A New Urban Rural Interface v2009

A NEWURBAN-RURALINTERFACETHE FUTURE OF FOOD IN CITIES

Jonathan LaRocca819 W. Main St. Apt. #2Houston, TX [email protected]

New areas of productive landscape within expanding conurbations are important for sustainable regional planning. Re-envisioning new hybrids of urban and rural carries landscape design beyond its traditional role, offering city fabrics as synthetic productive geographies as an alternative to the traditional model of clearly defined parks.

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A NEW URBAN RURAL INTERFACE

A NEWURBAN-RURALINTERFACETHE FUTURE OF FOOD IN CITIES

Image modified from an original photofrom Looking At Los Angeles,

In the next decade, important decisions about the future of cities and surrounding agricultural land will have consequences for millions of people. The deteriorated infrastructure of urban areas must be rebuilt. There are hidden rewards for undertaking a program rebuilding our urban cores in tune with nature.

The investment of the billions of dollars that will be required offers a multitude of opportunities for fresh approaches to affordable housing, public services, resources, and waste. There is room for bringing nature back into the city.Urban Habitat Program, a project of the San Francisco Bay Areaenvironmental justice group Earth Island Institute, 1990.

Image modified from an original photofrom Designs On The Land, Alex Maclean

14 www.jonathanlarocca.com 15A New Urban Rural Interface

All Rights Reserved: No part of this book may be reproduced in any form by any electronic or mechanical means (including photocopying, recording, or information storage and retrieval) without permission in writing from the publisher, except in the context of reviews.

This project contains some copyrighted material whose use has not been authorized by the copyright owners. The author believes this not-for-profit, educational use constitutes a fair use of the copyrighted material (as provided for in section 107 of the U.S. Copyright Law). The author has attempted to acknowledge authors whenever possible, but will immediately comply with any copyright owner who wants their material removed or modified.

The text of this book is composed in Hoefler, Knockout, and Trade Gothic. Book design by Jonathan LaRocca.

First Edition.

This book is printed on recycled paper.

AbstractPrefaceAcknowledgmentsIntroductionChapter 1FiguresSidebarAppendicesNotesIndexAbout the Author

1619515355576163656769

CONTENTS IN PROGRESS

Urban

Rural

Rural

Suburban

Rural

peri-urban

Urban

Urban

The Changing Urban-Rural InterfaceSource: Adapted from Cedric Price’s Eggs Diagram

TABLE 1.1

2007

1970

1900


farming and architecture, resulting in a new form of green space within cities. I present an example of a new planning strategy for modern cities, and compare it to contemporary cities, some which appear to be succeeding amidst the known struggles of today’s cities, and others that appear to be clearly failing. This thesis stages its investigation in predicted scenarios of development that offer a guide upon which to base future architectural decisions towards the sustainable growth of cities. The “adaptive re-use” of urban space towards a more productive city addresses many key issues in today’s practice. This notion that proper land-use strategies of open space and built-up space effects the function of a city is not new, but it is very seldom maximized in the built environment due to its complexity. Additionally the importance of thoughtful planning is growing ncreasingly paramount as our planet’s population and resource consumption grows.

The building industry, and the agriculture industry are two of the largest contributors of the degradation of our planet. Given the documented loss of farm land due to a variety of factors, increased consolidation of farming operations, the increasing industrialization of food production, ever more recurrent food safety scares, and the rise of food deserts in urban settings, the programmatic departure point of the project will be three-fold: a food production facility within modern cities; combined with a processingg, packaging, and distribution center, along with a retail center - to provide cities with a greater degree of self-sufficiency. The goal of such a system is to create a productive, robust infrastructure that engages a city’s local territory, but also provides for a framework of co-existence with the seeming formal and informal volatility of today’s increasingly global economies and cultures.

