A Nation Rising edited by Noelani Goodyear-Kaʻōpua, Ikaika Hussey, and Erin Kahunawaika’ala...

8/12/2019 A Nation Rising edited by Noelani Goodyear-Kaʻōpua, Ikaika Hussey, and Erin Kahunawaika’ala Wright

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A N

A T I O

N R

I S I N G

HAWAIIAN MOVEMENTS for LIFE, LAND

, and SOVEREIG

Noelani Goodyear-Ka‘ōpua , Ikaika Hussey , and Erin Kahunawaika‘ala Wright , editors

.



A NATION RISING

Series Edi orsK. Tsianina LomawaimaFlorencia E. Mallon Alcida Ri a Ramos Joanne Rappapor

Edi orial Advisory BoardDenise Y. ArnoldCharles R. HaleRober a HillNoenoe K. SilvaDavid Wilkins Juan de Dios Yapi a



© Duke Universi y Press All righ s reservedPrin ed in he Uni ed S a es o America on acid- ree paper∞Tex designed by Chris Croche ière, BW&A Books, Inc.Typese in Arno and Fete Engschrif by BW&A Books, Inc.

Library o Congress Ca aloging-in-Publica ion Da a A na ion rising : Hawaiian movemen s or li e, land, and sovereign y /Noelani Goodyear-Kaʻōpua, Ikaika Hussey, and Erin Kahunawaikaʻala Wrigh ,edi ors ; pho ographs by Edward W. Greevy.pages cm (Narra ing Na ive his ories)Includes bibliographical re erences and index.

- - - - (clo h : alk. paper) - - - - (pbk. : alk. paper)

. Hawaiians Governmen rela ions. . Sovereign y. . Goodyear-Ka‘ōpua,Noelani. . Hussey, Ikaika. . Wrigh , Erin Kahunawaika‘ala . Series:Narra ing Na ive his ories.

. . . ' dc

Duke Universi y Press gra e ully acknowledges he suppor o e Kohala Cen er, which provided unds oward he publica ion o his book.

Cover pho o: Kumu Hina Wong-Kalu and s uden s o Hālau Lōkahi, .Fron ispiece: “Yankee, Go Home!,” Kalani ʻOhelo, Kalama Valley, May . All pho ographs in he book © Edward W. Greevy unless o herwise no ed.



No ka poʻe aloha ʻāina



Con en s

Lis o Illus ra ions ix Abou he Series xiii Acknowledgmen s xv In roduc ion | Noelani Goodyear- Kaʻōpua

. Life Por rai . Marie Bel ran and Annie Pau: Resis ance o Empire, Erasure,

and Selling Ou | Anne Keala Kelly . Waiāhole- Waikāne | Jacqueline Lasky . “Our His ory, Our Way!”: E hnic S udies or Hawaiʻi’sPeople | Davianna Pōmaikaʻi McGregor and Ibrahim Aoudé

. E Ola Mau ka ʻŌlelo Hawaiʻi: e Hawaiian Language Revi aliza ionMovemen | Ka rina- Ann R. Kapā a̒naokalāokeola Nākoa Oliveira

. Kaua̒ i: Resis ing Pressures o Change | Joan Conrow

. Kū i ka Pono: e Movemen Con inues | Manu Ka i̒ama Por rai . Sam Kahaʻi Ka a̒i |y P. Kāwika engan

. Land (Self-)Por rai . Puhipau: e Ice Man Looks Back a he Sand

Island Evic ion | Puhipau . Hawaiian Souls: e Movemen o S op he U.S. Mili ary Bombingo Kaho o̒lawe | Jona han Kamakawiwo o̒le Osorio

. Pu‘uhonua: Sanc uary and S ruggle a Mākua | Kalamaokaʻāina Niheu . Wao Kele O Puna and he Pele De ense Fund | Davianna Pōmaikaʻi McGregor and Noa Emmet Aluli . A Ques ion o Wai: Seeking Jus ice hrough Law or Hawaiʻi’s

S reams and Communi ies | D. Kapua‘ala Sproa



Con en sviii

. Aia i Hea ka Wai a Kāne? (Where Indeed Is he Wa er o Kāne?):Examining he Eas Maui Wa er Batle | Pauahi Ho‘okano

Por rai . Mauna a Wākea: Hānau ka Mauna, he Piko oOur Ea | Leon Noʻeau Peral o

.Sovereign y

Por rai . Puanani Rogers | Micky Huihui . Ou side Shangri La: Coloniza ion and he U.S. Occupa iono Hawai‘i | Kūhiō Vogeler . Makeʻe Pono Lāhui Hawaiʻi: A S uden Libera ionMomen | Kekailoa Perry . Ka Hoʻokolokolonui Kānaka Maoli, : e Peoples’In erna ional Tribunal, Hawaiʻi | Kekuni Blaisdell, Nālani Min on,and Ulla Hasager . Ke Kūʻē Kūpaʻa Loa Nei K/Mākou (We Mos Solemnly Pro es ): A Memoir o | Noenoe K. Silva . Resis ing he Akaka Bill | J. Kēhaulani Kauanui . Kūʻē Mana Māhele: e Hawaiian Movemen o ResisBiocolonialism | Le a̒ Malia Kanehe

Por rai . Puanani Burgess: He Alo a he Alo | Mehana Blaich Vaughan

Bibliography

Con ribu ors General Index Index o Hawaiʻi Place Names Index o Personal Names



Illus ra ions

Fron ispiece. Kalani ʻOhelo, Kalama Valley, May George Helm, Waiāhole, June , Kōkua Hawaiʻi, Kalama Valley, May , (cour esy Ed Greevy) George San os, Kalama Valley, “People No Pro s,” “Ea,” ʻIolani Palace, January , , ʻOnipa a̒ even s Haunani-Kay Trask, ̒ Iolani Palace, January , Ed Greevy wi h camera, (cour esy Ed Greevy) John Kelly, Hawaiʻi s a e capi ol, March , Joy Aulani Ahn, Waikīkī, March , Kahana, O a̒hu, June , Marie Bel ran, Mokulēʻia, Augus , ʻOhana Bel ran, Mokulēʻia, Augus , Annie Pau, Haleʻiwa,

Waiāhole- Waikāne Communi y Associa ion mee ing, Oc ober , Kana Teruya, Waiāhole, April ,

e marches agains evic ion o Marks home, April , e a landlord’s door, April ,

Tū ū Kawelo, December , Marion Kelly a Kaimukī Public Library, Swee lady o Waiāhole, April Terrilee Kekoʻolani,

Pe e ompson a Kaimukī Public Library, Marion and John Kelly, June Keiki o Kauaʻi, Augus Ar hur and “Ata Boy” Chow, Augus S an ord Achi, he paddler,



Illus ra ionsx

S an ord Achi, he ac ivis , February , Eus aquio Ocso o he Niumalu-Nāwiliwili Tenan s Associa ion, Mr. Obra o he Niumalu-Nāwiliwili Tenan s Associa ion, Vicky Hol Takamine and Adelaide “Frenchy” DeSo o,

Kū i ka Pono march (Michael J. Puleloa) Sam Kaʻai and Kiha, ka mo‘o o malu ‘ulu o Lele, (Franco Salmoiraghi) Sam Ka‘ai, Ho‘oku‘ikahi, (Franco Salmoiraghi) Sam Ka‘ai a Pu‘ukoholā, (Franco Salmoiraghi) Harves ing kalo in Kahana, Oʻahu, Augus , Puhipau, Sand Island, November , Boun y o he ocean, Sand Island, January Fa her and daugh er a Sand Island, January George Cash a Sand Island, January Wal er Paulo, Sand Island, January , Bulldozers level Sand Island homes, January , Homes burning on Mokauea, Wal er Rite o he Pro ec Kaho‘olawe ʻOhana, May , Emma DeFries arrives on Kanaloa Kahoʻolawe, Augus George Helm, Wayne Reis, and Kahauanu Lake, February , Harry Mi chell, Kahoʻolawe, Oc ober Kānaka s anding in suppor o members, May

a ching a hale hālāwai, Hakioawa, Kahoʻolawe, Augus , Kalama Nīheu and ʻohana, Mākua, O a̒hu, July , Mākua Valley, Leandra Wai, Barbara Avelino, Mākua Village, Mākua Council, Gwen Epuni Kim holds unexploded ordnance in Mākua, July , “S op Corpora e Crime,” Wao Kele O Puna, Oc ober , (Franco Salmoirag

“Reclaim he Rain ores ,” Wao Kele O Puna, March , (Franco Salmoirag“Waiwai,” Waikāne, O a̒hu, “Hoʻākoakoa!” ‘Īao S ream diversion, Maui, “No be lōlō, res ore s ream ow!” e dry ‘Īao s reambed, Maui, “Hoʻi ka wai!” Waihe e̒ River, Maui,



Illus rax

Lynn Scot and Pauahi Ho‘okano, Honopou, Maui, March , e Wend ̒ ohana, Wailuanui, Maui,

S even Ho o̒kano, Wailuanui, “Kahi i ho o̒maka ai ʻo Wailuku” (Kalei Nu u̒hiwa)

“Crossroads o Change,” I ulu nō ka lālā i ke kumu (Kalei Nu u̒hiwa) “He kapa hau ko Poliahu. He kapa lau ko Poliahu.” (Kalei Nu̒ uhiwa) “E Kānehoalani ē. E Kāneahoalani ē. Aloha kāua . . .” (Kalei Nuʻuhiwa) Kīhei “Soli” Niheu, Kalama Valley, May Puanani “Nani” Rogers, Kauaʻi (Bryna Rose S orch) Kanalu Young, ʻOnipa a̒, January , “ ̒ Onipa a̒ mau a mau,” Kanalu Young, January , Makeʻe Pono Lāhui Hawaiʻi, Sep ember , Kaleikoa Ka e̒o, Nohea Wallace, and Haunani-Kay Trask, November , Kekuni Akana Blaisdell, May , One page o he an iannexa ion pe i ions (cour esy Noenoe Silva) Noenoe Silva, wi h he Kū ē̒ pe i ions, January “No o Akaka Bill,” ʻIolani Palace, January , Jesse Ikaika Jones and Kaleo Manuel, Mānoa, Hinaleimoana Wong Kalu and Hanohano Naehu, Mānoa, Building an ahu, Mānoa, “Taroism Figh ing Terrorism,” Wal er Rite, Mānoa, Puanani Burgess, Kekuni Blaisdell, and Paula Akana, Honolulu,



Abou he Series

Narra ing Na ive His ories aims o os er a re hinking o he e hical, me hoand concep ual rameworks wi hin which we loca e our work on Na ive his oricul ures. We seek o crea e a space or effec ive and ongoing conversa ions beNor h and Sou h, Na ives and non-Na ives, academics and ac ivis s, hroughou h Americas and he Pacic region.

is series encourages analyses ha con ribu e o an unders anding o Na ivples’ rela ionships wi h na ion-s a es, including his ories o expropria ion and eas well as projec s or au onomy and sovereign y. We encourage collabora ive worecognizes Na ive in ellec uals, cul ural in erpre ers, and al erna ive knowledducers, as well as projec s ha ques ion he rela ionship be ween orali y and l



Acknowledgmen s

We rs recognize he kūpuna o genera ions pas who have guided and sus ainhese include all our lands and wa ers, as well as he beings who reside in all p

around us. While his book ea ures he names and s ories o many individuacommuni ies who have enac ed and ough or ea li e, brea h, land, and sovereig

here are housands who have engaged in and inspired Hawaiian movemen s. is bohonors he collec ive effor s o all hose who have pushed Hawaiian movemen ward. Mai ka piʻina a ka lā i Kumukahi ā ka welo ʻana i Hōlanikū, mai ke kumuhonluna aʻe i ka lewa lani, mahalo i nā poʻe ā pau.

