the architecture. The purpose is to show

how the architectural principle and its

determinants was used as a mechanism for

manipulating the architecture for the desired

effects of the builders.

As stated in Chapter 1, the architectural

design principle is defined as governing design

themes that informed the outcome of the

Figure 2.28"Plan of typical house with a vestibule andbedrooms or apartments to its rear

architecture. These design themes were

constructed from architectural precedents and

established over the course of centuries. They may

have evolved due to the regularity of

implementing them. They were intentionally

employed and became a fundamental part of the

architectural artifact. Identifying them assists in

further comprehending the architecture of Kemet.

The fundamental spatial elements that

evolved from the temple plan were the forecourt,

the hypostyle hall and the inner sanctuary. Each of

these were distinguished by a spatial hierarchy

attached to them. The spaces progressed from

secular to sacred in their arrangement. This was an

architectural design principle that continued

throughout Kemet. In section 2.1, the house plan

was discussed as the architectural prototype for

the temple plan. This section will revisit the house

plan in order to clarify its spatial hierarchical

relationship with the temple plan. Also, symbolism

will be defined and addressed.

Precedent for the Temple Plan

Generally speaking, the house plan

contained the entrance vestibule, the columned

hall as the living area, and the bedrooms or

apartments as private quarters. Looking at these

spaces affords the opportunity to witness the

gradual privatization of spaces through planned

hierarchical considerations. The spatial

arrangement began with the welcoming of guests

Figure 2.2961Restored view of a soul house showing anopen vestibule court in front of privatespaces of house

in the entry vestibule. This was the most public of

areas. That space was followed by the living area.

It may be considered semi-public space due to

selected guests being invited to this area or the

family partaking in activities there. Guest do not

enter this space without first being greeted or

recognized as welcomed in the entrance vestibule.

The bedrooms or apartments were the most

private spaces in the house. These were the

sleeping quarters of the inhabitants. Because they

were located in the rear of the previously

mentioned spaces, they were ensured a sense of

privacy through the filtering out of persons

deemed unwelcome.

The temple plan had an arrangement of

spaces that paralleled the house. As a religious

structure, the temple space progressed from

secular to sacred space. The most public and

secular space was the forecourt. It was open to

public congregations. In addition, this was

generally the main entrance for the temple.

Therefore, it was a gathering space for people

from all social classes; including the priests and the

public.

The hypostyle hall was the middle hall that

served only the priests and noble men. This was

akin to the columned hall or living area of the

house plan. It also acted as a vehicle for the

separation of people and an intermediate point

~*4

4!P

Figure 3.3062Floor plan of the Temple of Amon atKarnak demonstrating the hierarchy ofspatial elements: the forecourt; thehypostyle hall; and the inner sanctuary

between the secular and sacred spaces. In this

case, it is possible that social classes were

separated at this point. The more privileged or

educated in religious doctrine were allowed to

progress to more sacred spaces.

The inner sanctuary or holy of holies was

the most private of spaces in the temple. Its

function dictated that it only be entered by the

high priests and pharaoh. Normally, the inner

sanctuary contained the statue of the Neter to

whom the temple was consecrated to. This was

where the Neter came to dwell and where he or

she was worshipped. The inner sanctuary was the

most venerated space and could not be entered by

the profane. Because of its function, it was the

most sacred of spaces in the temple, therefore, the

most private. Its hierarchical arrangement ensured

limited access and circulation.

Symbolism

Symbolism may be defined as a deliberate

means of evoking understanding without

interpretation.63 As a method, it may be utilized as

one image to convey the meaning of another.

Some scholars believe that Kemetic culture

symbolism as a vehicle for conveying ideas and

beliefs, similar to a language. The culture was

holistic, therefore, symbolism permeated many

aspects of society. Architecture, religion, science,

medicine, clothing, jewelry, philosophy, writing

and many other facets of everyday living were

suggested to have been influenced by varying

forms of symbolic expression." It was believed

that symbolism impregnated the entire temple,

giving shape to it and clarifying its details. It is

possible to view the temple as a symbolic

expression.

The Determinants

The determinants of the architectural

design principle are design attributes that

additionally influenced the architectural product.

By implementing the determinants, the effects of

the architectural design principle were aided. They

reinforced the desired outcome of the architecture.

Three determinants will be addressed in this

section Each served as symbolic gestures to

reconfirm the architectural design principle. They

include the following: the temple as educational

centers; the temple as a microcosm for the human

body and the universe; and the manipulation of

light.