Save our land. Save the valley. Save our streams. Save our farmland.Increasingly we want to preserve the natural world around us, for reasons ranging from the purely sentimental, to strictly economic, or even biological – struggling to preserve our places, values, and lives. But we often remain unconscious of the effects of our livelihood, blissfully unaware of the artificial myth of aloofness from nature; deluding ourselves to believe we can cordon off a patch of land, or nature, and protect it from the after-effects of our modern habits and consumptions. Writers such as Bill McKibben argue that it is now impossible to find a patch of nature untouched by human influence1. Most of us forget that these exploitative forces were an intention that was organized here from the start. “The new world,” Bernard Devoto wrote in The Course of Empire,” was a constantly expanding market.” He continues, “We are all to some extent the product of an exploitative society.”1 To be saved is an illusion - nothing can completely escape the by-

products, side effects, stimuli, and response of modernity and our consumptive habits.The ways in which humans use plants, food, and drugs causes the values of individuals, and ultimately whole societies to shift. An underlying theme throughout this research is to illustrate how deeply rooted in our economy, our politics, and life in general; is our mentality of exploitation of our natural capital, and to show how crucial is the question of how we relate to our land, our plants, our animals – this ethnobotanical exploration focuses specifically on a broad spectrum of productive landscape, of which our conventional knowledge of agriculture only plays one part. In every section of this document, there is a narrative of significant human impact on natural ecosystems. In this thesis, I develop historical, qualitative, and quantitative distinctions between conventional agriculture and planning, with new models for sustainable growth, calling for an innovative admixture of

ABSTRACT

18 www.jonathanlarocca.com

PREFACE

19

Number of people in the Houston region today.

In 2035.

With one of the highest measured populations growths in the United States, the latest forecast for Houston’s future says that between now and 2035, the city will gain an additional 3,538,000 people.1 On its way to containing nearly 9 million people - to accommodate all their cars, homes, jobs, schools, police, and fire stations, stores, and other needs, will require the construction of more than 5 billion square feet of new building. As Houston’s population keeps rising, experts say the city needs a strategy to at least maintain, and hopefully improve the quality of the economy, community, and environment in the region.2 The forecasts predict nearly all of the green space in Harris County, and large tracts of Fort Bend, Montgomery, Galveston, and Brazoria Counties will be built over in the rush to accommodate the region’s growth. While Houston added 250,000 jobs in the last four years, and is an affordable place to live - despite the cultural aversion to regulation, Houstonians are increasingly calling for action plans to predict and manage growth.

This image is in the public domain because it contains materials that originally came from the united States Geological Survey, an agency of the united States Department of Interior. For more information, see the official

USGS copyright policy.

5,297,000

8,835,000

Average Commuting Time Vehicle DensityMetropolitan Density

440inhabitants/mi2

Built-Up Area1,295 mi2

+634inhabitants/km2 9,455

vehicle km/mi2

Climate

Avg. July Temp(˚C)

34.4

Pollution

Total Pollution (tons/mi2)

30.25

Change in Density(1970-1990)

MetropolitanDevelopment

Employment Densityemployment/mi2

1965 2003

Core Share73.8%

Core Share38.8%

206 26,494

Metr. Area CBD

Inhabitants Inhabitants Inhabitants

200319701960

Population5,176,0001,678,0001,140,000

24 MINUTES


PREFACE

With this increasingly urban population, the city is poised for growth, becoming formless, edgeless, and seemingly endless. Facing such expansion, urban policy makers must struggle to protect green space, and promote the economically growing city, all in a socially equitable manner. Facing such expansion, urban policy makers must struggle to protect green space, and promote the economically growing city, all in a socially equitable manner. Conflicts arise attempting to achieve these goals, which go to the historic core of planning, and are a leitmotif in the contemporary battle in both our cities and rural areas, whether over solid waste incinerators, or growth control, spotted owls, or nuclear power.The socially constructed view of nature put forth as a classic battle of “man versus nature,”

versus nature,” or its current variation, “jobs versus the environment,” remains the primary conflict at the heart of this inquiry: how much environmental destruction can be withstood amidst such growth, reconciling maintaining or improving our quality of life? It is said that world sustainability will depend to a large degree on what will happen in cities, particularly in fast-growing cities, yet we are far from a shared vision of an ideal sustainable human environment. The current concept of sustainability, though a laudable holistic vision, is vulnerable to the same criticism of vague idealism made thirty years ago against comprehensive planning. In this case, its idealism often builds up a romanticized version of pre-industrial, indigenous, sustainable

cultures - inspiring visions, but also of limited modern applicability. The current environmental enthusiasm among planners, architects, and design schools might suggest their innate predisposition to protect the natural environment – unfortunately, the opposite is more likely to be true: our historic tendency has been to promote the development of cities at the cost of natural destruction – to build cities we have cleared forests, fouled rivers, and the air, and leveled mountains. Given the choice of a city of density, embracing diversity and inclusivity, yet blamed as a claustrophobic, over-developed, dehumanizing anthill; or a low-density city offering temporary, perhaps mythical freedom - is there not a common ground between the two that can be reached?