Like he movemen s explored in his collec ion, he book i sel has also beelec ive effor . Several people read drafs o key por ions o his book. Mahalo Noenoe Silva, Terri Kekoʻolani, Joan Lander, Candace Fujikane, Dean Saranillio, JuRohrer, Vince Diaz, and an anonymous reviewer secured by Duke Universi y PreGrea hanks go o Iokepa Casumbal-Salazar or his work on he bibliography and

o Bryan Kamaoli Kuwada or his assis ance on he index. We ex end our mahTsianina Lomawaima or her suppor o his projec rom very early on in he pMany hanks go o Valerie Millholland and Gisela Fosado a Duke or heir assiin seeing his projec hrough o comple ion.

Mahalo nui o Ka e Bell and Tom Blackburn o he Devian s rom he Normor heir generous dona ion suppor ing he prin ing o his book. Mahalo also

Hamaba a and e Kohala Cen er or helping o make and acili a e his conne A ellowship unded by he Andrew W. Mellon Founda ion, Kamehameha SchKahiau Founda ion, and e Kohala Cen er allowed Noelani o work on his boHawaiʻinuiākea School or Hawaiian Knowledge also provided suppor or som

he pho o prin ing cos s.Ed Greevy would par icularly like o hank he ollowing individuals or he id

assis ance hey provided: Hoʻala Greevy, Haunani-Kay Trask, David S annard, Johnand Lucy Wi eck, Haʻaheo Manseld, John Dominis Hol , Joni Bagood o Moka John and Marion Kelly, Ka hleen Kelly, Barry Nakamura, Soli Nīheu, Kalama NīhKe a̒la Kelly, Neil Sananikone, Masako Ikeda, P. F. Ben ly, Hadi Salehi, Bennet Hymo Mu ual Publishing, Lopaka Manseld, Donna Green, Ka hryn Joiner, An oniodres, Nancy Aleck, Se su Okubo, Kity Bar el, and Bob S auffer.



Acknowledgmen sxvi

Mahalo nui o he addi ional pho ographers who dona ed heir pho os o Kalei Nuʻuhiwa, Franco Salmoiraghi, Michael Puleloa, and Bryna S orch.

Mahalo me ke aloha o Kumu Hina Wong-Kalu and Hālau Lōkahi Public ChSchool or gracing he cover o his book and or your s ead as commi m‘āina and ea.



In roduc ion

Noelani Goodyear- Ka ō̒pua

Free he wa ers and he land you s ole rom me.I don’ wanna wai or ano ha’ minamina cen ury,Because you owe i all, rom he moun ains o he ree . We gonna carry on, il our liber y swee sovereign y. Yeah, swee sovereign y.

A cons ella ion o land s ruggles, peoples’ ini ia ives, and grassroo s organizarise o wha has become known as he Hawaiian movemen or he Hawaiian sovermovemen . ese Hawaiian movemen s or li e, land, and sovereign y changed ho con emporary Hawaiʻi. rough batles waged in cour rooms, on he s ree s, acapi ol building, in ron o landowners’ and developers’ homes and offices, on bomou sacred lands, in classrooms and rom en s on he beaches, Kanaka Maoli puagains he ongoing orces o U.S. occupa ion and setler colonialism ha s ill elimina e or assimila e us. Such movemen s es ablished recogni ion o and undHawaiian language ins ruc ion in public schools. ey go he larges mili ary world o s op bombing and begin he cleanup o Kaho‘olawe Island. ey presereven i some imes emporarily, en ire coas lines or sec ions o various island being urned in o suburban and commercial hubs. Because o Hawaiian movemelike hose documen ed in his book, wa er in Hawai‘i is pro ec ed as a publicIndigenous cul ural prac i ioners can con inue o access necessary na ural resoand sacred si es; whi e supremacy canno go unchecked; and he unadjudica ed co he Hawaiian Kingdom’s descendan s o our na ional lands and sovereignremain in ac . ere have, o course, been major losses oo: highways buil over buand religious emples, he evic ion o amilies rom heir ances ral homelandsaliena ion o communi ies rom once-produc ive shponds and aro elds. e sga hered in his collec ion chronicle some o hese gains and losses, and, in so demphasize he ac ive role Kanaka Maoli have played in he making o our own his

Our usage o he erm “Kanaka Maoli” is i sel a resul o he movemen s d



Noelani Goodyear- Kaʻōpua

in his book. In he la e s and s, his way o sel -iden i ying bemore requen , as he Na ive Hawaiian people asser ed our dis inc ive idenown language. e reemergence o ances ral ways o describing ourselves also d

he racialized, U.S. legal deni ion o “na ive Hawaiian,” which uses blood measuremen s ha do no emerge rom Hawaiian cul ure. In his in roduc

larger collec ion, he au hors use he erms “Kanaka Maoli,” “Kanaka ‘Ōiwi,“Kanaka,” “Maoli,” or “ ‘Ōiwi,” o re er o he au och honous people o harchipelago he original people who emerged rom his place. ese erms indica eour genealogical rela ionship o he lands and wa ers o our islands and dis i

rom o her residen s. Wha are he s ruggles, rela ionships, and s ra egies ha gave rise o wh

o be known as he Hawaiian movemen ? Wha key ensions have ormed i s Who are he people who have shaped Kanaka Maoli movemen s? Wha valumands, s ra egies, and ne works have hey ar icula ed, hus dening la e and early wen y-rs -cen ury Hawaiian poli ics? Wha lessons can we learns ories? In addressing hese ques ions, his book brings oge her he voices ocommuni y organizers, journalis s, and lmmakers who have led, par icipa eclosely s udied Hawaiian social movemen s. Mos bu no all o he wri er

e ex is complemen ed by images primarily cap ured by Ed Greevy, a non-Hawaiianpho ographer who has worked in suppor o grassroo s peoples’ movemen s in by documen ing various communi ies in s ruggle since he s.

is volume includes a range o issues, communi ies, and individuals rom he archipelago. However, his book is no in ended o be a comprehensive ac

o all he people, lands, and even s ha have composed he con emporary

movemen . ere are many more s ories o be old. We hope his book will ca aoppor uni ies or re elling and reec ing upon he coun less mo o̒lelo, or narHawaiian movemen during his period and beyond.

e essays and images in his book work oward wo broad aims. Firs , hiion allows readers o see a mul iplici y o claims and s ra egies ha have e

Hawaiian movemen s o pro ec and revi alize lands, his ories, language, anand economic prac ices. While he erm “Hawaiian movemen ” is some imes dynamic orce should no be seen monoli hically. is book ga hers a range o

rom he movemen , recognizing he common commi men o res oring h well-being o he lāhui ‘Ōiwi Hawai‘i while also honoring he ac ha a posi ions and perspec ives is a mark o a heal hy na ion. In ha regard,

ion resis s knee-jerk cri icisms ha sugges Hawaiians canno or should noand sovereign y because “ hey jus canno agree or ge oge her.” As a poand praxis, ea (see explana ion below) is uni ying while also open enough

or a robus expression o differences. is diversi y should be celebra ed. i



In roduc

does no seek o roman icize la e wen ie h- and early wen y-rs -cen urymovemen s. A number o he essays ake up he produc ive and some imes par

ensions ha emerged wi hin differen conjunc ures o people and agendas. In he con ribu ors presen our words and images as evidence ha Hawaiian li e, la

sovereign y persis s.

Given he signican inuence poli ical, cul ural, and in ellec ual Hawaiian men s have had on con emporary li e in Hawaiʻi as well as in in erna ional Indigarenas, i is s unning ha more books have no been writen abou he la e wenearly wen y-rs -cen ury movemen s or Hawaiian land and sovereign y. Haunani-Kay Trask’sFrom a Na ive Daugh er (rs published in and revised and republishedin ) s ill remains he mos widely known book on con emporary Hawaiian pomovemen s even hough he bulk o i was writen abou wen y-ve years agorecen books, such as Ty Kāwika Tengan’s Na ive Men Remade and J. Kēhaulani Kau-anui’sHawaiian Blood , provide impor an , in-dep h s udies o par icular aspec s o

ive Hawaiian cul ural na ionalis and poli ical independence movemen s. However,here remains a clear and dire need or Kanaka o narra e he ullness o our hi

o wen ie h-cen ury resis ance and resurgence, les hey be old by o hers orime. Like he Hawaiian scholars, poli ical leaders, and composers o he la e

and early s, he con ribu ors o his book in end o documen he resis agenera ions or hose o come, so ha hese his ories may ground and inspiredecisions, ac ions, and iden ica ions.

Second, his volume collec ively explores he poli ical philosophy and drivingo ea. Taiaiake Al red, Kanien’kehaka (Mohawk) scholar and ac ivis , has asked -enous people o consider, “How do we crea e a poli ical philosophy o guide our p

ha is nei her derived rom he Wes ern model nor a simple reac ion agains Eacan be seen as bo h a concep and a diverse se o prac ices ha make land pover governmen , while no dismissing he impor ance o au onomous governing

ures o a people’s heal h and well-being. In ha vein, his book is divided inpar s li e, land, and sovereign y each exploring and elabora ing a differen aspo ea. Ea con ounds arbi rary dis inc ions be ween poli ics and cul ure. I is a

ha includes bo h independence and in erdependence. Mos impor an ly, i is aliving ha has deep roo s in Kanaka Maoli unders andings o he na ure o cre

Ea: Life, Brea h, Sovereign ye word “ea” has several meanings. As Hawaiian language and poli ical scholar L

lani Basham argues, each uterance o he word carries all hese meanings a once when one meaning may be emphasized. Ea re ers o poli ical independence and is o

ransla ed as “sovereign y.” I also carries he meanings “li e” and “brea h,” amo




hings. A shared charac eris ic in each o hese ransla ions is ha ea is an a o being. Like brea hing, ea canno be achieved or possessed; i requires cons anday afer day, genera ion afer genera ion.

Unlike Euro- American philosophical no ions o sovereign y, ea is based on heriences o people on he land, rela ionships orged hrough he process o rem

and caring or wahi pana, s oried places. In ha vein, he essays in his book ragenealogy o he con emporary Hawaiian sovereign y movemen hrough heffor s o people rying o main ain or res ore heir rela ionships wi h spec

Ea, in ac , ex ends back o he bir h o he land i sel . Basham wri eshoʻi ka hua ʻōlelo no ka puka ʻana mai o kekahi mea mai loko mai o ka moana,me ka mokupuni.” Indeed, ea is a word ha describes emergence, such as volcislands rom he dep hs o he ocean. In looking o mele Hawai‘iHawaiian songs andpoe ry Basham poin s ou ha he erm “ea” is oregrounded wi hin a promkoʻihonua, or crea ion and genealogical chan or Hawaiʻi: “ Ea mai Hawaiinuiakea / Ea mai loko mai o ka po.” e islands emerge rom he dep hs, rom he darkness precedes heir bir h. Basham argues ha , similarly, poli ical au onomy is a o li e.

