A LIMNOLOGICAL STUDY OF TEMENGOR

RESERVOIR WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO

THE APHOTIC ZONE

NOR AISYAH BINTI OMAR

UNIVERSITI SAINS MALAYSIA

2015

A LIMNOLOGICAL STUDY OF TEMENGOR

RESERVOIR WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO

THE APHOTIC ZONE

by

NOR AISYAH BINTI OMAR

Thesis submitted in fulfillment of the

requirements for the degree of

Master of Science

OCTOBER 2015

ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

In the name of Allah, the Most Beneficent, the Most Merciful.

As I compose this, I am truly indebted to several people that help me

throughout the publication of this thesis. Millions of thanks to the Malaysian

Meteorogical Department for Department of Survey and Mapping Malaysia for

permission to obtain data collection and to collaborate their research in Temengor

Reservoir, Perak. It is an honourable experience to have worked with these two

organizations that are prominent in the conservation of biodiversity of Temengor

Reservoir. Special thanks to Pulau Banding foundation for funding this study.

I would like to extend my gratitude to my main supervisor, Professor

Mashhor Mansor for his tremendous support and guidance throughout the whole

project. I would also like to thank my co-supervisor, Associate Professor Dr Wan

Maznah Wan Omar, for her advice and guidance. Thank you Muzzalifah Abd

Hamid, Mohd Syaiful and Mr Rashid Othman from School of Biological Sciences

for their help and support.

This research is financially supported by Universiti Sains Malaysia through

an external grant entitled “A Limnological Study with Special Reference to Dark

Zone” 304/PBIOLOGI/650649/P134. The thesis was improved by suggestions and

comments from anonymous reviewers.

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS iii

LIST OF TABLES vi

LIST OF FIGURES vii

LIST OF PLATES xi

LIST OF UNITS AND ABBREVIATIONS xii

ABSTRAK xiii

ABSTRACT xv

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 General introduction 1

1.2 The scope of the study 5

1.3 The importance of the study 5

1.4 Research objectives 6

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Reservoir characteristics 7

2.2 Reservoir zonation 9

2.2.1 Lentic physical structure 14

2.3 Nutrient dynamics 19

2.3.1 Phosphorus 20

2.3.2 Nitrogen 21

2.3.3 Chlorophyll a 22

2.4 Lake trophic state 22

2.5 Bathymetric study 23

iv

CHAPTER 3: MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Study site 24

3.2 Sampling design 25

3.3 Field analysis 28

3.4 Laboratory analysis 30

3.5 Bathymetric study 31

3.6 Descriptive statistic, one-way anova and post-hoc analysis 32

CHAPTER 4: RESULTS

4.1 Rainfall (mm) and water level (m) 34

4.2 Water transparency (m) 36

4.3 Temperature (ºC) 38

4.4 Dissolved oxygen (mg/L) 42

4.5 pH 46

4.6 Conductivity (mS/cm) 50

4.7 Total dissolved solids (g/L) 54

4.8 Orthophosphate, PO4-P (mg/L) 58

4.9 Nitrate-nitrogen, NO3-N (mg/L) 61

4.10 Nitrite-nitrogen, NO2-N (mg/L) 64

4.11 Chlorophyll a (mg/L) 67

4.12 Correlations between the measured parameters 71

4.13 Bathymetric study 74

CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION

5.1 Rainfall (mm) and water level (m) 78

5.2 Water transparency (m) 78

5.3 Temperature (ºC) 79

5.4 Dissolved oxygen (mg/L) 81

5.5 pH 83

5.6 Conductivity (mS/cm) 84

v

5.7 Total dissolved solids (g/L) 86

5.8 Orthophosphate, PO4-P (mg/L) 87

5.9 Nitrate-nitrogen, NO3-N and Nitrite-nitrogen, NO2-N (mg/L) 89

5.10 Chlorophyll a (mg/L) 90

5.11 Bathymetric study 91

CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 94

REFERENCES 95

APPENDICES 111

LIST OF PUBLICATION 116

vi

LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1 GPS coordinates for five sampling stations of the study site

26

Table 4.1 The mean Secchi disc reading (m) and ± s.d. at all sampling stations

37

Table 4.2 The mean of all measured parameters during dry and wet season

70

Table 4.3

Pearson’s correlation coefficients between all measured water quality

parameters at surface during the study period

73

vii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1 Definite zones which are determined by the distance from shore

gradients and depth in reservoir (Sigee, 2005).