The Temple as an Educational Center

As educational centers, each act of

instruction took place at a predetermined point in

the temple. The various parts of the temple were

separated in order to teach different levels of

knowledge. Each level awakened a higher level of

consciousness. The arrangement and

interconnection of the sanctuaries were fixed in

accordance with theology. It distinguished the

relationship of the Neter worshipped in one of the

chapels with the others. The situation of the room

helped to express the place of the Neter in the

world of the theology.65

Specifically addressing the temple as an

education center, the forecourt or courtyard was

utilized as workshops for craftsmen to service of

the temple. It was believed that this part of the

temple contained stores, schools for the training of

specialists, and other workmen." It was here

where more practical knowledge was shared such

as crafts and trades.

The initiate of the educational system

could reach the "Outer Temple" or "Peristyle"

where utilitarian and exoteric knowledge was

mastered by scribes and priests to cultivate their

minds. These lessons were fundamental in

reaching the Inner Temple. Once admitted to the

Inner Temple, the initiate learned about symbols

and came to know him or herself by having

revealed to them esoteric knowledge. 7 It was

forbidden that anyone else enter this space other

than the high priests and pharaoh.

The Temple as a Microcosm

Many scholars have written on Kemetic

culture's fixation with studying the natural

environment around them. The study of the

environment beyond the earth [celestial bodies]

and the observation of the environment on the

earth were included. They observed movement,

change and life itself In the Nile Valley, they

witnessed nature's regular process of birth,

growth, aging, death, decay, and rebirth. This was

paramount in annual flooding of the Nile River.

Repeated observations of the river's inundation

led to the ability to predict the flooding seasons

and the dry seasons. They witnessed a cyclical

behavior of nature.

"A grand design appeared evident

throughout the universe, enabling one who studied

any part of the universe to understand the rest of it

through the play of analogies."69 Their

observations and use of analogies allowed the

Kemetic people to view the universe and nature as

the macrocosm and the human body as the

microdosm. Architecture was included in the

philosophical play of analogies. For instance, the

body was the residence of the eternal self, the

house was the residence of the physical self, and

the temple was the residence of the spiritual self

The body and the temple were each referred to as

the house of God.7 0 Each cultivated an aspect of

human development. This shows the character of

the culture's use of analogies. In particular, the

human body and the temple were considered to be

a microcosm of the universe. The interpretation of

two scholars will briefly address these ideas.

The premise of R.A. Schwaller de Lubicz's

work was the Kemet philosophy that "man is the

summation of the universe."71 According to him,

in ancient Kemet, art, science, philosophy and

religion were all aspects or facets of a complete

understanding and were employed simultaneously:

there was no Kemetic art without science, no

philosophy that was not religious. No aspect of

their knowledge was divorced from another.

Central to this complete understanding was the

knowledge that man presented the created image

of all creation. Therefore, Kemetic symbolism and

all measures were scaled to man, to earth, and

ultimately to the solar system.72 "The temple,

therefore, can only be in the image of the universe,

of heaven, the symbol of heaven and all its

influences; this image must necessarily borrow its

elements from the human body, from its organs

and from the functions of its organism."73 These

statements assert the belief of the

interrelationships between the universe, the human

body and the temple. All these interlinked themes

had mathematical and scientific knowledge,

allegedly the underpinning laws of nature;

specifically, the natural environment and the

human body.

Schwaller de Lubicz contended that if

Kemet possessed knowledge of this magnitude,

then it would be incorporated in their temples.

This would not be an explicit transmission of

information in text, but in the harmony,

proportion, myth and symbol.7 In particular, he

asserted that the Temple of Amon at Luxor was a

library of knowledge pertaining to the universe.

Figure 2.3174The Temple of Amon at Luxorsuperimposed over the statue of Ramses IIshowing bodily relationships to the Temple

He believed that this knowledge was embodied

implicitly within the temple itself.77 "The entire

temple becomes a book explaining the secret

functions of the organs and nerve centers [of the

human body]."78

The floor plan of the Temple of Amon at

Luxor was viewed as an abstract representation of

the anatomical structure of man.79 In his

investigation of the temple, Schwaller de Lubicz

superimposed a colossal statue of Ramses II over

the floor plan. This gesture allowed him to

conclude many similarities between the human

body and the temple.