While “ea” has long re erred o poli ical independence as well as o li e erm rs became associa ed wi h s a e-based orms o sovereign y in he

ing he promulga ion o he rs cons i u ion o he Hawaiian Kingdom. increasing European and American imperialism, nine een h-cen ury Hawaiian

ook domes ic and diploma ic measures o s ave off oreign encroachmening recogni ion o Hawaiian sovereign y under he dominan in erna ional na ion-s a es, some imes re erred o as he Wes phalian sys em. Afer a rogue Bri ish

cap ain claimed he islands or Grea Bri ain in , Hawaiian emissaries sres ora ion o sovereign governmen . King Kamehameha III amously pro“Ua mau ke ea o ka ʻāina i ka pono.” Roughly ransla ed: “ e sovereign y o con inues hrough jus ice and proper ac s.” Hawaiian language and poli ics scholarssuch as Basham and Kaleikoa Kaʻeo have called our aten ion o he ac hadid no reaffirm he sovereign y o he governmen (ke ea o ke aupuni) bu sovereign y and li e o he land i sel (ke ea o ka ̒ āina), o which Kanaka are connec ed.

Following his his oric proclama ion, he Hawaiian na ion celebra ed Kaʻi-hoʻi Ea as a na ional holiday annually beginning July , . e rs celhonoring Hawaiian independence, las ed over a week. a same year, Bri ish, Fand U.S. governmen s became he rs Wes ern powers o ormally recognizeindependence, and numerous rea ies be ween he Hawaiian Kingdom ands a es ollowed. While hese his orical even s and legal documen s plainly des ra e he cen rali y o Wes ern no ions o sovereign y o he changing



In roduc

ea, nine een h-cen ury Hawaiian wri ers also emphasized ha he meanings oceeded Wes phalian no ions o he sovereign y o a governmen .

In , he organizers o Ka Lā Hoʻihoʻi Ea urned oward educa ing a new ion abou he meanings o ea and o his signican na ional holiday. In a public

Davida Kahalemaile asked, “Heaha la ke ano o ia hopunaolelo, ‘Ka la i hoihoiia ma

ke Ea o ko Hawaii Pae Aina’?” (“Wha is he meaning o his phrase, ʻ he day he Hawaiian archipelago was re urned’?”) He answered his rhe orical ques ion wi hhe ollowing lis :

. Ke ea o na i-a, he wai. . Ke ea o ke kanaka, he makani. . O ke ea o ka honuhe kanaka. . . . . Ke ea o ka moku, he hoeuli. . . . . Ke ea o ko Hawaii Pae Aina .Oia no ka noho Aupuni ana.

. e ea o sh is wa er. . e ea o humans is wind. . e ea o he ear h ishe people. . . . . e ea o a boa is he s eering blade. . . . . e ea o he Haw

ian archipelago, i is he governmen .e ullness o meaning in Kahalemaile’s words canno be cap ured in English, bu

can begin o see some o he ideas he was sugges ing o his audience. Ea re erreenvironmen ha sus ains li e or crea ures such as sh or humans. Wa er and vide he media in which we absorb he oxygen ha gives us li e. Ea, hen, is essesurvival. I is he environmen in which we hrive. In exchange, people help o mear h heal hy and produc ive. In ha sense, ea re ers o he mu ual in erdepenall li e orms and orces. Addi ionally, Basham observes ha Kahalemaile showsis like he ool ha allows us o naviga e and guide ourselves he large s eering

o a canoe or he rudder o a boa . e lis culmina es wi h he s a emen haHawaiʻi is i s independen governmen . e holiday celebra es he re urn o li egovernmen in he wake o a hrea o i s very survival. In his lis , hen, Kaemphasizes ha ea is necessary or li e and ha poli ical independence is ne

or he well-being o he Hawaiian people. Ye he also shows how he meaningsurpass s a e-based orms o sovereign y.

e onse o prolonged U.S. occupa ion beginning in brough an abrup hhe grow h o Hawaiian na ional li e. Afer a genera ion under he occupier’s rhe Hawaiian na ionalis press was largely ex inguished. Con rol o he na io

base was wres ed rom he Hawaiian Kingdom. e Hawaiian language was bannFor mos o he wen ie h cen ury Hawaiʻi did no have a single school in h

ha made he Indigenous Hawaiian language or cul ure cen ral o i s curriculumries o Hawaiian resis ance o American akeover were hidden, overwriten by Amcan his orical narra ives abrica ed o make people believe here was a legal m be ween he Hawaiian Kingdom and he Uni ed S a es.




Bu in he wake o he coup d’é a by sugar businessmen backed Marines, Kanaka Maoli con es ed U.S. empire and called or he con inuanIn , he Buke Mele Lāhui (book o Hawaiian na ional songs) was published shorafer a ailed armed coun errevolu ion waged by Hawaiian loyalis s agains oligarchy ha had claimed he governmen . One mele ook he earlier proclam

King Kamehameha III and ramed i as a command: “E mau ke Ea o Hawaii i ka e li e and sovereign y o Hawaiʻi mus con inue in pono (jus ice, balance, go Almos ve decades la er, in , Alvin Kaleolani Isaacs wro e a song

he same sen imen . Like Kahalemauna’s composi ion, “E Mau” (“Le“Persevere”) rans orms Kauikeaouli’s amous saying o u ure impera ive

E mau ko kākou lāhui, e ho‘omauE mau ko kākou ‘ōlelo, e ho‘omauE mau ka hana pono o ka ‘āinaI mau ka ea o ka ‘āina i ka ponoI ka pono o ka ‘āinaLe ’s s rive o keep our na ion alive, le ’s s riveLe ’s s rive o keep our language alive, le ’s s riveLe ’s s rive o preserve he good o he islandsso ha righ eousness may con inue o be wi h usall ha ’s good in he islands

e song was a avori e o George Jarret Helm Jr., a Hawaiian musician, publiclec ual, and ac ivis who became a leader o he movemen o s op he U.S

o he island o Kaho‘olawe as a bombing arge .Helm a child o Moloka‘i Island who grew up on Hawaiian homes ead lanKalama‘ula became a passiona e communi y organizer in he mid- s, umusic as an organizing ool. Many elders rs perceived him as a radical, unheard him sing and speak o hem in person. An eloquen ora or and wri eofen sang and quo ed “E Mau” as he alked o o hers abou he impor ance‘āina, loving he land, and he need o de end Kaho o̒lawe and Hawaiian cul u

ur her des ruc ion by he U.S. mili ary. He and a hand ul o o hers rom he ProKaho‘olawe ‘Ohana ( pu aloha ‘āina in o living prac ice when hey l

he island, placing heir lives be ween he bombs and heir ‘āina. ese landinac s o ea, and hey are re old in his volume by Jona han Osorio, ano hermusician-scholar-leader.

Helm and o her members o he emphasized he need o make no an i-imperialis poli ical s and bu also o honor and use he places our kūpnized as sacred and o pro ec a way o li e based on sus enance rom he land



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During he our h occupa ion o he island in January , Helm wro e, “ e bman is he brea h o Papa ( he ear h). Man is merely he care aker o he land h

ains his li e and nourishes his soul.” Here ea, bo h brea h and sovereign y, reec sno a supreme au hori y over erri ory bu a sacred connec ion o he land redu i ul, nur uring care. I was his connec ion ha moved Helm and o hers o

e remainder o his chap er provides some his orical con ex or he essaysen ed in his collec ion, while also giving he reader a glimpse o wha can bein hem. In so doing, i also atends o some o he rhy hms o la e wen ie h-

wen y-rs -cen ury Hawaiian movemen s.

Land S ruggles: From Kalama o Kaho o̒lawe

In pos - Hawaiʻi, ho els and resor s were becoming he new plan a ions buil luxury homes and suburban sprawl accommoda ed he rush o U.S. Amersetlers in he years afer he U.S. Congress declared Hawaiʻi a s a e wi hin i s u

ese “developmen s” displaced people who con inued o live “Hawaiian s yle,” relyingon land-based subsis ence prac ices like shing, ga hering, and arming. Mul ie

Rally in he Valley, June , . George Helm, a leader in he Pro ec Kahoʻolawe ʻOhana, sina rally in Waiāhole in suppor o residen s pro es ing evic ion.




working-class communi ies began o challenge he un ullled commi men s

World War II, local poli ical es ablishmen ha had risen o power on promisre orm. Ou o hose land s ruggles, a Hawaiian na ionalis consciousness reesome imes in ension wi h hose who saw hese con es a ions over land, cpower only hrough he lens o class s ruggle.

A Kalama Valley, or he rs ime in he wen ie h cen ury he land been pushed around rom place o place decided ha hey would s and up o priva e landowner in Hawai‘i, he Bishop Es a e. Kalama Valley evic ees liLui and George San os were suppor ed by Kānaka like Kīhei “Soli” Niheu, KehKalani ʻOhelo, Larry Kamakawiwo‘ole, Joy Ahn, and Pe e ompson o he Kalama Commitee. Toge her hey poin ed ou he irony ha an ins i u io

or Na ive Hawaiian s uden s by a Hawaiian ali‘i (chie ) was evic ing Hawo her local armers in order o build high-priced suburban homes ha moscould no afford. eir occupa ion o he valley, agains bulldozers and sniperso her communi ies ha hey could similarly organize.

e ac ivis s in Kalama broadened heir analysis beyond ha specic batle

Kōkua Hawaiʻi ac ivis s si a opone o he las unbulldozed housesin Kalama Valley. Plainclo hedpolice officers climb he ladder oremove hem. On May , , afea long s andoff wi h he landowner,Honolulu police ended nearly a year o resis ance ha is ofen seenas he ca alys o wen ie h-cenHawaiian movemen s. Pho o cour-

esy o Edward W. Greevy.



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rends o aliena ion and s ruc ural violence ha were happening hroughoulands. Taking a broader view, hey rans ormed he Kōkua Kalama Commitee iKōkua Hawai‘i o suppor land s ruggles around he islands. Over he nex several years, he ounders o Kōkua Hawaiʻi s ood in many o he s ruggles discu

his book Waiāhole- Waikāne, Niumalu-Nāwiliwili, Kahoʻolawe, Mākua, and Sand

Island as well as o her an ievic ion s ruggles such as in China own and WaimāDavianna McGregor and Ibrahim Aoudé (chap er , his volume) describe he we hnic s udies s uden s and acul y rom he Universi y o Hawai‘i a Mānoa

o suppor many o hese an ievic ion movemen s o he s. e emergences udies was in ima ely ied o he communi y organizing work o groups likeHawaiʻi and o hers.

In her landmark ar icle “ e Bir h o he Modern Hawaiian Movemen : Kala Valley, Oʻahu,” Haunani-Kay Trask describes he ways he discourse shifed hrough

he s, rom land s ruggles in Kalama o Kaho o̒lawe:

e Hawaiian Movemen began as a batle or land righ s bu would evolve, by, in o a larger s ruggle or na ive Hawaiian au onomy. Land claims rs

peared, as in Kalama Valley, as communi y-based asser ions or he preserva ioo agricul ural land agains resor and subdivision use. By he mid s, heclaims had broadened o cover mili ary-con rolled lands and rus lands specically se aside or Hawaiians by he U.S. Congress bu used by non-beneciarie

Jus ica ion or hese claims had also expanded. In he beginning o hedecade, he rallying cry was “land or local people, no ouris s.” By , hguage o pro es had changed rom English o Hawaiian, wi h emphasis on hna ive rela ionship o land. e cul ural value o Aloha ʻĀina (love o he land was o charac erize he demands o pro es ers in o he s. By hen, hemen had branched ou poli ically o link up wi h American Indian ac ivis s o

he mainland, an i-nuclear independence s ruggles hroughou he Sou h Paciand in erna ional ne works in Asia and a he Uni ed Na ions.