Houston, 1869

Houston, 1869

http://houstorian.wordpress.com/old-houston-maps/

What kind of city can be have? Must we destroy our resources to achieve it?

Growth vs. Resources

PREFACE

Supporters of the “carrying capacity” concept argue that humans, like every other species, have a finite carrying capacity - animal population size, living standards, and resource depletion may vary, but the concept still applies to everything6: Malthus famously wrote that population growth would outrun food supply:

“The power of population is so superior to the power of the earth to produce subsistence for man that premature death must in some shape or other visit the human race. The vices of mankind are active and able ministers of depopulation. They are precursors in the great army of destruction; and often finish the work themselves. But should they fail in the war of extermination; sickly seasons, epidemics, pestilence, and plague advance in terrific array, and sweep off their (sic) thousand, and tens of thousands.

Should success be incomplete, gigantic inevitable famine stalks in the rear, and with one might blow, levels the population with the food of the world.” – An Essay On the Principle of Food Production, Malthus, 17987

Throughout the sixteenth century, the European food production system could comfortably handle population densities of around 77 people per square mile. By 1600, Italy had reached 114 persons per square mile; France, 88; the Netherlands, 104. In response, over the next century, governments banned exporting grains, and in some

cases, urged – or forced – farmers to plant new, more productive crops, such as corn and potatoes. Italian nobles spent fortunes filling in swamps and rivers, or chopping down forests, in hopes of creating new farm land8. Anti-Malthusians argue there are little or no limits to growth, and that the present economy will expand without significant bounds – imaginative, innovative people are the means of solving problems through new technology. They are optimists about scientific creativity making a better world.

However, when asked how to create a planet full of prosperous people without destroying the earth, the famous report from the World Summit on Sustainable Development, in Johannesburg South Africa, in 2002 stated, “There is no escape from the conclusion that the world’s growing population cannot attain Western standards of living by following conventional paths to development. The resources needed are too vast, too expensive, and too damaging to local and global ecosystems.”9


The new Houston – this document argues – must now consider zones of urban, suburban, rural, rural, leisure, and even “natural” precincts – all managed, as part of a design system. Instead of isolated parcels of land, or singular architectural

architectural projects, it’s now a matter of considering an entire city infrastructure and its connected environs, whose reach is hundreds of miles beyond what has been conventionally considered urban domain.

Houston is not unique – in cities across the country, citizens want to conserve and improve our natural green space and rural areas. We need to think about the pattern of future growth, and

find ways to conserve community assets, both natural, and man-made. The purpose of this document is to provide an array of complex information and analysis, as well as a few possible scenarios to inform the public discussion about

what, where, and how to build next. It is worth looking at how other cities and people have treated growth. Modern cities tend to require less transportation, fewer sewer lines, fewer power lines, fewer roads, and

more tightly packed infrastructures; which can be more energy efficient.3

On Growth

http://houstorian.wordpress.com/old-houston-maps/


PREFACE

17

However as cities get bigger, so does their environmental footprint. Urban sprawl paves over huge expanses of arable farmland, replacing fields with roads, highways, homes, and commercial and industrial development. The unbridled expansion of the built-up area has resulted in alarming losses of productive rural lands, pushing them farther away from our urban center, subsequently creating considerable travel distance to market areas. Moreover, when the agriculture system is understood to include the transportation, processing, packaging, and distribution of food, cities are even more inefficient. Architecture, urbanism, and their associated theories must innovate solutions to the public debate on space

use and available resources. Houston’s pattern of sprawl cannot sustain a city of the future. Public transportation does not exist in the capacity it needs to and dense development is an afterthought. Land is plenty and cheap in Texas. Development happens based on proximity to access roads. The culture is so comfortable being dependent on the car,

that many people are willing to drive an extra 30 minutes for their own piece of land for their over-sized house. Houston’s capability for success depends on it’s ability to redirect the course of its infrastructural development. Is Houston the next great American city? Joel Kotkin, of The American, makes a case for Houston as the most likely candidate in “Lone Star Rising.”