The head of the body was located exactly

in the sanctuaries of the covered temple; the pineal

gland [what was known as the Third Eye or the

Eye of Heru] was located at the holy of holies; the

sanctuary of the barque of Amon was in the oral

cavity; the clavicles were marked by walls; the

chest was located in the first hypostyle of the

covered temple and ends with the temple's

platform. The abdomen was represented by the

peristyle court, and the pubis was located at the

door separating this peristyle from the colonnade

of Amon. The colonnade was dedicated to the

femurs, the thighs; the knees were at the site of the

gate in front of which sat two colossi, marking this

colonnade. The tibias were in the court of Ramses,

framed by the colossi, whose legs (tibias) were

exactly at the northwest angle of the pylon.

Figure 2.32Plan of the Temple of Amon at Luxorsuperimposed over a human skeletal frameillustrating the spatial relationships of theTemple with the human body.

Figure 2.33"The subsidiary shrine ceiling of the Templeof Hatshepsut illustrates stars representingthe sky

In addition to the temple plan symbolizing

the human body, it was suggested that each

segment of the temple had illustrations adorned on

the walls that related to specific human body

functions. In the hall that corresponded to the

center of perception, there were designs that

emphasized time, space, measurement and

orientation. This hall also contained twelve

columns which were believed to correspond to the

twelve hours of day. In the hall that corresponded

to the mouth, there was written all the names of

the Neters and the creation of the God by Ptah

through the spoken word. At the site of the vocal

cords, under the chin, the pharaoh was baptized

and given his new name. It was believed that this

hall was where the scene of the marriage of the

mother of the pharaoh and the Neter Amon was

located." At the site of the thyroid gland, which

controls growth, there were scenes of childbirth

and nursing. At the site of the umbilical cord, an

inscription on the architrave between two columns

announced that here takes place the birth, growth

and coronation of the pharaoh."

Richard Wilkinson suggested that the

temple, especially in the New Kingdom, was a

symbolic model of the universe.8 4 The builders

literally adorned the temple roof as a symbolic

representation of the sky by painting stars and

birds upon it. The birds were to represent

protective Neters. He went on further by saying

Figure 2.34'Column capitals depicting various flowers.To the top left, a bundled lotus capital. Toits right, an opened composite capital. Tothe bottom left, an opened palm capital.

the temple floor corresponded to the great marsh

from which the primeval world arose according to

theology. The great columns of the pillared courts

and halls were made to represent palms, lotus or

papyrus plants, with their intricately worked

capitals depicting the leaves or flowers of these

plants." The lower sections of the temple walls

were also often decorated with representations of

marsh plants. The whole effect was considerably

heightened in a number of temples where the outer

courts and pillared halls were actually flooded in

the annual inundation of the Nile.86

Wilkinson went on further to say that the

wall which surrounded the temple complex was

sometimes built on an alternating concave and

convex foundation bed to represent the waves of

the watery environment of the primeval beginning

of the universe according to their religious

doctrine. The raised inner sanctuary was said to

symbolize the primeval earth mound from the

waters at the world's beginning, and the first

appearance of the Neters themselves. 7

Figure 2.3588View of Hypostyle Hall of the Temple ofAmon at Karnak depicting the stone grilledclerestory.

The Manipulation of Light

The effects of lighting in the temple

strengthened the hierarchy of secular to sacred

space. In particular, during the New Kingdom and

Late Periods, the predominant way of achieving

the manipulation of light was the rising of the floor

and lowering of the ceiling according to the spatial

layout. The light within the temple decreased

toward the rear in successive halls in proportion to

the rising floor level and the lowering of the

ceiling level. Also, the placement of columns, as

well as their height and size, contributed to the

manipulation of light and the shading it created in

this controlled atmosphere. Sometime during the

New Kingdom, stone grilled clerestories were

created by the difference in height between the

columns rows. This enabled the control of

additional lighting in the middle halls.

Like the house vestibule, the temple

forecourt or outer court did not have a ceiling

over its entire floor area. Therefore, the

orientation of light was not strictly observed. In

the following halls, along the center axis, the

orientation of light towards the sanctuary was

more emphasized. Often in these temples, the

arrangement of the columns created a clerestory

down the center aisles of the middle halls. The side

aisles remained in shadows and the thickness of

the column shafts helped them to remain that way.

The narrowing of passages along the axis

contributed to the orientation of light towards the

sanctuary, drawing the visitor deeper into the

temple. The inner sanctuary was often in total

darkness, adding to the mystery of this space."9

The Temple of Heru at Edfu illustrates this effect.

Figure 3.36"Section of the Temple of Heru at Edfu illustrating the lowering of the ceiling level and the raising of thefloor level.