10

Figure 2.2 Longitudinal cross section view showing three distinct zones

defined by the slope of a dam (Thornton et al., 1990).

12

Figure 2.3 The thermal stratification of a tropical reservoir (Payne, 1986)

.

15

Figure 3.1 Location of five sampling stations in (Station 1 – Station 5)

Temengor Reservoir

26

Figure 3.2 The mean of rainfall received every month (mm) from 2000

until 2012 in Temengor Reservoir (MET Malaysia)

29

Figure 4.1 The monthly rainfall (mm) and water level (m) at Temengor

Reservoir during the study period (MET Malaysia, 2012)

35

Figure 4.2

The monthly Secchi depth (m) at all sampling stations during

the study period (November 2011-June 2012).

37

Figure 4.3 The vertical profile of mean (±st.d) temperature (ºC) at all

sampling stations during the study period

39

Figure 4.4

The vertical profiles for monthly temperature (ºC) measured

from surface to 30 m at all sampling stations

40

Figure 4.5

The pattern of monthly water temperature (ºC) distribution in

Temengor Reservoir

41

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Figure 4.6

The vertical profile of mean (±s.d) dissolved oxygen (mg/L) at

all sampling stations during the study period

43

Figure 4.7 The vertical profiles for monthly dissolved oxygen (mg/L)

measured from surface to 30 m at all sampling stations.

44

Figure 4.8 The pattern of monthly dissolved oxygen (mg/L) distribution in

Temengor Reservoir.

45

Figure 4.9 The vertical profile of mean (±s.d) pH at all sampling stations

during the study period.

47

Figure 4.10 The vertical profiles for monthly pH measured from surface to

30 m at all sampling stations.

48

Figure 4.11 The pattern of monthly pH distribution in Temengor Reservoir.

49

Figure 4.12 The vertical profile of mean (±s.d) conductivity (mS/cm) at all

sampling stations during the study period.

51

Figure 4.13 The vertical profiles for conductivity (mS/cm) measured from

surface to 30 m at all sampling stations.

52

Figure 4.14 The pattern of monthly conductivity (mS/cm) distribution in

Temengor Reservoir.

53

Figure 4.15 The vertical profile of mean (±s.d) total dissolved solids (g/L) at

all sampling stations during the study period.

55

Figure 4.16 The vertical profiles for monthly total dissolved solids (g/L)

measured from surface to 30 m at all sampling stations.

56

ix

Figure 4.17 The pattern of monthly total dissolved solids (g/L) distribution

in Temengor Reservoir.

57

Figure 4.18 The mean (±s.d) concentration of orthophosphate, PO4-P

(mg/L) at six different sampling depths at all sampling stations.

59

Figure 4.19 The vertical profile of mean (±s.d) orthophosphate,PO4-P

(mg/L) at all sampling stations during the study period.

59

Figure 4.20 The pattern of monthly orthophosphate (mg/L) distribution in

Temengor Reservoir.

60

Figure 4.21 The mean (±s.d) concentration of nitrate-nitrogen, NO3-N

(mg/L) at six different sampling depths at all sampling stations.

62

Figure 4.22

The vertical profile of mean (±s.d) nitrate-nitrogen,NO3-N

(mg/L) at all sampling stations during the study period.

62

Figure 4.23 The pattern of monthly nitrate-nitrogen (mg/L) distribution in

Temengor Reservoir.