In some cases, his shif rom ocusing on class-based land s ruggle o Indigenouural resurgence happened qui e organically. For ins ance, Jacqueline Lasky documhe ways an an ievic ion movemen in Waiāhole- Waikāne morphed in o a s ruggle orhe wa er necessary o arm kalo, he elder sibling and radi ional s aple ood o

Maoli (chap er ). Afer he vic ory o a mul ie hnic coali ion o enan aro her residen s agains evic ion by a weal hy landowner, Waiāhole aro armers

oward remedying he aking o ens o millions o gallons o wa er per day roha could eed lo‘i kalo. is pro rac ed movemen inspired and connec ed wi h

on o her islands o main ain or res ore lo‘i and o revi alize ecological heal h byishing s reams wi h he wa er ha had been aken or indus rial sugar produc




batles over wa er on Maui Island, discussed in chap er by D. Kapua a̒la Sprochap er by Pauahi Hoʻokano, were in ormed and inspired by he Waiāhols ruggle. As Sproa argues, i was ul ima ely hese movemen s ha helped pas a public rus or all people in Hawaiʻi.

However, here were also imes when he shif in ocus rom class s ruggle ian na ionalism was pain ul. For Kōkua Hawaiʻi, ension developed be ween hMarxis s, who emphasized he need o build a working-class, prole arian moand emergen Hawaiian na ionalis s, who were asser ing he need or Na iveleadership, or cul ural revi aliza ion, and or recogni ion o he dis inc iical rela ionship ha Na ive Hawaiians have o he islands. Kīhei “Soli” Ni

ha during he ’s early occupa ions o he island in pro es o U.S. Nahe ini ia ed communica ion “invi ing o come o Kōkua Hawaiʻi i

George San os was a pig armer who became one o he mos vocalresiden s resis ing evic ion romKalama Valley. He warned o

wo problems ha would changeHawaiʻi: a ood o affluen setlers

rom he U.S. mainland seekinghigh-cos homes, and a resul ingloss o agricul ural lands. .



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o ge in orma ion ou .” When he responded wi h reques s o disseminma erial, some Kōkua Hawaiʻi members were opposed. According o Niheu, “We no prin some o heir reques s in our newsleter, Kōkua Hawaiʻ i. e collec ive ha was prin ing he paper decide[d] agains providing echnical suppor . ey condem

’s ma erial as ‘cul ural na ionalis ic.’ I was so angry. a was a conic bhe cul ural and Marxis perspec ives, and we were oo dogma ic.” e effor s o s ophe bombing o Kahoʻolawe Island were organized explici ly around he asser

dis inc ively aboriginal rela ions o land, which o her “locals” do no have. is wimpor an change rom he earlier ways he Kalama Valley s ruggle had been w

As Jona han Osorio sugges s in chap er , he ’s longevi y can be seen aumph o an “indigenous movemen devo ed o he realiza ion o wha are, ess

“People No Pro s.” In he s, Michael McCormack announced plans or a massive condominium and marina projec ha would have des royed he Heʻeia we lands and shpond. In Au

, He̒ eia residen s and suppor ers occupied Honolulu ci y and coun y offices or hree daynigh s. is pho o was aken shor ly afer hey were success ul in gaining a conversa ion wi h ci y planning direc or. Ac ivis s pic ured include ( rom lef o righ ): Lorna Omori, Mike Kido An onio Andres, Susan Wagner, Kity Bar el, Jo Pa acsil, Tony Bar el, and Joy Ahn.




non-wes ern aims” over Wes ern liberal ideologies. More han jus a challenge o Wes ern liberalism, Kīhei Soli Niheu’s analysis also reminds us ha he Kanaka Maoli cul ural resurgence ini ia ives pushed agains he Wes ern rad

ion as well. S ill, such ideological engagemen s have been and con inue o be As Anne Keala Kelly’s por rai o wo houseless Hawaiian women warriors

his collec ion reminds us, in no uncer ain erms: an Indigenous movemen wclass analysis can be vapid in erms o i s abili y o produce meaning ul cha

Cul ure Is Poli ical, Poli ics Are Cul ural

Hawaiian social movemen s have been, a heir core, abou pro ec ing and eʻŌiwi ways o li e: growing and ea ing ances ral oods, speaking he na ivrenewing rela ionships hrough ceremonies, making collec ive decisions, andremaining on he land. As “li e,” ea encompasses he cul ural, he poli icanomic. In observing he rhy hms o Hawaiian movemen over ime, one seesor ca aly ic even s when he arbi rary boundaries be ween ac ivi ies repremerely cul ural (such as hula or voyaging) and hose cas as poli ical (such righ s pro es s or sovereign y rallies) are blurred. When people explici ly a ways cul ural prac ice is poli ical, and poli ical movemen is cul ural, Hawamovemen s leap orward.

In , he same year ha a boa holding nine people made i s rs land-hoʻolawe, he double-hulled waʻa (canoe) named Hōkūleʻa made i s rs voyagHawaiʻi o Tahi i, led by Sa awalese mas er naviga or Mau Piailug. More success ul scien ic experimen or an exercise in cul ural waynding, Hōkūleʻ

an icon or he renewal o Indigenous Oceanic pride and ai h in ances ral knFor Kanaka ʻŌiwi, he canoe’s success was an in-your- ace redemp ion againinan narra ives raming Hawaiians as incapable and inconsequen ial. Loretconnec ed her own involvemen in he movemen o s op he bombing o Ka

he symbolic power o Hōkūleʻa’s ravels: “Everybody old me Hawaiians werHawaiians were lazy, Hawaiians were good or no ’in’. a ’s how I grew up, raKaua‘i. a ’s wha hey old us Hawaiians.” I was agains his backdrop o

he vision o he Hōkūleʻa approaching he island o Molokaʻi, o which Lomoved in her young adul hood, re reshed and inspired her. “When he Hōkūleʻaand you see his magnicen ship coming in and [her voice slowed and dropped o a hush]

here’s no engine, here’s no noise, only Hawaiians hoooooh [she shook her s aboveher head hen opened her palm over her hear , pating i several imes] i was awesome.. . . [I was] a s rong opening o he eyes o who we were as people.” Wi hin mon hs,Loreta became one o our individuals who crossed he channel be ween Molok




Sovereign Visions: Independence or Na ion wi hin a Na ion?

By he la e s and s many Hawaiian movemen leaders who had emearlier land s ruggles and cul ural revi aliza ion ini ia ives were ar icula ini ly na ionalis agenda and calling or sovereign con rol o a na ional land

he nex ew decades wo parallel s reams developed wi hin he Hawaiian smovemen . One sough some measure o jus ice wi hin exis ing s ruc uresgovernmen . is has included a na ion-wi hin-a-na ion approach, which seek

ederal recogni ion o a domes ic-dependen , reorganized, and e hnically de waiian na ion. e o her s ream undamen ally ques ions he jurisdic ion ando he Uni ed S a es in Hawaiʻi and has emphasized he independence o Hcoun ry un o i sel . Over he las wen y years, proponen s o Hawaiian inhave ur her rened his posi ion by proposing a leas wo possible avenuin erna ional law: ( ) decoloniza ion hrough reinscrip ion on he Uni ed No non-sel -governing erri ories, and ( ) deoccupa ion hrough pro ocols goin erna ional laws regarding occupa ion. To beter apprecia e he differences b

he na ion-wi hin-a-na ion and independence approaches, one needs a basic s anding o he his ory o he Hawaiian Kingdom’s na ional lands.

e vas majori y o he lands con rolled by he s a e o Hawaiʻi and he Umen o De ense in he islands are he Hawaiian Kingdom’s Crown and Govlands ha were seized a he s ar o he U.S. occupa ion in he s. O he millionacres ha make up he islands, . million comprise hese wo classes o seiian na ional lands. e wo separa e inven ories o lands became commingled. J

wen y years la er, he U.S. governmen hrew a crumb o bene “na ive H

, he U.S. Congress se aside , acres a iny rac ion o he .o seized Hawaiian na ional lands or a beneciary class dened by a percequan um. us he s a u e came o dene “na ive Hawaiian” in hose rac

erms. In , he U.S. ederal governmen rans erred he remainder odid no ge reserved or U.S. mili ary usage or or he Hawaiian Homelands newly ormed s a e o Hawaiʻi. Under he Admissions Ac , sec ion (

hese lands as a public rus ha should serve ve purposes. One o hese purposes was “ he betermen o he condi ions o na ive Hawaiians.” e na ional lanHawaiian Kingdom, which remain under he con rol o he Uni ed S a es ano Hawaiʻi, con inue o be si es o con es a ion.

In he la e s, building on he momen um o earlier communi y-levehe Council o Hawaiian Organiza ions and Alu Like sponsored several “Pūw

sions” ha brough oge her hundreds o individuals and represen a ives oHawaiian associa ions. Many ideas abou how o improve he collec ive cond

he Hawaiian people came ou o hese sessions. One s rand emphasized hol



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s a e governmen accoun able o i s legal manda e o use he public lands ucon rol o bene Hawaiians. A ery leader rom Waiʻanae, Adelaide “Frenchy” Drepresen ed her dis ric in he Hawai‘i S a e Cons i u ional Conven io

o chair he Hawaiian Affairs Commitee. She championed he ini ia ive o creaoffice wi hin he s a e sys em ha is in ended o receive percen o he re

he Public Lands Trus (since he betermen o na ive Hawaiians is one o ve pulaid ou in he Admissions Ac ). As a resul , he Office o Hawaiian Affairs (es ablished in o u ilize he income derived rom he Public Lands or ho na ive Hawaiians and o hold i le o any proper y conveyed o ha en i

A he same ime hough, many Kānaka were concerned o push ur her hanholding he setler governmen responsible or i s his orical neglec o rus re bili ies under i s own laws. People began o challenge he very legi imacy o UHawaiian s a e governmen s on Hawaiian soil in he rs place. Vogeler’s essaycon emporary legal challenges o U.S. legi imacy back o atorney Pōkā’s modismiss a case brough by he s a e o Hawaiʻi agains Wil ord “Nappy” Pulawa

). e same year ha was ounded o work wi hin he setler s a e sys em was arguing: “We are no American ci izens, we are ci izens o he na ion o Hand we re use o digni y he cour by en ering a plea.” Ou side he cour s, prplaces like Sand Island on Oʻahu brough o ligh he buried his ory o he HaKingdom lands. Puhipau’s sel -por rai , “ e Ice Man Looks Back a he Sand IsEvic ion,” recoun s he way Sand Island was bo h a place or him o rediscover-ces ral rela ionship wi h he ocean and a means o discover he his ory o his csuppressed independence. Afer heir arres or resis ing he s a e’s evic ion oIsland residen s in , Puhipau and his wo bro hers, Bobby Henriques and W

Paulo, re ained Pōkā Laenui o represen hem based on he argumen ha heS a es had no jurisdic ion over hese lands.Like Puhipau, more and more people began o remember he Hawaiian Kin

dom lands as such and o re er o hem as sovereign lands or simply Hawaiian lBuilding consciousness abou he his ory, s a us, and heal h o hese lands procri ical piece in he developmen o Hawaiian sovereign y discourse. Hawaiian hs eaders pushed or he righ o sue he setler s a e governmen or breach obliga ions, and his ini ia ive developed in o one o he larges Hawaiian sovorganiza ionsKa Lāhui Hawai‘i ( ) which in es ablished i s own cons

u ion, governmen s ruc ure, and mas er plan or reviving he na ion. Mililani Traskserved as he Kiaʻāina or head o or eigh years during i s heyday. Ka Lāh waiʻi was composed o individual ci izens, Kānaka who suppor ed working wiU.S. ederal recogni ion ramework as well as hose suppor ing independence rUni ed S a es. However, he dominan approach wi hin he organiza ion wasseek U.S. recogni ion and hen o gain con rol o he public rus lands.