Joel Kotkin, The American - March/April 2008

“The ultimate winner will come from those that keep up with the infrastructure

needed to accommodate their growth. They also will have to deal with issues

of education, crime, and creating a skilled workforce— issues that are

important anywhere, of course, but can be particularly challenging in a rapidly

growing metropolis.”

This file is in the public domain because it was created by NASA. NASA copyright policy states that “NASA material is not protected by copyright unless noted”. (NASA copyright policy page or JPL Image Use Policy).


PREFACE

19

The move towards urban living is a global trend, not unique to the United States. Although counterintuitive at first, considered by some as the most urbanized country in the world, more than 60% of Australia’s population is concentrated in just five large cities (Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth, and Adelaide). Whereas the United States and Europe are characterized by a continuous distribution of settlement sizes - large cities, medium-sized towns, and small villages - Australia, along with many other nations are increasingly without medium-sized towns, most citizens living in metropolitan cities, with all the amenities of the modern first world, or in small villages with little to no doctors, banks, infrastructure, or other connections to the modern world - mainly

in many parts of former suburbia, there are now more jobs than bedrooms, increasing numbers of cultural and entertainment facilities, and growing problems of crime, drugs, and traffic. In many cases, the old spatial dualism of urbanism and suburbia as seperate and distinct ways of life have begun to disapper, as the modern metropolis evolve into what might be called an exopolis. Greek city planner Constantinos Doxiadis coined the term “econumopolis,” in 1967, meaning a city made of the whole world; to represent the idea that in the future urban areas and megalopolises would eventually fues and there would be a continuous worldwide city as a progression from the current urbanization and population growth trends.

MVRDV describes, “the world has shed the anachronism of ‘global village,’ and is transforming itself into a more or less continuous urban field,” or intensified ‘in-between,’ well on its way to becoming urban. They continue, “The world is inhabited by more and more people, who consume more, take up more space, shpaing an endless ‘skin’ of human occupation around almost the entire earth. Doxiadis also created a scenario based on the traditions and trends of urban development of his time, predicting at first a European eperopolis (“continent city”), which would be based on the area between London, Paris, and Amsterdam (the Blue Banana). To a degree not seen before, no one on earth is outside the sphere of influence of urbanization.

At the turn of the twenty-first century, the world is faced with an unprecedented challenge: it must address a fundamental shift in the world’s populations twoards cities, away from mankinds rural roots. It was estimated that in May 23, 2007, the predicted urban population of the world finally exceeded that of rural people. In the United States, the tipping point from a majority rural to a majority urban population came in the late 1910s.

because the land can’t sustainably support a medium sized economy, only an urban metropolis, or completely disbursed villages. Increasingly, Australians don’t depend on or really live in the “Australian” environment: they live in those five big cities, which are connected to the outside world to a greater degree than with the surrounding landscape and region. Increasingly, these urban citizens don’t even depend on their hinterlands, connected more to other far away mega-cities. Considering their soils have on average the lowest nutrient levels, the lowest plant growth, and the lowest productivity, along with the realization that 99% of agricultural land makes little to no contributions to their economy; if agriculture is so unproductive in Australia, why do they

continue to do it? What does that mean for cities? Would a city ever voluntarily phase out much of it’s agricultural enterprises, exposing itself to the risk of food shortages from their suppliers?

The advent of the ‘global city region,’ defined as a new metropolitan form characterized by sprawling polycentric networks of urban centers around one or more historic urban cores, is further transforming into mega-cities, whose populations exceed 10 million or more. By about 2015, about 26 cities in the world are expected to have a population of 10 million or more. Additionally, there has been a growing urbanization of suburbia, as new urban growth is taking place in outer cities, or “edge cities” -

Mega-Cities

32% Urban

68% Rural

48% Urban

52% Rural 67% Urban

33% Rural

85% Urban

15% Rural

1975 2000 2025 2050


PREFACE

21A New Urban Rural Interface

Predicted global urban population of 3,303,992,253 will exceed that of rural people.

May 23, 2007

United Nations CEnter for Human Settlements (Habitat). An Urbanizing World: Report on Human Settlements.