63

Figure 4.24

The mean concentration (±s.d) of nitrite-nitroge, NO2-N (mg/L)

at six different sampling depths at all sampling stations.

65

Figure 4.25 The vertical profile of mean (±s.d) nitrite-nitrogen,NO2-N

(mg/L) at all sampling stations during the study period.

65

Figure 4.26 The pattern of monthly nitrite-nitrogen (mg/L) distribution in

Temengor Reservoir.

66

Figure 4.27 The mean (±s.d) concentration of chlorophyll a (mg/L) at six

different sampling depths at all sampling stations.

68

x

Figure 4.28 The vertical profile of mean (±s.d) chlorophyll a (mg/L) at all

sampling stations during the study period.

68

Figure 4.29 The pattern of monthly chlorophyll a (mg/L) distribution in

Temengor Reservoir.

69

Figure 4.30 Contour maps of the benthic elevation in Station 1, Station 2,

Station 3, Station 4 and Station 5.

75

Figure 4.31 Three-dimensional data of the topography in all sampling

stations

77

xi

LIST OF PLATES

Plate 3.1

All five sampling stations studied in Temengor Reservoir. 27

xii

LIST OF UNITS AND ABBREVIATION

Cº = Celcius

g/L = gram per litre

ha = hectare

Hz = Hertz

km/hour = kilometre per hour

L = litre

m = metre

m2= metre squared

m3= metre cubic

mg/L = milligram per litre

mm = millimetre

mS/cm = milliSiemens

OD = optical density

s.d = standard deviation

xiii

KAJIAN LIMNOLOGI DI TASIK TEMENGOR DENGAN RUJUKAN KHAS

KEPADA ZON AFOTIK

ABSTRAK

Kajian bulanan terhadap kesan perubahan musim dan kedalaman ke atas

proses fizikal dan kimia air tasik di Tasik Temengor telah dijalankan dari bulan

November 2011 sehingga Jun 2012 untuk meliputi musim kering (Disember 2011,

Januari 2012, Febuari 2012 dan Jun 2012) dan musim panas (November 2011, Mac

2011, April 2012 dan Mei 2012) berdasarkan data taburan bulanan hujan. Dalam

kajian ini, parameter fizikal telah diukur secara in-situ manakala parameter kimia,

sampel air diambil dari kedalaman yang berbeza (permukaan air, kedalaman Secchi,

5 m, 10 m, 15 m dan 20 m) di lima stesen kajian. Berdasarkan keputusan yang

diperolehi, purata kedalaman Secchi berjulat 2.01 m sehingga 2.31 m. Dalam kajian

ini, parameter fizikal seperti suhu air berjulat 29.8ºC sehingga 30.0ºC,

kandunganoksigenterlarutberjulat 6.8 sehingga 7.6 mg/L dan pH berjulat 7.82

sehingga 8.76. Secara kasarnya, bacaan untukketiga-tiga parameter ini adalah tinggi

di permukaan air tetapi berkurangan secara beransur-ansur dengan kedalaman.

Manakala, konduktiviti berjulat 0.033 sehingga 0.039 mS/cm, paras

pepejalterlarutberjulat 0.019 sehingga 0.023 mg/L, kandungan ortofosfatberjulat

0.022 sehingga 0.059 mg/L, nitrat-nitrogen berjulat 0.015 sehingga 0.028 mg/L,

nitrit-nitrogen berjulat 0.0006 sehingga 0.0016 mg/L dan klorofil a berjulat 1.55

sehingga 3.52 mg/L. Keenam-enam parameter ini adalah rendah di permukaan air

dan semakin meningkat apabila kedalaman air bertambah. Parameter fizikal yang

diukur kecuali suhu (ºC) adalah lebih rendah semasa musim hujan manakala

parameter kimia yang diukur adalah lebih tinggi semasa musim kering kecuali

xiv

kepekatan nitrat-nitrogen. Kajian batimetrik dijalankan untuk memetakan kedalaman