Beyond , independence leaders ha rose o prominence hroughou and in o he early s, such as Skippy Ioane and Kekuni Akana Blaisdell,reconcilia ion approaches and argued or no hing less han ull au onomy anes ablishmen o Kanaka ies o ʻāina. Perry, in “Makeʻe Pono Lāhui Hawaiʻi: Libera ion Movemen ” (chap er ), discusses he ways a s uden -led organi

orized and opera ionalized an independence-inec ed Hawaiian na ionalis dis According o Perry, an ac ive par icipan in ha s uden movemen , “Mai es o dened sovereign y as having ‘comple e independence and sel -goveNo sub-s a us or affilia ion wi h he Uni ed S a es.’ ” Perry races a genearevolu ionary praxis no only o Hawaiian men ors bu also o public in elleac ivis s such as Edward Said, Fran z Fanon, Malcolm X, and Black Pan her Pers like Kwame Ture and Assa a Shakur. He reec s on some o he ways Mak

ried o preven and deal wi h he kinds o in ernal challenges ha underadical ac ivis organiza ions ofen ace, and in so doing he shows how he prcan be enriched by an in erna ional exchange o ideas and explici group com

o sel -reec ion.One hing ha bo h independence and na ion-wi hin-a-na ion advoca e

upon was he need o build a broad, popular movemen o educa ed Kanaka wexercise heir righ o in ormed sel -de ermina ion. e massive organizalāhui in he s required popular educa ion and consciousness-raising basound research. No only academics bu people o all voca ions were s riving a cen ury o his orical miseduca ion. In , a year be ore he cen ennial reo he armed invasion and coup agains he Hawaiian Kingdom governmHawaiian organiza ions joined oge her wi h he goal o reeduca ing hem

he broader public abou he his orical basis or Hawaiian claims or sovereiing he name Hui Naʻauao, a “group seeking wisdom or enligh enmen ,” hey dreds o educa ional workshops on Hawaiian his ory, sel -de ermina ion, andmodels o sovereign y.

en in several key even s and ex s brough popular consciousness ancally engaged Hawaiian scholarship o new heigh s. In January, Kānaka rom across

he archipelago ga hered o honor Queen Liliʻuokalani and he Hawaiian na iories o even s aking i s name rom he queen’s moto, “ ‘Onipa a̒,” o remain sve-ac drama iza ion over hree days reenac ed he even s o a or nsi es. e ʻOnipaʻa observance culmina ed wi h he larges known march in Hohis ory. An es ima ed , people converged a ‘Iolani Palace, he Hawadom’s sea o governmen . During a series o speeches on he palace grounds, Haunani-Kay Trask urged he audience o remember, “We are no American! Wno American! We will die as Hawaiians! We will never be Americans.”

In building momen um oward , Trask and her colleagues a he Univ



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Hawaiʻi a Mānoa’s Cen er or Hawaiian S udies had also worked in conjunc ionhe ac ivis -lmmaker duo, Puhipau and Joan Lander o Nā Maka o ka ‘Āina o phe documen ary lm Ac of War: Te Over hrow of he Hawaiian Na ion. e lm de-

bu ed ha year, and i chronicled he his orical even s surrounding he oand annexa ion, making he ndings o Hawaiian his orians and poli ical slike Trask, Jona han Osorio, and Lilikalā Kame e̒leihiwa available o a broad audie

e year also saw he release o Trask’s in erna ionally renowned book,From a Na ive Daugh er: Colonialism and Sovereign y in Hawai‘ i , which power ully cri iqued various aspec s o li e and poli ics in Hawai‘i including corpora e ourism, acexploi a ion, he suppression o Na ive epis emologies and his ories, and conchaeology ha has allowed he des ruc ion o signican Hawaiian burials ansi es.

La er in he summer o Nā Maka o ka ‘Āina documen ed he en-day Peoerna ional Tribunal, Ka Hoʻokolokolonui Kānaka Maoli, which raveled o ve is

On January , , in he larges known pro es o Kānaka Maoli and suppor ers in his orywen y housand marched hrough Honolulu o ʻIolani Palace. ousands remained a he palac

bands and or speeches and music hroughou he day.




in he archipelago ga hering es imony rom people on heir own lands. e s ory ohe ribunal is old in his volume by i s convenor and members o he organ

mitee, Kekuni Blaisdell, Nalani Min on, and Ulla Hasager. Addi ionally in waiian independence leader Puʻuhonua “Bumpy” Kanahele organized a feen-moccupa ion o Kaupō beach in Waimānalo, Oʻahu. e occupa ion no only emph

he his orical and legal bases or an independen Hawaiian na ion, bu also unhe real, ma erial needs o Kanaka Maoli or homes and or ʻāina. Kanahele als

numerous communi ies abou he need or an economic ounda ion or meani waiian sovereign y. In , even he U.S. governmen recognized ha “ heHawaiian people never direc ly relinquished heir claims o heir inheren sovas a people over heir na ional lands o he Uni ed S a es, ei her hrough heor hrough a plebisci e or re erendum.” Popularly known as he Apology Resolu ion , U.S.Public Law - did no , however, re urn any lands or powers o governmHawaiian people.

A he January , ,ʻOnipa a̒ even s, Haunani-KayTrask roused he crowd haga hered o remember he

invasion o he HawaiianKingdom and o pro es i songoing effec s.



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In he years ollowing , advances were made in shifing he erms o pdeba e in Hawaiʻi, in peeling back decades o misin orma ion, and in winning slocalized s ruggles. By he ime Noenoe K. Silva published her book Aloha Be-

rayed: Na ive Hawaiian Resis ance o American Colonialism , Kanaka could conden lyasser ha our ances ors had never relinquished heir sovereign claims and had i

urged, “E kue loa aku i ka hoohui ia o Hawaii me Amerika a hiki i ke aloha aina holoa” (Pro es orever he annexa ion o Hawai‘i un il he very las aloha ‘āina Silva’sreec ive memoir in his volume (chap er ) recoun s he journey o he annexa ion pe i ions back home o Hawai‘i rom Washing on, DC. Nickname“Kūʻē pe i ions,” he s acks o paper moved many Kānaka oward he indepeside o he sovereign y movemen spec rum, as individuals came orward o loo

ouch he signa ures o heir ances ors who expressed heir absolu e opposi io- waiʻi’s incorpora ion in o he Uni ed S a es. e pe i ions were success ul in

ime, as he U.S. Congress never ra ied a rea y o annexa ion o Hawai‘i. Aca alyzed Hawaiian independence discourse a he urn o he wen y-rs ce

Kūhiō Vogeler asser s in “Ou side Shangri La” (chap er ) ha as Hawaiianpendence discourse evolved in o he early s, “occupa ion heory” began ligh on he specic legal s a us o Hawai‘i as a coun ry under prolonged, belloccupa ion. Scholars could now provide a de ailed eviden iary basis or he leggumen s ha Laenui had made wen y-ve years earlier. Vogeler ur her argues haoccupa ion discourse has begun o supplan analyses ha describe he Hawaiian

ion in erms o colonialism and indigenei y. In a biographical s yle, he racks Hahis orian Kanalu Young’s journey oward deoccupa ion discourse.

In he las en years, some scholarship u ilizing occupa ion heory o analyze

ian sovereign y has proposed hrowing ou he language o colonialism al ogeguing ha prolonged occupa ion and coloniza ion are wo mu ually exclusive sunder in erna ional law. e legal clarica ions made by Sai, Vogeler, and o hers mayno require dispensing wi h an analysis o colonialism, however, which is more haa legal s a us bu a se o social rela ions. Consider: i is impor an o name an harm ul orce by one individual agains ano her as assaul and batery in a cour Bu ha does no preclude using o her language o describe, heal rom, and analmani old repercussions o ha bea ing. Likewise, one migh consider ha a prU.S. occupa ion o Hawai‘i enables he ongoing hegemony o a setler socie y secolonialism wi h varying aspec s and effec s.

Kanaka Maoli con inue o asser bo h na ional and Indigenous iden i ies. In “ing he Akaka Bill” (chap er ), J. Kēhaulani Kauanui illus ra es he complex Kanaka Maoli mus ace when asser ing bo h a na ional independence claim aIndigenous, genealogical roo edness in he na ional lands o he Hawaiian KingShe illus ra es wha is a s ake when no ions o indigenei y are hemmed wi




domes ic law and poli ics. Kauanui provides a cri ical analysis o he Na iveGovernmen Reorganiza ion Ac , commonly known as he Akaka Bill, whicgive Na ive Hawaiians U.S. ederally recognized s a us similar o Indian would undamen ally weaken Hawaiian claims o na ional independence, whnever been relinquished. Whereas a domes ic dependen “reorganized governi

i y” would consis only o regis ered Na ive Hawaiians, he Hawaiian Kinhis orically composed o a mul ie hnic ci izenry, wi h Kanaka ʻŌiwi havingpro ec ions. e ac ivis s abou whom she wri es clearly s a e ha Kanaka M“an indigenous people o he Uni ed S a es.” Ra her, hey asser bo h Hawaiiden i y as ci izens o he Hawaiian Kingdom and a dis inc ively Na ive idoriginal people o his land. ese independence advoca es realize ha a u u

ioning independen Hawaiʻi would be a mul ie hnic na ion ha would have wi h he ac ha Kanaka ʻŌiwi have become a numerical minori y in our ow

Le‘a Kanehe describes biological dimensions o colonial prac ices in “KūʻēMāhele: e Hawaiian Movemen o Resis Biocolonialism” (chap er ). She

ha Indigenous people are dealing wi h invasion a he level o no only appara uses bu also cells, he building blocks o li e. Explaining differen cursion in o he biological makeup o our bodies and lands, Kanehe argues hcolonialism in Hawaiʻi is an ex ension o he Uni ed S a es’ invasion o ouin .” Indeed, “Hawaiʻi has had more plan ings o experimen al biocrops where in he Uni ed S a es or he world, ruly making our islands an in ernana ional sacrice zone.” Kanehe weaves her own analysis wi h cri iques and no ac ive resis ance rom Kanaka atorneys, armers, and educa ors, posi ingor ood sovereign y, as perhaps one o he mos impor an aspec s o Haw

men s in he presen .