To compound the issue, humanity’s appetite for better living is also growing. Asked how to create a planet full of prosperous people without destroying the earth, the famous report from the world summit on Sustainable Development, in Johannesburg, South Africa, in 2002 stated:

“There is no escape from the conclusion that the world’s growing population cannot attain Western standards of living by following conventional paths to development. The resources needed are too vast, too expensive, and too damaging to local and global ecosystems.”

Seattle2,471

Vancouver1,391

Minneapolis2,315

Toronto1,652

Montreal1,738

Boston5,144

Detroit Pittsburgh2,207

Philadelphia4,659

New York11,518

San Francisco2,033

Chicago5,499

Indianapolis1,432

Louisville1,013

Cincinnati1,740

Denver1,292

Sacramento956

St. Louis2,147

Washington-Baltimore4,763

Los Angeles5,456

Las Vegas741

New Orleans513

Memphis1,068

Orlando1,173

Atlanta5,084

Charlotte1,125

Lisbon557

Pheonix2,069

Houston3,354

Mexico City1,476

Miami2,390

Bogota479

Sao Paolo1,981

Beunos Aires2,771

Santiago de Chile974

Johannesburg1,300

Cairo482

Berlin1,230

Karachi932

New Delhi583

Calcutta1,036

Mumbai738

Chennai456

Bangkok482

Hong Kong6,937

Istanbul1,269

Taipei259

Kuala Lampur531

Singapore319

Manila1,943

Djakarta2,590

Perth1,075

Sydney2,103

Melbourne2,025

Milan1,865

Geneva114

Randstad Holland324

Copenhagen816

Stockholm409

Frankfurt984

Seoul-Incheon1,191

Tokyo-Yokohama5,258

Beijing518

Nagoya2,823

Kobe-Osaka-Kyoto2,720

Busan366

Rio de Janiero1,166

Dallas-Ft. Worth3,644

Madrid932

Barcelona699

London1,186

Antwerp-Brussels1,308

Paris2,721

Oslo298

24 25

AreaUpBuilt

demographia.com, citypopulation,de,

Eurostat, regio Randstad,

StatsCanada, US Census

Seattle2,471

Vancouver1,391

Minneapolis2,315

Toronto1,652

Montreal1,738

Boston5,144

Detroit Pittsburgh2,207

Philadelphia4,659

New York11,518

San Francisco2,033

Chicago5,499

Indianapolis1,432

Louisville1,013

Cincinnati1,740

Denver1,292

Sacramento956

St. Louis2,147

Washington-Baltimore4,763

Los Angeles5,456

Las Vegas741

New Orleans513

Memphis1,068

Orlando1,173

Atlanta5,084

Charlotte1,125

Lisbon557

Pheonix2,069

Houston3,354

Mexico City1,476

Miami2,390

Bogota479

Sao Paolo1,981

Beunos Aires2,771

Santiago de Chile974

Johannesburg1,300

Cairo482

Berlin1,230

Karachi932

New Delhi583

Calcutta1,036

Mumbai738

Chennai456

Bangkok482

Hong Kong6,937

Istanbul1,269

Taipei259

Kuala Lampur531

Singapore319

Manila1,943

Djakarta2,590

Perth1,075

Sydney2,103

Melbourne2,025

Milan1,865

Geneva114

Randstad Holland324

Copenhagen816

Stockholm409

Frankfurt984

Seoul-Incheon1,191

Tokyo-Yokohama5,258

Beijing518

Nagoya2,823

Kobe-Osaka-Kyoto2,720

Busan366

Rio de Janiero1,166

Dallas-Ft. Worth3,644

Madrid932

Barcelona699

London1,186

Antwerp-Brussels1,308

Paris2,721

Oslo298

32 33

AreaUpBuilt

demographia.com, citypopulation,de,

Eurostat, regio Randstad,

StatsCanada, US Census


PREFACE


When you consider that everyday, for a city the size of Houston, enough food for 16 million meals must be produced, imported, sold, cooked, eaten, and disposed of again; it is remarkable that we get to eat at all. Feeding cities takes a gargantuan effort; one that arguably has a greater social and physical impact on our lives and planet than anything else we do. Yet, few of us are conscious of this process. There is no denying that food production and distribution is as fundamental as other forms of energy in the operations of cities. Yet, the concentration on electricity and gas (in its various forms) has left food in the background. Though the necessities of life such as housing and transportation have a firm place in the local policy agenda in cities, food issues have yet to be