3Conclusion

3.0 Introduction

This chapter will assess the outcome of the

investigation and draw final conclusions. First, it

will review the goals of the thesis; specifically, the

investigation of the products of a Kemetic

architectural tradition. The products are the

architectural continuity, the architectural design

principles, and the determinants of the

architectural design principle. Second, it will

analyze the investigation of the products and the

architectural tradition. Third, it will draw

conclusions from the investigation while relating

them to the goal of the thesis.

3.1 Analysis

Both tradition and architectural tradition

were defined. An example was given to address

the development of an architectural tradition. In

particular, this example illustrated how an

architectural tradition evolved. During its

evolution, the architectural tradition was

repeatedly incorporated into the architecture. This

included variations of the design element

according to the individual design solution. It was

determined that a ramification of renewing design

elements was an architectural continuity.

The architectural continuity was

demonstrated by analyzing Kemetic architecture

from various time periods. Temple architecture

was chosen as the building type for this historical

overview. From this review, the adherence to

spatial hierarchy was followed. More specifically,

secular to sacred space existed in all of the

examples, although there were a range of

differences in the general design solutions. I

suggest that an underlying guideline dictated the

architectural continuity.

The architectural design principle was

investigated as a product of the Kemetic

architectural tradition. Further investigation

revealed determinants of the architectural design

principle. Three determinants were reviewed as

examples.

3.2 Conclusions

A Kemetic architectural tradition was

revealed. Investigating the evolution of the temple

plan was the example used to confirm this idea.

From the predynastic house to the New Kingdom

temple, the origins and development of the plan

were reviewed. The illustrations and descriptions

permitted an architectural tradition to be

considered. Examining the temple plan

development stimulated the thought of an

architectural continuity. If there was a conscious

effort to adhere to an architectural tradition, then

similar architectural characteristics may have

evolved.

A Kemetic architectural continuity was

substantiated. This was done by presenting an

architectural overview. Throughout Kemetic

architecture, there were familiar characteristics of

design. The temple plan was used as an example

to investigate similarities in the edifices. A spatial

hierarchy was seen in temple after temple. Each

temple had varying design solutions due to a

number of reasons; particularly design constraints.

However, there continued to be an adherence to

spatial hierarchy. Each temple depicted the

renewal of secular to sacred space. There was a

general devotion to this particular design element.

It may have influenced design decisions in order to

produce and reproduce preconceived outcomes.

Overall, this investigation revisited the idea

of a Kemetic architectural tradition. The products

of the architectural tradition could not have

existed without it as a foundation. Each product

was linked by architectural tradition. From these

conclusions, architectural precedents were heavily

54

relied on. They served as models for subsequent

designs. The variety of the design solutions and

adherence to traditional design themes illustrates

what Kostof called a balance of innovation and

tradition.

Endnotes

1 Ayi Kwei Armah, Two Thousand Seasons (London, 1973), p. 39

2 David Hughes, Afrocentric Architecture: a design primer (Columbus, OH, 1994), p. 6

3 Spiro Kostof, A History ofArchitecture: Settings and Rituals (New York, 1995), p 68

4 Alexander Badawy, Ancient Egyptian Architectural Design: A Study of Harmonic System (Berkley, CA,1965), p. 5

5 Kostof, A History ofArchitecture, p. 71

6 Kostof, A History ofArchitecture, p. 89

7 E. Baldwin Smith, Egyptian Architecture as a Cultural Expression (New York, 1938), p. 11

8 Badawy, Ancient Egyptian Architectural Design, p. 12

9 Anthony West, Serpent in the Sky: The High Wisdom ofAncient Egypt (Wheaton, IL, 1993), p. 22

10 Alexander Badawy, Architecture in Ancient Egypt and the Near East (Cambridge, MA, 1966), p. 68

" Jean-Louis De Cenival, Living Architecture: Egyptian (London, 1964), p. 7

'2 De Cenival, Living Architecture, p. 15

13A personification of one of the divine principles of the Creator. Often misnamed gods or goddesses.Anthony Browder, Nile Valley Contributions to Civilization (Washington, DC, 1992), p. 275

14 De Cenival, Living Architecture, p. 7

1s De Cenival, Living Architecture, p. 16

16 De Cenival, Living Architecture, p. 86

" Wayne B. Chandler, Of Gods and Men: Egypt's Old Kingdom in Egypt Revisited: Journal ofAfricanCivilizations (New Brunswick, NJ, 1993), p. 135

18 Smith, Egyptian Architecture, p. 3

'9 Asa Hilliard III, The Maroon Within Us: Selected Essays on African American CommunitySocialization (Baltimore, MD, 1995), p. 86