Complici y and Guarding Agains I : Remaining on he Land

Deba es over bo h U.S. ederal recogni ion and he plan ing o gene icallcrops on Hawaiian lands are differen i era ions o a recurring ques ion in Hmovemen s: When and o wha ex en does one work wi hin he very power

ha oppress us? Where is he line be ween pragma ism and complici y? Ahe chap ers demons ra e, people engaged in various s ruggles or li e, land,

eign y have had o decide when o nego ia e wi h and when o s and in direco setler s a e and corpora e au hori ies ha bene rom he denial o Hawe au hors show us how differen individuals and communi ies have deal wi

difficul ques ions. Anne Keala Kelly’s essay ea ures wo women, Marie Bel ran and Annie

heir incisive views on he condi ions o heir own houselessness hrough a p



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Hawaiian lens. Each lives on he beaches o Oʻahu or differen reasons, bu bo h display a kind o courage agains s a e removal ha , Kelly asser s, permited marno . Her words call us o ask whe her working wi hin s a e ins i u ions beneginalizes hose ʻŌiwi who are he mos vulnerable (bu also some imes he s ramong us. Simply by s aying on he land, Marie and Annie provide examples o

power ul, and how dangerous, i can be o resis setler colonial logics o eliminand removal. For Kelly, he mas er’s ools can never ully disman le he mas er

e por rai s (and sel -por rai s) o Hawaiian elders Puhipau, Nani Rogers, and nani Burgess each ake up his ques ion o how o nego ia e wi h he sys em being comple ely changed by i . Puhipau wri es o how he and o her Sand Islanden s made every atemp o work wi h s a e officials. And ye s a e orces uple’s homes o “smoking rubble.” ey wen o cour and hen o he legisla urand es ablish recogni ion o Hawaiian righ s o be on he land, bu o no availpoin he s opped leting his li e’s work be abou nego ia ing wi h or reac ing o Ins ead he has spen he las hree decades changing popular consciousness hrlm. Similarly, Nani Rogers has used radio o build ne works and spread awaren When ʻāina is hrea ened, such as he desecra ion o iwi kupuna (ances ral bonNaue, Kauaʻi, by a haole landowner wi h permission rom he s a e, she will kūʻēin direc opposi ion.

Puanani Burgess reec s on he physical and emo ional hrea s o nego ia is a e and corpora e in eres s. Her early involvemen in rying o minimize hBeach developmen ” known oday as Ko Olina and, mos recen ly, he si e oney’s Aulani resor drew ire rom hose who wan ed o preserve he coas lin

hose who wan ed o build over i . However, he setlemen reduced he allowab

velopmen size and resul ed in unding communi y programs such as Ka‘ala Fae experience o he con roversies urned her li e oward peace-building ini iaSeveral o he chap ers also show ha when communi ies pu land a he cen

have been willing o use an array o nonviolen s ra egies o pro ec ‘āina anrela ionships o lands: lobbying governmen officials, picke ing landowners, blocklawsui s, and nego ia ed con rac s or usage. In chap ers and , “A Ques ioand “Aia i Hea ka Wai a Kāne?,” Sproa and Ho‘okano each describe wa er s ruggac ive effor s o res ore s reams and kalo ( aro) cul iva ion. Sproa provides a hand legal raming or unders anding wa er s ruggles in Hawai‘i, char ing conne be ween he cases o Waiāhole and Nā Wai ‘Ehā (li erally “ he our wa ers”

ral Maui). Her chap er demons ra es he impor ance o working hrough hing legal sys em bo h o res ore specic s reams and o pro ec he broader Hprinciple ha he common people and he na ural wa ersheds need ree-owingHo‘okano’s chap er on s ruggles in Eas Maui also demons ra es ha even whenable decisions have been made by s a e au hori ies o res ore some wa er o s




ha wa er is no always released and is s ill diver ed o he bene o corpoKalo armers have been orced o physically ensure ha wa er is released on a basis. Legal batles wi hin he setler s a e sys em, while impor an , canno

he sole or ul ima e answer. Communi ies mus exer vigorous measures oabili y upon s a e and corpora e powers, and his ofen requires being on he l

o atend o any changes in he quali y and quan i y o various resources. Jona han Osorio (chap er ) and Kalamaoka ā̒ina Niheu (chap er ) illus r

impor ance o building ʻŌiwi s ruc ures, even when working wi hin or agoccupying s a e’s sys ems. Bo h describe communi y s ruggles agains violences caused by he mili ariza ion o Hawaiian lands. Bo h underscoredemili ariza ion movemen s cen ered on each o hese places have been aboing ‘ohana (ex ended amily) rela ionships and processes. Each o hese comgrounded heir decision-making processes abou when and how o nego ia e setler s a e by puting he heal h o he ʻāina and he o̒hana a he cen er. N

ha U.S. mili ary occupa ion has worked o des roy he Hawaiian ‘ohana sysis undamen al o Hawaiian heal h. She de ails he ways he orma ion o Village Council, comprising hose living on he beach, helped bring amilies Similarly, Osorio sugges s ha he sel -iden ica ion and purpose ul s rucPro ec Kaho‘olawe movemen as an ‘ohana, ra her han an associa ion, has con ribu ed

o i s longevi y and success. Ano her core aspec o Hawaiian demili ariza ion effor s a Mākua and K

has been he res ora ion o hese ʻāina as pu‘uhonua, or places o re uge an While a puʻuhonua welcomes anyone, i is s ewarded by a purpose ully consex ended ‘ohana, or communi y, ha can include bu is no limi ed o bloo

Organiza ions such as he and he Mākua Village Council are examples emporary, nons a is , ʻŌiwi orms o governance. When he nego iaConsen Decree wi h he U.S. Navy, i did so only afer remendous ime, enesul a ion, and prayer had been pu oward building he land-based, Indigenounance s ruc ure o he ‘ohana. us we see how ea is dis inc rom Wes erno sovereign y specically because o he con inuous renewal o land-baserela ionships requiring mu ual care.

Expanding upon genealogical rela ionships be ween Kanaka Maoli and land, Peral o’s por rai o Mauna a Wākea (more commonly known as Mauna Kea) gcurren con roversies over cons ruc ion on he highes peak in he Hawaiipelago. Recen s ruggles have been waged over he proposed expansion o Uno Hawai‘i–affilia ed and corpora e- unded as ronomical observa ories, sumassive ir y Me er Telescope complex. Peral o has s ood rmly agains anyindus rial developmen o he mauna (moun ain), ye he ocuses here on shari

ha will ground he reader in he cul ural and his orical signicance o h



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ha people can make in ormed decisions abou whe her or no o be complici wcons ruc ion o more elescopes on his sacred land and wa ershed. His essay dramele a Hawaiian poe ic orm o mapping, s ory elling, and honoring o illus

he long, genealogical rela ionship be ween Hawaiian chie s and specic wahi (s oried places) on his moun ain. Ul ima ely, his por rai reminds us ha ou

are in ac living ances ors.

Te Pho ography of Ed Greevy and he Poli ics of a Non- Indigenous Ally

Ano her persis en ques ion ha his book explores is he rela ionship be wee‘Ōiwi and non-Hawaiians in hese movemen s. People o differen e hnic backgrouhave asked, “Wha should my role be in Hawaiian movemen s? I Hawaiian sovegovernmen became unc ional again, where would I in?” Given his concernhelp ul and necessary o ell a litle o Ed Greevy’s s ory. Ed’s pho ographs are

hroughou his collec ion. A setler and ally o peoples’ movemen s in hese iEd visi ed Hawaiʻi or he rs ime in . He was among he many U.S. ouden s, and setlers who owed in o he islands afer U.S. Presiden Eisenhower declHawaiʻi he fie h s a e in Augus . A young adven urer rom a working-cground in Sou hern Cali ornia, Ed spen mos o he win er and spring o waves on Oʻahu’s shores, and he was hooked. He re urned o nish college in LBeach bu dreamed o re urning o Hawaiʻi o sur and perhaps become a sur prapher. When he gradua ed in he wan ed only wo hings: o buy a high-camera and an airplane icke back o he islands. Wi hin a year or wo, he waspurchase a Nikon hir y-ve millime er camera. Bu he search or work led h

he opposi e direc ion rom Hawai‘i o New York, where his sis er lived. Ed uki chen in o a darkroom and became he edi or and chie pho ographer orCompe i ionSurf magazine, aking advan age o he spread o surng o he nor heas andshores rom Hawai‘i via he U.S. Wes Coas .

By he s, he launch o je ravel had made i signican ly easier and lesive or American ouris s and setlers o ge o Hawaiʻi, and so Ed nally ma way back o he islands in , his ime o s ay. He spen a year and a hal d

reelance pho ography or a Cali ornia-based sur magazine, as well as a ew o hmercial projec s. en one o Ed’s edi ors asked him o nd ou abou an ac iviscalled Save Our Sur ( , which had been making waves even beyond he islandgroup had gained a repu a ion or organizing o pro ec sur reaks rom environmdamage by urban and suburban expansion.

By chance he nex day, while buying lm in a Waikīkī pho ography s ore, Edhand-drawn pos er abou he s a e o Hawaiʻi’s planned Kūhiō Beach wideningec . Save Our Sur was calling people o come ou and oppose he s a e’s plan




hrea ened he area known as Queen’s Sur , Canoes, and Baby Queen’s. Addihe pos er highligh ed he way rapid developmen plans were poised o impa

along he coas : “O surng si es rom Koko Head o Pearl Harbor, ao be des royed under presen S a e plans . . . Speak up now or wipeou ore Ahe botom o he pos er was a name, John Kelly, and a phone number. Ed calleha nigh , and his li e’s course changed. Wi hin he week, Ed was siting a an mee ing a he home o John an

Marion Kelly. A group o sur ers in heir eens and early wen ies was heror a pro es a he s a e capi ol agains he beach widening projec , whic

par icularly impac ed an area known as a sa e raining ground or kids learninEd was aken aback by heir energy and poli ical awareness:

All hese young kids were spending a lo o ime and energy on his par icuprojec , and hen hey were also alking abou o her issues: e Kalihi commni y had no public parks wha soever. . . . ey were alking abou he sewage

ha runs wo miles ou rom Sand Island, concerned abou effluen washion beaches. is group a he Kellys’ house was jus amazing! Abou feen o

wen y kids . . . ull o en husiasm! When heir reasurer read he reasurhey had less han en dollars in heir bank accoun ! I’m hinking, any grou

whose reasury only has en dollars and is planning a big even where hey n

Ed Greevy making an adjus meno a Linho × camera in .

Pho o cour esy o Edward W.Greevy.



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lo o leae s prin ed is no going very ar . . . bu hey didn’ seem worried he money. ey knew how o raise he money hey needed, and hey knew howo organize.

Ed began atending weekly mee ings a he Kaimukī Public Library, hinkihimsel , “I wanna see how ar hese olks can go.” Wi hin a ew mon hs he s aring o documen even s, aking pho ographs so ha organizers could o her responsibili ies.

rough hese early collabora ions wi h and he rela ed land s ruggles,approach o pho ography undamen ally changed. He came o realize how his and he resources o which he had access could be o s ra egic use o people whsaw as simply gh ing o survive and o main ain a good way o li e on heir owIn erms o pho ographic echnologies, he early s was a quali a ively diffe

han he s. Very ew people had access o high-quali y cameras, pho o padarkrooms. e rela ively low-cos Kodak Ins ama ic series, in roduced in made cameras more accessible bu he images were s ill nowhere near he quali

John Kel ly raises a s a an an ievic ions rally a he Hawaiʻi s a e capi ol building on Mar. His organiza ion, Save Our Sur , organized or public beach access rom he Honolulu a

o Por lock and or an end o he dumping o raw sewage in o he ocean off Sand Island, whersur ed and shed. Kōkua Hawaiʻi members s and in he background. eir slogan “Huli!” means over urn.




pro essionally produced prin s. Because Ed had been doing some commercial jocould prin black and whi e pho os o excep ional clari y a various sizes upeigh ee . Such images he kind ha ypically only corpora ions or wealuals could afford could be power ul organizing ools. Ed began o see how hhaole setler, could help grassroo s communi y groups wi h ew nancial resour

he kind o represen a ional power ha only developers and o her weal hy inpreviously enjoyed.