dasar lima stesen kajian di TasikTemengor. Kedalaman maksima yang direkod

adalah di Stesen 3 dan Stesen 4 sedalam 80 meter. Berdasarkan keputusan parameter

fizikal dan kimia yang diukur dalam kajian ini, Tasik Temengor boleh

diklasifikasikan sebagai tasik mesotrofik. Asas ekologi yang kukuh dapat

memastikan Tasik Temengor beroperasi secara optimum. Penambaikan kajian yang

lebih mendalam tentang proses eko-hidrologi di TasikTemengor dapat dijadikan

sebagai asas untuk merangka program pengurusan, pemulihan dan konservasi yang

lebih baik.

xv

A LIMNOLOGICAL STUDY OF TEMENGOR RESERVOIR WITH

SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE APHOTIC ZONE

ABSTRACT

A monthly study was conducted to analyze the influence of seasonal change

and water depths on physical and chemical processes in the water column of

Temengor Reservoir from November 2011 until June 2012 to cover the dry

(December 2011, January 2012, February 2012 and June 2012) and wet season

(November 2011, March 2012, April 2012, and May 2012) based on the monthly

rainfall distribution obtained. In this study, the physical parameters were taken in-situ

whereas for chemical analysis, water samples from different depths (surface water,

Secchi depth, 5 m, 10 m, 15 m and 20 m) of five sampling stations were collected.

Based on the results, mean of Secchi depth ranged from 2.01 m to 2.31 m. For

physical parameters such as water temperature, it ranged from 29.8 to 30.0ºC,

dissolved oxygen ranged from 6.8 to 7.6 mg/L and pH ranged from 7.82 to 8.76.

Roughly, the values for these three parameters were high at surface water but

decreased gradually with depths. On the other hand, conductivity ranged from 0.033

to 0.039 mS/cm, total dissolved solids level ranged from 0.019 to 0.023 mg/L,

concentrations of orthophosphate ranged from 0.022 to 0.059 mg/L, nitrate-nitrogen

ranged from 0.015 to 0.028 mg/L, nitrite-nitrogen ranged from 0.0006 to 0.0016

mg/L and chlorophyll a ranged from 1.55 to 3.52 mg/L. These parameters were low

at surface and increased with deeper water depths. The measured physical parameters

except temperature (ºC) were slightly lower during wet season whereas the measured

chemical parameters except nitrate-nitrogen were slightly higher during the dry

season. Bathymetry study was conducted to map the benthic elevation of five

xvi

sampling stations in Temengor Reservoir. The maximum depth recorded was at

Station 3 and Station 4 with 80 metres. Based on the findings of measured physical

and chemical parameters from this study, Temengor Reservoir can be classified as a

mesotrophic lake. A solid ecological foundation can achieve the utmost operation of

Temengor Reservoir. Improvement of in-depth research works studying the eco-

hydrological process of Temengor Reservoir would provide a basic tool necessary to

frame a better management, restoration and conservation programme.

1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 General introduction

Limnology refers to the study of inland aquatic systems involving freshwater

ecosystems which include reservoirs, rivers, streams, ponds and wetlands. Basic

ecological study covers the physical, chemical, biological and geological

characteristics of an ecosystem. Comprehension on the complex reactions between

these basic attributes of inland waters is vital as they can be viewed as important

factors that will manage an ecosystem by providing and maintaining the available

conditions (Wetzel, 2001). In order to maintain the sustainability of a reservoir, basic

ecological information is necessary. Data regarding water quality and nutrient levels

are essential to develop a wise management plan.