As city planning grew out of the discipline of civil engineering, which emphasized sewage tunnels, reservoirs, roadways, and other infrastructure to improve public health and housing conditions, urban planners continue to view gardens and farmland within city limits as anachronisms, not to be found in the “modern city,”4 however, new areas of productive landscapes within large urban conurbations are important for sustainable regional planning. Designers and planners must consider food as a broad range of basic needs that every city should have, no less than water, electricity, and sewers. Further consideration of Houston’s growth exposes the notion of local food taking on a very different meaning on a planet where roughly half the

population lives in cities. Demographers estimate that virtually all the growth in the human population over the next fifty years will occur in burgeoning cities. Consider a recent study by two United Nations officials concerned about the capacity of large Asian cities to feed themselves, which found that by 2010, the number of truckloads of food entering Asia’s burgeoning cities would skyrocket, and overwhelm the existing capacity of these cities to distribute food.5

Bangkok will need 104,000 additional 10-ton truckloads each year. Jakarta will need 205,000, Karachi 217,000, Beijing, 302,700, Bombay, 313,400, and Shanghai, 359,700.6

This project deals with two major themes – food and cities – but its focus is on the relationship between the two.

Cities may never be able to satisfy all of their food needs from nearby farmland, but the tremendous infrastructure, energy, and money required to shuttle food into densely populated areas argues for rethinking not just city form, but the way they are fed. Most cities today have long outgrown their farm belts, importing the bulk of their food from a “global hinterland.” Growing quantities of food must be produced and transported to cities to meet increasing demand. Producing, processing, marketing, and distributing food requires efficient rural-urban linkages in the form of infrastructure, handling, packaging, and storage.

emphasized, despite the fundamental role of food production and distribution in the daunting complexity of the modern city.At the metropolitan and regional scale, it is clear that more compact urban development provides the only sustainable solution to global urban growth. The emergence of the idea of sustainability, which was a defining feature of the 1992 Rio Earth Summit, was instrumental in raising environmental awareness and provided a powerful rational for reassessing contemporary design and development strategies. Sustainable development seeks to build economic societies that satisfy the needs of today’s population without reducing the quality of environment for future generations. The United Nations Conference On Environment And Development

recognized the need to address agriculture and sustainable development at the 1992 Rio Earth Summit:

“By the year 2025, 83 percent of the expected global population will be living in developing countries… Agriculture has to meet this challenge… Major adjustments are needed in agriculture, environmental, and macro-economic policy, at both national and international levels, in developed as well and developing countries, to create conditions for sustainable development.” – Agenda 21 (United Nations Conference On Environment and Development, 1992)

As a result of marketing, publications, competitions, and demonstration projects, most architects have become aware of the factors involved in sustainable building design. By contrast, the environmental benefits of sustainably integrating landscape design, regional planning, and architecture have received less extensive publicity.


PREFACE


Food importing requires associated services and infrastructure such as ports, storage facilities, and transport infrastructure, specifically rail, water, and road transport.

By growing food within an urban environment rather than exclusively rural environment, productive landscapes with city boundaries reduces the need for industrialized production, packaging, and transportation of foodstuffs from rural areas to the city dwelling consumers. This important concept has been left out of new infrastructure-rich enabling cities, namely new forms of “green,” as peri-inter/urban-rural space.

Landscape design in this context needs to employ design as an inventive enabling agent to sustain productive lands as a new for of urbanism. “New Green” requires new land-tenure models, and innovative forms of agriculture, nature conservation, infrastructure and communities. Farming in cities provides a design proposal for a new kind of sustainable landscape within built-up areas: urban agriculture. The re-introduction of productive landscape into the contemporary city will change the appearance of modern day urban conditions towards an unprecedented economic, social, and environmental productivity.