Ed remembers one par icular case when his realiza ion came in o sharp ochad been pu orward o develop a ouris resor a Kaimū Beach on HawaDevelopers had publicly asser ed ha here were no sur spo s a Kaimū, iavoiding widespread opposi ion o he developmen by hose on Oʻahu who w

amiliar wi h he remo e rural area on he archipelago’s eas ernmos island John Kelly and o her members had been o Kaimū and had aken pho beach here. Ed ook John’s nega ives and blew up one o he images. Ed recalnex hearing on Oʻahu, when he developers ried o say here was no sur a

members held up a huge prin o hree young residen s having a grea ola wave here.” From ha ime on, Ed ound much deeper sa is ac ion in communi y groups and amilies seeking o main ain heir own ways o liknew he ever would have ound as a commercial sur pho ographer. Ins ead opho os o “underpaid Hawaiian women dressed in hula cos umes or he our

ry,” he could cap ure he s reng h and digni y o he men, women, and ch were being ous ed rom heir homes by ha very indus ry and he waves o which he oo was a par .

Ed learned rom John and Marion Kelly, among o hers, ha here was a diff

o be haole in Hawai‘i. He began going on volun eer jobs or a hand ul o progreand radical presses on O‘ahu. His goal was o cap ure “ he people’s perspeche people hemselves, in ways hey could use or heir own poli ical s rug

scribing his approach, Ed says ha he “never wen cold in o a communi y.” Ralways accompanied an organizer or residen who already had an es ablished reship o rus wi hin he communi ies where he was invi ed o shoo , and hconnec ed o hese olks hrough he Kellys.

One o Ed’s early assignmen s wi h was o help wi h a neighborhoodKahalu‘u and Waiāhole, rural communi ies in Windward Coas valleys on Oʻahpho os were o be used as par o a communi y-developed repor ha cou

he slick, proposed plans or suburban and commercial developmen ha we ves ors were puting orward. Shor ly hereafer, he pho ographed or a similarcoun ers udy o land use in Niumalu, Kauaʻi. rough such projec s, Ed came Na ive Hawaiian leaders o communi y-based s ruggles, such as S an ord ANiumalu-Nāwiliwili Tenan s Associa ion or Emile Makuakane o he People a



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China own Evic ions. He be riended Kānaka Maoli who s ar ed a he univers branched ou o suppor mul iple an ievic ion and an i-imperialism s ruggleas Pe e ompson, Terri Kekoʻolani, Joy Ahn, Kīhei “Soli” Niheu, and Haunani-KayTrask. Ed also worked wi h non-Hawaiian organizers, some o whom were residen sprac icing subsis ence ways o li e such as George San os in Kalama Valley

o hers who advoca ed a broader agenda o lefis poli ics such as prin er Ray Caand wri er George Cooper. His rela ionship wi h he Kellys was perhaps he moscen ral inuence on his pho ography, and he recalls learning as much rom Marioscholarly in eres s in Indigenous Hawaiian subsis ence radi ions as rom John Kdeep involvemen in on- he-ground organizing.

From hese riendships and he injus ices he wi nessed rs hand, Ed develolas ing commi men o suppor ing Hawaiian people and cul ure. Pho ographing-muni ies in s ruggle, he reec s, “was a way or [him] o learn and develop [hisunders anding.” In cap uring images o people clinging o subsis ence livelihoogh ing or heir ances ral homes, sur breaks, s reams, and arming and shinEd emphasizes ha his pho ographs are no mean o cap ure “a people or waypassing in o oblivion.” Ra her, he hopes his images illus ra e he persis ence oremaining rmly in he presen agains power ul orces o dispossession and erHe also in ends hese images o show ha here are al erna ives o wha he de

he “insane greed and des ruc iveness o capi alism and mains ream Euro- Americancul ure”:

Hawaiian cul ure has a lo o impor an lessons o each he res o he woabou how o ge along wi h na ure so as no o des roy he na ural surrounings or he u ure; how o have a differen ati ude abou land ha is no abmaking i a commodi y, making money by exploi ing i . Ins ead, ake care oi and i will ake care o you. . . . Hawaiians are no he only ones o have hunders anding, bu i is mos ly Indigenous cul ures ha can each ha lessa world ha has been domina ed by Wes ern hinking abou land and riches, ageting ahead wi h no real concern abou wha is being damaged and des royedin he process.

In shor , Ed s ill believes ha “capi alism is he engine ha is des roying hand he believes ha he ances ral wisdom gifed o Kanaka Maoli and o her Indigpeoples may help humankind hink abou how o crea e economic and social sys

ha can carry us all in o he u ure.In keeping wi h his an icapi alis philosophy, Ed has given an ines imable n

o hours o his ime and coun less prin s o his ar reely over he las our de Hehas developed a repu a ion in he Hawaiian communi y or his generosi y. e pgraphs con ained in his book are only a iny rac ion o he ens o housands




in his ull collec ion. is book also bene s rom he generous sharing o impro essional and ama eur pho ographers Franco Salmoiraghi, Kalei NuʻuhiwaS orch, and Michael J. Puleloa. In looking a he writen ex s and he images we hope ha he reader will see and eel some o he ea he li e, he breapenden and in erdependen spiri o Hawaiian movemen s and he people wlived hem.

Conclusion

In he las wo decades here has been a backlash agains Hawaiian movemensetlers have pushed ur her o elimina e Na ive difference hrough he cour bookHaoles in Hawaiʻi , Judy Rohrer describes his urry o lawsui s “atacking

ive programs, en i lemen s, and pre erences wherever hey are ound, inclge ing direc ly, he Depar men o Hawaiian Homelands, and he KamSchools admission policy giving pre erence o Hawaiian s uden s.” In one o he mossignican cases, Harold F. Rice, descendan o a whi e American missionar

amily, challenged he cons i u ionali y o Hawaiian-only vo ing in e plain iff ramed Hawaiians as a racial minori y, ra her han an Indigenou

or a na ional group wi h collec ive righ s, and he argued ha he vo ing were racially discrimina ory under he U.S. Cons i u ion. e U.S. Suprem

ound in Rice’s avor and opened elec ions or rus ees o all Hawaiʻi r

Joy Aulani Ahn, a Kanaka Maoli demili ariza ion and an i-imperialism ac ivis , hands ou iersabou he S ryker Brigade in Waikīkī, March , . A he ime, he U.S. Army had announland grab or raining hese ligh -armored vehicles buil or urban war are. Joy began her ac ivi

when he Kalama Valley s ruggle erup ed in and remained an arden suppor er o revolu imovemen s in Hawaiʻi and beyond hroughou her seven y- our years.



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In he in roduc ion o Asian Setler Colonialism: From Local Governance o he Habiof Everyday Life , Candace Fujikane describes howRice and he cases ha ollowed iopera e according o wha Pa rick Wol e has described as a setler logic o elimi

ha erases Na ive difference, so as o ur her ex end setler access o land, rigpower: “Setler lawsui s claim ha in an American democracy Hawaiians’ indigen

righ s o land and resources jeopardize democra ic ideals. . . . In he mos egregiironies, setlers proclaim ha Na ive Hawaiians are depriving hem o heir civil bu hey do so in order o use he argumen o equal righ s o ake rom Narigh s and resources as indigenous peoples.” For ins ance, wi h heRice decision, hesmall measure o elec oral con rol over resources Kanaka Maoli could collec ivelycise wi hin he setler s a e sys em was immedia ely dissolved. e decision powedemons ra ed he limi s o asser ing ea wi hin setler s a e rameworks.

In ligh o he ailure o he Akaka Bill o make i hrough he U.S. Congrehe Hawai‘i s a e governmen passed in i s own version o a recogni ion Ac

“Firs Na ion Governmen Bill” which se up a process o crea e a roll oNa ive Hawaiians who could hen orm a governing en i y subordina e o heHawaiʻi and U.S. sovereign y. Like i s ederal-level coun erpar , he ac makes provision or he re urn o land nor would i impac he U.S. mili ary’s use o lands.

Moreover, given he s a e o Hawai‘i’s effor s o exer sovereign au hori yPublic Lands Trus , i seems unlikely ha any signican amoun o hose land be rans erred o a new “Firs Na ion governing en i y.” For ins ance, in

our priva e individuals led sui agains he s a e o Hawai‘i, asking or an iagains he s a e’s sale or swap o any lands wi hin he Public Lands Trus u

issues o sovereign y and i le over he Hawaiian na ional lands could be reso e case wen all he way o he U.S. Supreme Cour , which ook on he ques“whe her he Join Resolu ion o Acknowledge he h Anniversary o he

, Over hrow o he Kingdom o Hawaii s rips he S a e o Hawaii o io sell lands ceded o i by he ederal governmen un il i reaches a poli ical s

wi h Na ive Hawaiians abou he s a us o hose lands.” In essence, he Cour ’s de-cision s a ed ha despi e U.S. Public Law - he resolu ion inUni ed S a es apologized o he Hawaiian people and acknowledged ha he Hpeople and governmen never relinquished heir sovereign y or na ional lands Uni ed S a es he Uni ed S a es and s a e o Hawai‘i s ill had sovereign auabsolu e i le o hose s olen lands. Adding insul o injury, when plain iff JKamakawiwo‘ole Osorio, a Hawaiian his orian and con ribu or o his volume, re

o setle he case, he s a e moved o disquali y him on he basis o blood quans a e atorney general’s official posi ion was ha Osorio has no s anding because“less han percen blood quan um” and here ore is no legally na ive Haw




Given hese atemp s o ur her en rench he setler s a e’s claim o and plands in he archipelago, o exclude Kānaka who have asser ed he collec ivrigh s o Hawaiian na ionals o hese ʻāina, and o con ain and co-op movHawaiian sovereign y wi hin a U.S. rame, i seems as impor an as ever o

he legacies o s ruggle ha recen genera ions o Kānaka have under a

land, and sovereign y. In looking o he pas , we in orm he decisions andmen s ha will shape our u ures. e con ribu ors o his volume believe h

or Hawaiian movemen s o ea is as grea as ever.e rajec ory o he Hawaiian movemen , as old by his collec ion, sho

con inues o be necessary o work on mul iple ron s o build highly locali based s ruggles and o ar icula e hese grounded movemen s in a larger ca

ional resources. e moʻolelo also ell us ha poli ical au onomy may be a minimum or he res ora ion o unc ional ea, bu i is also only one piece o As many o he chap ers in his volume sugges , he scope and complexi y orequire ‘Ōiwi and setlers o con inuously and cons ruc ively engage in conveand decision-making processes because he problems canno be solved or swep

he rug even i ull sovereign y, pseudo-sovereign governmen reorganiza ioo her s a e-ini ia ed setlemen is achieved. Like brea hing, he work o ea won and on.