A new aquatic ecosystem is developed due to the technology of dam

construction. Generally, when a dam is constructed, changes will occur resulting in

transformation of a free-flowing river ecosystem to a reservoir habitat (Wetzel, 1983;

Haas et al., 2010). Besides, it also causes the terrestrial habitat to turn into aquatic

and lotic habitat turns into lentic with significant hydrological changes such as water

flow, water volume and depth. Thus, the biodiversity of an aquatic system may be

altered due to changes in physical forces (Bunn and Arthington, 2002). Construction

of a dam also influences the local people who live surrounding the area especially in

terms of its social economic. It has numerous socio-economic benefits and in many

places, it has undoubtedly contributed to economic development.

In a tropical reservoir, water column is usually divided into two major zones

known as photic and aphotic (dark) zone. Photic zone is the layers that receive

2

enough light penetration to perform photosynthetic activity whereas aphotic zone is

the lower layers of water column that receive no light penetration (Lokman, 1992).

Therefore, planktonic microalgae from nutrient-rich deep water may be separated

due to stratification. Consequently, their ability to harvest light photosynthetically is

impaired.

Geographical location plays a major role in determining the limnological

character of lakes and reservoirs and it has been long recognized and well-

documented (Horne and Goldman, 1994; Jorgensen, 2005; Tranvik et al., 2009).

Generally, climate is divided into two main regions which are temperate and tropical

areas. Climatic conditions play major role in regulating the physical characteristics of

lakes in terms of light duration and intensity, wind activity and atmospheric

temperature (Sigee, 2005). A tropical lake shows several similar characteristics to

temperate lakes in summer. In tropical areas, seasonal climatic changes are reduced

and show seasonality in terms of rainfall (Jorgensen et al., 2005).

Geographically, Malaysia is located near the equator, 5º on the north side.

The average wind speed ranges from a high 8 m/s during Monsoon and a low 3 m/s

in between the Monsoon (Nor et al., 2014). Due to its geographical location,

Malaysia receives abundant of sunlight every year. Monsoon dominates the climate

of this country, also known as tropical wet and dry season marks the seasonal

differences. There are two main seasons in Malaysia which is wet and dry season

(Abd Hamid, 2012).

A shift in species abundance and composition of the flora and fauna is an

inevitable effect due to the impoundment of a water body (Agostinho et al., 1999).

The ecological characteristic of the reservoir is significantly influenced by the

3

sediment transport and deposition (Thornton et al., 1990). Sedimentation is enhanced

due to formation of a reservoir which will reduce the flow velocity (McCartney,

2009). According to Kimmel and Groeger (1986), unique characteristics of a dam

such as the ratio of the catchment area to surface area, nutrient loadings and high

sedimentation rate will cause the dam to experience degradation much faster than

natural lakes. This situation negatively affects the water body and its relationship

with other ecosystem.

Bathymetric study is vital to obtain better understanding on the impacts of

land processes on the hydrology of lakes. It is an integral part in ecohydrological

knowledge of surveying and charting bodies of water. Accelerated eutrophication

and sedimentation of inland water is now greatly discussed all over the world

(Setiawan, 2012). Application of remote sensing technique can provide spatial

distribution of water quality distribution

Vertical profiling studies could provide a sturdy tool in order to obtain a

better understanding of limnology and hydrogeochemical processes (Dodson, 2005).

One of the significantly important gradients for biological and chemical processes is

oxidation and reduction (Agostinho et al., 1999). A process which involves organic

materials breaking down in waterways, increase in water temperatures or night-time

respiration by dense algal blooms in nutrient-rich waters will eventually lead to

oxygen depletion ( ller et al., 2012).

Limnological study of the lentic systems in Malaysia had been carried out for

more than forty years (Ho, 1994). Inland water in Malaysia is governed by various

sectors (Sharip and Zakaria, 2008). Clean water is made sure to be provided as local

supply. Therefore, few agencies were established in the efforts to manage water

4

withdrawals. The enforcement of laws such as Environmental Quality Act 1974

(EQA), Environmental Quality (Prescribed Activities) (Environmental Impact

Assessment) Order 1987, Fisheries Act 1985 (Fisheries Maritime Regulations 1967;

Amended 1987 and Fisheries: Marine Culture System Regulation) and National

Forestry Act 1984 were implemented (Sharip and Zakaria, 2008).