20 Chandler, Egypt Revisited, p. 120

21 Hilliard, The Maroon Within Us, p. 87

22 West, Serpent in the Sky, p. x

23 Kostof, A History ofArchitecture, p. 67

24 De Cenival, Living Architecture, p. 184

25 Smith, Egyptian Architecture, p. 50

26 Smith, Egyptian Architecture, p. 50

27 Smith, Egyptian Architecture, p. 12

28 Smith, Egyptian Architecture, pp. 51-52

29 Smith, Egyptian Architecture, p. 86

30 Smith, Egyptian Architecture, p. 52

31 Smith, Egyptian Architecture, p. 88

32 Badawy, Architecture in Ancient Egypt, p. 22

33 Badawy, Architecture in Ancient Egypt, p. 22

34 Badaywy, Architecture in Ancient Egypt, p. 22

35 Badawy, Architecture in Ancient Egypt, p. 22

36 Smith, Egyptian Architecture, p. 60

37 Kostof, Hitory ofArchitecture, p. 72

38 Smith, Egyptian Architecture, p. 94

39 Smith, Egyptian Architecture, p. 123

40 Smith, Egyptian Architecture, p. 100

41 Smith, Egyptian Architecture, p. 100

42 Smith, Egyptian Architecture, p. 128

43 Smith, Egyptian Architecture, p. 129

44 Smith, Egyptian Architecture, p. 183

45 Kostof, A History ofArchitecture, p. 83

46 Schwaller de Lubicz, The Temple in Man, p. 22

47 Margaret A. Murray, Egyptian Temples (New York, 1931), p. 69

48 Smith, Egyptian Architecutre, p. 160

49 Smith, Egyptian Architecture, p. 160

50 Hilliard, The Maroon Within Us, p. 122

51 Smith, Egyptian Architecture, p. 161

52 Kostof, A History ofArchitecture, p. 84

s3 Kostof, A History ofArchitecture, p. 84

54 Kostof, A History ofArchitecture, p. 84

s Michalowski Kazimierz, Art ofAncient Egypt (New York, 1969); p. 554

56 Kazimierz, Art ofAncient Egypt, p. 554

s' Smith, Egyptian Architecture, p. 159

s8 Smith, Egyptian Architecture, p. 180

5 Smith, Egyptian Architecture, p. 183

6" Smith, Egyptian Architecture, p. 201

61 Smith, Egyptian Archtitecture, p. 201

62 Schwaller de Lubicz, The Temple in Man, p. 22

61 West, Serpent in the Sky, p. 129

64Browder, Nile Valley Contributions, p. 82

65 De Cenival, Living Architecture, p. 96

* Isha Schwaller de Lubicz, Her-Bak: The Living Face ofEgypt (Rochester, VT, 1954), p. 185

67 Hilliard, The Maroon Within Us, p. 99

6 Hilliard, The Maroon Within Us, p. 91

69 Hilliard, The Maroon Within Us, p. 91

70 Schwaller de Lubicz, Her-Bak; p. 189

71 RA. Schwaller de Lubicz, The Temple in Man: SacredArchitecture and the Perfect Man (Rochester,VT, 1977), p. 37

72 West, Serpent in the Sky, p. 69

73 R. A. Schwaller de Lubicz, The Egyptian Miracle: An Introduction to the Wisdom of the Temple(Rochester, VT, 1985), p. 27

74 Browder, Nile Valley Contributions, p. 120

7s Schwaller de Lubicz, The Temple in Man, p. 23

76 West, Serpent in the Sky, p. 22

"7 West, Serpent in the Sky, p. 158

78 Schwaller de Lubicz, The Temple in Man, p. 24

7 9 Browder, Nile Valley Contributions, p. 120

80 Browder, Nile Valley Contributions, p. 120

81 West, Serpent in the Sky, pp. 160-161

92 De Cenival, Living Architecture, p.82

83 Michalowski, Art ofAncient Egypt, p. 579

84 Richard H. Wilkinson, Symbol and Magic in Egyptian Art, p. 27

85 Wilkinson, Symbol and Magic ; p. 27

86 Wilkinson, Symbol and Magic , p. 27

87 Wilkinson, Symbol and Magic ; p. 28

18 De Cenival, Living Architecture, p.140

89 Seton Lloyd, Hans Wofgang Muller, Roland Martin, AncientArchitecture: Mesopotamia, Egypt, Crete,Greece (New York, 1974), p. 132

89 De Cenival, Living Architecture, p. 148

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