Such landscapes cannot be created through a strategy of erasing urban tissue, or tabula rasa – paradigms of land-use tactics, which only transplant built-up space from one place to another. Instead designers must adopt a strategy of systemic intensification that searches out reclaimable, unproductive space within the existing urban fabric. Patrick Geddes, one of the founders of the field of regional planning believed that modern technology (the ‘neotechnic era’) would allow us to blend cities with nature: ‘We must bring the country to them… make the field gain on the street, not merely the street gain on the field.’7

Re-envisioning new hybrids of urban and rural also carries landscape design beyond its traditional role, offering city fabrics as synthetic, productive, landscapes – an alternative to the traditional model of clearly defined parks. In the mid-nineteenth century, Frederick Law Olmsted created the style of landscape architecture that would come to define the American urban park, allowing the urban denizen to profit from the beneficent effects of pastoral landscapes. Olmsted’s vision is no longer adequate in urban settings today.

Caroline Loomis, director of Brooklyn’s micro farm, “Added Value,” asks, “Imagine what our cities would be like if every park had a farm built into it?” Urban agriculture has the potential to transform the meaning of green urban space. Given that more than half of the world’s population is now living in cities, at the core of this inquiry lies a belief that the future wellbeing of cities requires an understanding of the links between the built environment – housing, buildings, transportation, infrastructure, streets, and public spaces – and food production, distribution, and consumption.

New Green


PREFACE


Food urbanism is a theory that positions food as a primary force capable of organizing the city and enhancing the urban experience. Food production, distribution, and consumption are an opportunity for architectural invention in an area where architectural design is rarely a priority.Cities today are constantly renewing themselves. Yesterday’s homes are today’s empty lots, standing idle for a decade or more. These sites, idle on an interim basis, form a foundational element in the ecologically sustainable city. Land will have to be allocated, reclaimed, recycled, or imaginatively found. Open urban space is precious: it is rare, and it can be converted into something else.

Usually it is converted into housing, or other building development, and thereby into money. Urban farming will have to compete with commercial land-use activities, as well as with all other ways of designing or re-designing open urban space. In modern cities, urban food production faces stiff competition for other land uses, such as housing, commerce, and industry, which often have a higher financial return in the short run. Finding permanent locations is a broad issue for New York City’s Green Markets, which closes some locations every year, often because they are evicted for construction and re-development.

On abandoned lots, between buildings, on narrow slivers of land, along crowded sidewalks, and expansive parking lots, urban farmers must seize available light and space under a veil of uncertainty, never knowing when the plans for a new high-rise or retail complex will get approved, and the land they farm will be buried under a building or a blanket of asphalt.

Food Urbanism


PREFACE

Gardening in the city increases local biodiversity, providing habitat for other plant life, insects, birds, and other species that have been adversely affected by urban development. Urban agriculture also provides an effective way of cycling the city’s waste back into the production stream. Organic waste can be used in gardens as compost, and household water can replace treated drinking water to irrigate gardens. Gardens also do a service to cities by absorbing rainwater – a growing threat as more land is paved over, and extreme weather conditions increasingly stretch the capabilities of city drainage systems to cope.

Microfarms on underutilized urban land are an option for providing low-cost nutritious food to urban communities. Urbanites around the country have created incredible farms on small pieces of land.

Many densely populated cities in the developing world already produce food inside the city – far more than in North America or Europe. The benefits of urban agriculture could be enormous and far reaching: growing food in urban areas reduces a city’s ecological footprint by decreasing or eliminating long distance transport of food from the point of production to it’s destination, a major source of green house gas emissions. Gardens improve local urban microclimates, and ecosystems. Organic soils act as carbon sinks, leaching carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, and reducing the effect of greenhouse gases. Increased urban plant life also contributes oxygen to the air through photosynthesis.

Urban Farming


PREFACE

A New Urban Rural Interface 43

The benefits of urban agriculture also stretch beyond the ecological realm. Garden enterprises are a source of job creation where people can work and make a living. This is of increasing importance in areas where the rural poor are flocking to cities in search of a better life. There are now a number of urban farms that have paid employees who oversee the production of food to be sold at all types of retail outlets – cooperatives, farmers’ markets, restaurants, corner stores, or supermarkets. More Future Farmers of America (FFA) now come from towns, suburbs, and cities, including Queens, and the south side of Chicago, than from rural regions. The largest chapter in the country is now in Philadelphia.9

Food producers and retailers will find farming in cities to be a sustainable method for producing, distributing, and selling fresh produce, as well as an important public image and marketing mechanism for appealing to consumers. Urban and peri-urban farming will decrease the need for both packaging and transporting foods. Food production companies will grow raw ingredients “on-site,” along with packaging and administrative facilities. Companies will also save money by reducing fuel costs, a rapidly increasing expense. The urban agriculture movement has grown even more vigorously elsewhere. Hundreds of farmers are at work in Detroit, Milwaukee, Oakland and other areas that, like East New York,have low-income residents, high rates of obesity and