There are many studies conducted by Malaysian scientist with interest to

conserving and sustaining the diversity of Malaysia freshwater habitats. Information

obtained from these research works is very important in determining the status and

quality of freshwater system (Chong et al., 2010; Lim et al., 2011; Shah et al., 2012;

Székely, 2012; Karim and Mansor, 2013; Bhuiyan et al., 2014; Wan Maznah and

Makhlough, 2014; Zakeyuddin et al., 2014).

Reservoirs in Malaysia were mainly built to meet the high demand of clean

water supply for domestic needs, irrigation and especially generation of hydroelectric

power (Ali, 1997; Ismail and Najib, 2011; Kamaruddin et al., 2011; Pillay and

Zullyadini, 2014). Lake Bera and Lake Chini located in Pahang are the only natural

lake in Malaysia, with Lake Bera studied intensively under the International

Biological Programme/Productivity of Freshwater Communities (IPB/PF) Program

(Sharip and Zakaria, 2008). Kenyir Lake is the largest man-made lake in Malaysia

with surface area of 37, 000 ha (Ho, 1994).

A number of studies in Temengor Reservoir were recorded over the recent

years. Most of the earliest researches were focused on aquatic pollution and water

quality, biodiversity of the reservoir as well as water resource development and

management (Ali, 1996; Grinang, 1998; Akhir, 1999). However, a number of studies

conducted mainly focused on the photic zone of the water body. One of the early

5

attempts of limnological study in Temengor Reservoir was done by Grinang (1998).

His work provided useful information on the use of aquatic insect as water quality

indicator at the catchment area in Temengor Reservoir.

1.2 The scope of the study

This study covered two parts; water quality and bathymetry at five sampling

stations. For water quality chapter, physical and chemical parameters at photic and

aphotic zone were measured. Bathymetric mapping of five stations was conducted to

determine the current maximum depths as comparison to previous study.

1.3 The importance of the study

Various works on the health quality of freshwater system were reported over

the recent years (Othman, 2009; Hashim et al., 2012; Karim and Mansor, 2013; Che

Salmah et al., 2014). With this in consideration, this study was conducted to

investigate the water quality status of Temengor Reservoir for better management

and monitoring plans. Information on the topography of Temengor Reservoir is

important in order to understand hydrological processes effects on biological and

chemical interactions. Therefore, benthic elevation of selected areas in this reservoir

could be provided as supportive baseline data for future studies related to bathymetry

and sedimentation. Knowing the current status of Temengor Reservoir especially the

lake floor will hence initiate a better and effective management plan to be designed

in order to govern its sustainability.

6

1.4 Objectives

This limnological study of Temengor Reservoir was conducted to obtain the

current status of the physico-chemical parameters of water column especially in the

aphotic zone and to gain new information such as the benthic elevation of the lake

floor.

Hence, the objectives of this study are as follows:

a) To determine the physical and chemical parameters at five sampling stations.

b) To identify the seasonal changes in physical and chemical parameters at five

sampling stations.

c) To map the bathymetry of five sampling stations.

7

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Reservoir characteristics

Reservoir is man-made water body which is formed by the construction of a

dam across a river or stream, resulting in the impoundment of the water behind the

dam structure whereas lakes occurred naturally which was over geologic time.

(Wetzel, 2001). Nevertheless, both lakes and reservoirs experience processes such as

exchange of gas across the air-water interface, predator-prey interaction, primary

production and internal mixing (Thornton et al., 1990).

Reservoirs range in size from pond-like to large lakes, and share some

characteristics with natural lakes. Generally, all reservoirs are governed for water

quality requirements concerning to a variety of human uses. A thorough

understanding of the physical, chemical and biological interactions acting within the

system is essential for a detailed analysis (Kopp et al., 2009).