: All glosses and ransla ions included in his collec been generously provided by he au hors o individual essays. Transla ions nev-ple ely convey he richness o cul ural meanings. Addi ionally, he in erpre

o ransla ion has a imes had damaging effec s on Hawaiian communi ies,Na ive communi ies around he world. us, we sugges you ake each gloss anla ion as an oppor uni y o do ur her research or approach o her Hawaiian-specialis s o supplemen he in erpre a ions provided in his book.

Following Hawaiian and Indigenous s udies scholars, we chose no o i ali waiian words because ha marks hem as oreign. In a book by and abou Hpeople, he Hawaiian language is essen ial, and we avoid “o her-ing” he langumay require a bi o ex ra work on he par o hose un amiliar wi h he Hguage. Bu we hope his addi ional effor reminds readers ha he Hawaiiacanno be easily known and unders ood hrough reading alone.

roughou his ex , we use he kahakō (macron) and he ‘okina (glotal s ousing he Hawaiian language, excep when quo ing ex ha was origina wi hou hese markings. Addi ionally, in a ew ins ances, he au hors or phhave specically pre erred no o use hese markings so as o allow or a mreading o he possible meanings deno ed by a word.



In roduc

No es

Epigraph: Lahaina Grown, “ Years,” on Lahaina Grown (musical recording), : – : .. In our usage o Kanaka/Kānaka, “Kānaka” is a coun able plural orm. I is no used or an

ni e plural, bu ra her when he ac ual number can be es ima ed. “Kanaka,” he singular-genere ers o an individual person or o he whole class o people. I is also he orm ha is used

word is employed as an adjec ive, such as “Kanaka scholars.” Our usage in his ex is guided waiian language exper s Noʻeau Warner and Noenoe K. Silva, bu he edi ors ake ull respon

or any mis akes.. Some impor an ex s on la e wen ie h-cen ury Hawaiian sovereign y movemen s by

hors include Sai, “American Occupa ion o he Hawaiian S a e”; Sai, “Slippery Pa h owards HIndigenei y”; Beamer, “Na Wai Ka Mana?”

. Tengan, Na ive Men Remade; Kauanui,Hawaiian Blood.

. Al red, Peace, Power, Righ eousness , xvii.

. For ur her reading in Hawaiian and Indigenous s udies on he rela ionships be ween ppower, and Indigenous concep ions o sovereign y, see Basso,Wisdom Si s in Places; Deloria,Te WorldWe Used o Live In; Barker,Sovereign y Maters; Andrade,Hāʻena; Beamer and Duar e, “I Palapala No

Ia Aina”; Basham, “Ka Lāhui Hawaiʻi”; Kikiloi, “Rebir h o an Archipelago”; Bacchilega, LegendaryHawai’i and he Poli ics of Place; More on-Robinson, “I S il l Call Aus ralia Home”; More on-Robinson,Sovereign Subjec s; Somerville,Once Were Pacic.

. Basham, “Ka Lāhui Hawaiʻi,” .

. Basham, “Ka Lāhui Hawaiʻi,” , emphasis added.

. e Wes phalian sys em o s a es is ofen raced o , when he major European poweime signed a rea y called he Peace o Wes phalia. e na ion-s a e emerged as he primary

ins i u ion or nego ia ing in erna ional rela ions, wi h he idea ha one s a e would noano her’s in ernal affairs and ha he in eres s o he s a e supersede he in eres s o aci izen or group wi hin ha s a e. e no ion o Wes phalian sovereign y is marked by ho exclusive, erri orial in egri y, he cen rali y o he s a e orm, and he principle harecognize one ano her’s au onomy.

. is ransla ion disrup s he more popularly known version, adop ed as he s a e governmoto in : “ e li e o he land is perpe ua ed in righ eousness.” a ransla ion emp ieshis orical con ex o Hawaiian Kingdom sovereign y and he longer lineage o ʻŌiwi au on

hese islands.. Basham, “Ka Lāhui Hawaiʻi,” .. e Hawaiian Kingdom en ered in o in erna ional rea ies wi h coun ries such as Belgiu

mark, Russia, Samoa, and Spain, as well as he Uni ed S a es, France, and he Uni ed Kingdomuller lis ing and discussion, see Sai, “American Occupa ion o he Hawaiian S a e.”

. D. K. Kahalemaile’s speech was prin ed in Ka Nupepa Kuokoa , Augus , , , and is quo edin Basham, “Ka Lāhui Hawaiʻi,” .

. Kahalemauna, “Mau Hawaii i ka lanakila,” in Buke Mele Lahui , ed. F. J. Tes a ( ), ; quo edin Basham, “Mele Lāhui,” .

. While we migh ransla e he lyrics differen ly, we include here he ransla ion as i appsources: a Huapala, an online Hawaiian music and hula archive compiled by Kaiulani Kanoa Marhtp://www.huapala.org/E/E_Mau.h ml (accessed June , ), and in Morales,Hoʻihoʻi Hou.

. Morales,Hoʻihoʻi Hou.

. Morales,Hoʻihoʻi Hou , .




. See, or example, Wal er Rite’s descrip ion o he mo iva ions behind he sKaho‘olawe in “ e Essence Was Aloha ‘Aina” (video), Mo‘olelo Aloha ‘Āina, November htp://moolelo.manain o.com/ / / he-essence-was-aloha-aina/. In his in erview he s

he essence o he whole movemen was love or he land, aloha ‘āina.. Cooper and Daws, Land and Power in Hawaii.. Trask, “ e Bir h o he Modern Hawaiian Movemen ”; Niheu, “Huli”; Kido, “Becomin. Trask, “Bir h o he Modern Hawaiian Movemen ,” – .. Niheu, “Huli,” .. For examples o o her Indigenous social movemen s ha have challenged Wes ern lib

ogies and setler colonial s a es, see Smi h and Warrior, Like a Hurricane; Swain,Oka; Al red, Peace, Power, Righ eousness; Al red,Wasáse; More on-Robinson,Sovereign Subjec s; Harris,Hikoi; Allen, Blood Narra ive; Walker, Ka Whawhai onu Ma ou; Marcos,Our Word Is Our Weapon; Marcos,Ya Bas a!

. Loreta Rite, in erview by he au hor, June . Video clips o his and o her oral hi views wi h early Kaho o̒lawe ac ivis s can be ound a he Moʻolelo Aloha ʻĀina projec wemoolelo.manain o.com/.

. Van Dyke,Who Owns he Crown Lands of Hawaiʻi?

. Kauanui provides a de ailed his orical analysis o his rac ionalizing percen bhe Hawaiian Homes Commission Ac . rough a de ailed analysis o he congressiona which various versions o his measure were deba ed, she argues ha he colonial projeizing Hawaiians in he name o “rehabili a ion” marginalized Kanaka Maoli en i lemen s sovereign y. Kauanui,Hawaiian Blood.

. ese lands are requen ly re erred o as he “ceded lands,” a moniker which many Kanoppose since he lands were illegally aken rom, no given or legally rans erred by, hKingdom.

. For many years, he s a e o Hawai‘i did no ollow i s own law and ailed o conpercen in public land rus revenues o . In , he s a e nego ia ed a proposal due revenues hrough a package o cash and land, valued in o al a approxima ely m

deal was comple ed in April , when Governor Neil Abercrombie approved he conveyanparcels in Kaka‘ako (jus ou side down own Honolulu) o .. Trask,From a Na ive Daugh er .. Nā Maka o ka ʻĀina,Hui Naʻauao; Vance,Hui Naʻauao; Hawaii Sovereign y Advisory Council,

Preliminary Repor of he Sovereign y Advisory Council.. Nā Maka o ka ʻĀina,Hui Naʻauao; Nā Maka o ka ʻĀina,Te ribunal; Nā Maka o ka ʻĀina, Ac

of War ; Osorio, Dismembering Lāhui; Trask,From a Na ive Daugh er ; Kame e̒leihiwa, Na ive Land andForeign Desires; Silva, Aloha Be rayed; Young,Re hinking he Na ive Hawaiian Pas ; Dudley and Agard, A Call for Hawaiian Sovereign y; American Friends Service Commitee,He Alo ā He Alo.

. Nā Maka o ka ʻĀina, Ac of War .

. Trask,From a Na ive Daugh er .

. Nā Maka o ka ʻĀina,Te ribunal.

. is quo e comes rom Kaulia’s speech in a he ̒ Iolani Palace. See Silva, Aloha Be rayed , .

. Sai, “American Occupa ion o he Hawaiian Kingdom”; Vogeler, “ ‘For Your Freedom an

. See Sai, “American Occupa ion o he Hawaiian S a e”; Sai, “Slippery Pa h owarIndigenei y”; Beamer, “Na Wai Ka Mana?”

. A digi al copy o his ier, as well as numerous o her pos ers, pamphle s, and o her ing ma erials, can be ound a he digi al archive: htp://digicoll.manoa.hawaii.edu/sos/



In roduc

. Ed Greevy, in erview by Noelani Goodyear-Kaʻōpua, Mānoa, Oʻahu, April , .

. Judy Rohrer has aken up his ques ion ex ensively in her bookHaoles in Hawaiʻi. She arguesor a vigorous unders anding o Hawaiian his ory so as o “begin o imagine how we migh b

haole in differen , and hope ully beter, ways. We have o know where we have been o know w we are going” ( ).

. George Cooper is par icularly well known or his book Land and Power in Hawaii: Te Democra ic

Years , coau hored wi h Gavan Daws. e book exposed he ways “ he Democra ic Revolu ion” in Hawai‘i did no lead o he kind o redis ribu ion o land and weal h or which many

o ha movemen had hoped. Ra her, here was a rans er o power and weal h rom a predo whi e, Republican oligarchy during he erri orial era o a new Democra ic poli ical es ablishm book documen s he ways public officials used heir offices o reap personal nancial bene .

. Ed dona ed a large number o his pho os o an open-source Hawaiian resource websi e, Uis collec ion can be accessed a Ed Greevy’s Pho ograph Collec ion, Ulukau: e Hawaiian Elronic Library, htp://ulukau.org/apo/cgi-bin/edgreevy.

. Rohrer,Haoles in Hawaiʻi , .

. Par icipa ion in elec ions had previously been res ric ed o anyone who could raances ry o he Indigenous people who resided in Hawaiʻi prior o , he rs recorded

European arrival in he islands..Rice v. Caye ano( - ) ( F d , reversed). Kauanui poin s ou ha “Hawaiians wa raugh posi ion, wi h no direc voice in he case, even hough i was cen ral o Hawaiian See Kauanui, “Precarious Posi ions,” .

. Fujikane, “In roduc ion,” .

. For ex o he bill and i s legisla ive his ory, see he session archive a Hawaiila ure, htp://www.capi ol.hawaii.gov/.

. Ini ially, when he s a e had proposed a land swap o he Leiali‘i rac on Maui Islaasked ha a disclaimer ha would preserve any Na ive Hawaiian claims o his land be in

is reques was made on he basis ha he rac is par o he Crown lands o he Hawaiianand he poli ical and legal ques ions over he cession o hese lands o he Uni ed S a es r

ques ion. us and he o her par ies sough o preserve Na ive Hawaiian in eres s in heun il nal de ermina ion o he larger issue o sovereign y and he s a us o he Hawaiian na ional lands.

.S a e of Hawaii v. , e al., no. - . Argued February , . Decided March ,

A Nation Rising edited by Noelani Goodyear-Kaʻōpua, Ikaika Hussey, and Erin Kahunawaika’ala...

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