Denniston Wilks, a city surveyor, farms in what was once a vacant lot in the shadows of an elevated subway track in East New York, Brooklyn.Photo: Todd Heisler/The New York Times

The Wilkses, along with other gardening neighbors, received permission to use the lot, cleared it of trash and tested its soil with help from GreenThumb, a Parks Department gardening program. They found traces of lead, so to ensure their food’s safety, they built raised beds of compost.Photo: Todd Heisler/The New York Times

diabetes, limited sources of fresh produce and available, undeveloped land. Local officials and nonprofit groups have been providing land, training and financial encouragement. But the impetus, in almost every case, has come from the farmers, who often till when their day jobs are done, overcoming peculiarly urban obstacles.


PREFACE


Many food production companies are already interested in developing practices that are friendlier to the environment, and more sustainable. In May 2002, three large food companies (Unilever, Group Danone, and Nestle) launched the Sustainable Agriculture Initiative (SAI) Platform. Seventeen other members have since joined the platform, including big names such as Dole, Kraft, Coca-Cola, and McDonald’s. The members are able to share costs of developing agricultural practices with other members. The SAI supports agricultural practices which secure adequate food supplies, protect and improve the natural environment and resources, and economically viable and responsible farming systems. These companies plan to further develop sustainable

agricultural practices by testing them through pilot projects. Facing increased criticism, citing they are part of the problem, and not part of the solution; large food production and agricultural companies are hoping they can move beyond the status quo of food production for cities. A new for of agricultural experiment station adapted for urban or peri-urban settings would be a step in the right direction. With cities built where the closest real source of food is hundreds, if not thousands of miles away, moving beyond the community garden movement proposes an idea that urban lands can generate jobs and series quantities of food. Cities like Chicago have some 6,000 acres of vacant lots within 200 square miles of its sprawling borders, where farmers like Kenn Dunn have farmed over

the last thirty-five years. Figuring out how to feed people sustainably will be a messy process of unraveling old ideas and experimenting with new ones. Houston’s Land Assemblage Redevelop-ment Authority estimates there are over 10,000 vacant lots in Houston. The Houston Parks and Recreation Department has begun developing some vacant lots for com-munity garden use, but later on, this document will argue, that a more comprehensive land-use and economic plan which further defines how these gardens will function over time, will be the key to a successful growth strategy for Houston.


PREFACE


Food matters. Until recently, food fights were school cafeteria disasters, or debates among elitist connoisseurs, but 50 years ago, every household had at least one person who took food seriously every day. From the 1970s on, we thought the only problems we had were the price and abundance of food. If we could simply make a lot more, at a cheap price, we could solve world hunger, and make people happy. The contemporary food system – a framework in which everyone participates – consumers, government, and industry, as well as educators, students, the media, and countless other stakeholders – is vast, and encompasses hundreds of thousands of products and places to sell them: supermarkets, convenience stores,

Why Look At Food?warehouses, restaurants, fast-food chains, and even the internet. The food industry is a complex web that we consumers encounter daily in many different forms; but it also difficult to fully grasp and understand. Marion Nestle reminds us: the growing shipping, preparing, and serving of food is a business of titanic proportions, worth close to a trillion dollars a year in the United States.10

Despite its ubiquity, the food system is little understood: in 1985, Kellogg Foundation President Russell Mawby warned:

“… few issues are of greater importance to the world than adequate food supplies, proper food use, and knowledge about the components of the agriculture industry. Yet most people do not understand the complexities of America’s food system…”11

Most inhabitants of North America are more than one generation removed from a farm. Their closest connection to the food system occurs in supermarkets. Manufactured foods have further separated our connection to the soil. At the end of World War II, a typical supermarket offered roughly 1,000 items, mainly fresh, cured, or canned commodities. In the postwar period, the simultaneous availability of new processing technologies developed for wartime emergencies, suburbs full of housebound women, as well as the new advertising medium of television – stimulated an outpouring of manufactured goods.

image: Brent Humphreys

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

A New Urban Rural Interface v2009

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