Determination of lake and reservoir’s shape and structure is based on how

they are formed. Both systems undergo distinct physical, biological and chemical

process in terms of the interactions of the biotic and abiotic components. In contrast

to natural lakes, reservoirs and the dams that impound them are engineered system

operated to meet specific needs (Van Looy et al., 2014).

In order to meet specific uses, an engineered system of reservoirs and

impounding dam is designed. As a reliable water supply, reservoir is important in

providing water to meet a spectrum of economic, social and environmental needs

(Kennedy and Walker, 1990). Reservoirs which play important role in the economy

8

of many nations require great management and protection plan as they are prone to

the impacts of loadings of silt, nutrients and organic matter (Cooke et al., 2005).

With today’s advanced and improved technology, reservoirs are built for

different purposes such as generating hydroelectric power, irrigation and as part of

transportation to name a few (Mekonnen and Hoekstra, 2010; Raje and Mujumdar,

2010; Rangel et al., 2012). According to Sharip and Zakaria (2008), in addition to

functioning as storage basins for domestic and industrial water supply, some

reservoirs were constructed to control flood by acting as a buffer to regulate different

flow during dry and wet season. Besides that, lakes and reservoirs also uphold

important ecosystem that harbours biodiversity of rare, endemic and endangered

species.

Connections between the requirement to construct a reservoir at a location

and the manner in which they are effectively operated provide insight to their

limnological character. Understanding these connections provides an improved

knowledge of reservoir limnology and proposes the means to develop and implement

efficient management strategies (Kennedy, 1999). Limnological approach to study

the characteristics of a reservoir is usually similar to analysis conducted for natural

lakes (Thornton, 1990).

According to Jorgensen et al. (2005), a reservoir is generally similar and as

important as natural lake. Findings obtained from studies on reservoir would usually

be explained in such of a lake manner. Structures and functions of a lentic ecosystem

are greatly discussed in various studies such as Limnology (Wetzel, 1983),

Restoration and Management of Lakes and Reservoirs (Cooke et al., 2005), Lake and

Reservoir Management (Jorgensen et al., 2005) and Lake Ecosystem Ecology

9

(Likens, 2010). Internal process such as water mixing, change of gas at the surface

and exchange of heat through the trophic level occurred in both lake and reservoir

ecosystem were discussed in these writings.

2.2 Reservoir zonation

Lake and river ecosystem is generally differentiated by its habitat based on

the movement of water flow (Goldman and Horne, 1983). Lake ecosystem is lentic

where there is relatively no water flow or stagnant and the physical, chemical and

biological characteristics are low in variation. On the other hand, for river ecosystem,

these characteristics will fluctuate due to the movement of water or also known as

lotic habitat (Sigee, 2005). Identification of reservoir zonation is of great practical

importance to design an efficient plan for reservoir managing and utilization.

Different zone shows different sensitivity to eutrophication. Accordingly, a specific

methodology and standards for nutrient assessment should be constructed for each

zone respectively (Shao et al., 2010).

Lake is divided vertically into three major zones depending upon the amount

of light penetrating through; littoral zone, limnetic zone and aphotic or profundal

zone (Figure 2.1). The littoral zone refers to the area closest to the shore. Shallow

water in littoral zone allows light penetration to the sediments. Therefore, this area is

characterized by the presence of beds of submerged and emergent macrophytes

vegetation that are able to survive strong wave action. In addition, littoral zone has a

rich microbial community and high biological diversity with large numbers of

aquatic organisms (Sigee, 2005; Sorf and Devetter, 2011).

10

Figure 2.1 Definite zones which are determined by the distance from shore gradients

and depth in reservoir (Sigee, 2005).

11

Limnetic zone is the area that has limited light penetration and receives no

influence from the shore. Free-floating organisms such as plankton dominated this

zone where it comprises of a vertical water column with an air-water interface at the

top and lake sediments at the bottom. The water column is closely related to the

sediment in terms of nutrient cycling and interchange of aquatic populations. The

primary producer in this ecosystem is planktonic algae (Sigee, 2005). As one

descends deeper in the limnetic zone, the amount of light penetration decreases until

a depth is reached where photosynthetic gain is equal to respiratory loss, also known

as light compensation level. Bacteria are particularly important in sediments that

receive no light (aphotic zone) and no oxygen (anoxic) in the limnetic zone (Sazak

and Sahin, 2012).

Aphotic or the profundal zone is the water zone beyond the layers receiving

effective light penetration, thereby it accepts insufficient or no amount of light to

carry out photosynthesis. Besides that, level of dissolved oxygen in this zone is low

also has low dissolved oxygen content (Agrawal, 1999). A large population of

bacteria and fungi dominated this zone where decomposers break down the organic

matter subsided from top layer of water column and subsequently releasing inorganic

nutrients for recycling. This zone has negative net photosynthesis or negligible total

photosynthesis due to no light penetration (Likens, 2010).

Dam areas are usually explained in three zones based on a longitudinal cross

section from the water source that flows into dam structure known as the lacustrine

zone which resembles the lentic habitat, riverine zone which resembles the river

ecosystem and transition zone (Figure 2.2) (Thornton et al., 1990). All these three

zones have unique physical, chemical and physical characteristics that differentiate

the limnology of a dam from one another (Ford, 1990; Wang et al., 2011).

12

Figure 2.2 Longitudinal cross section view showing three distinct zones defined by

the slope of a dam (Thornton et al., 1990).

13

Riverine zone in general is situated away from the outlet and is also the main

source for water inflow from the parent river or watershed into the dam area. This

zone is relatively shallow, narrow and showing well mixing of water thus it

maintains an aerobic environment. Due to the narrow structure of the channel, the

water velocity is in high rate but however, decreasing as it moves towards the dam

area. The physical and chemical attributes shown in this zone is similar to lotic

system (Kimmel et al., 1990; Smoot and Findlay, 2001).

Transition zone is situated in between the riverine and lacustrine zone in the

dam area. This area is a deeper and broader basin. The borders between riverine and

lacustrine zone often changes depending on the water level and water inflow from

the riverine zone (Kimmel et al., 1990). This zone has decreased water flow and

decreased abiotic turbidity resulting in a greater photic layer (Smoot and Findlay,

2001). The productivity of this zone depends more on concentration of allochthonous

(Thorntonet al., 1990; Lind and Barcena, 2003).

Lacustrine zone resembles the ecosystem of a lake where the water body can

be divided into a number of layers that are characterized by water mixing. The rate of

organic production is usually higher than rate of decomposition thus creating a

potential where nutrient will be the limiting factor in this zone. The organic matter in

this zone is basically from the death or senescence of aquatic organisms (Kimmel et

al., 1990). This zone has lentic properties including seasonal stratification and lower

nutrient concentration (Smoot and Findlay, 2001).

14

2.2.1 Lentic physical structure

Lentic ecosystem is generally divided into three layers which are epilimnion,

metalimnion and hypolimnion (Figure 2.3) due to stratification (Payne, 1986). It is

created due to temperature-density differences (Boulton et al., 2014). The layers are

situated in the limnetic zone and created due to temperature fluctuations influenced

by water movement and heat distribution (Goldman and Horne, 1983). Heat

exchange from the atmosphere to the water body causes the imbalance of

temperature distribution, where the temperature will be high in the upper layer of

water column and the values decrease with depth. Therefore, warmer water column

which are less in density will be on the surface and higher density colder water

column will be below it. Changes in temperature will cause density differences hence

influencing the physical process in standing water (Boulton et al., 2014). The thermal

stratification dictates a control on the vertical fluxes due to partitions in the water

column (Yeates and Imberger, 2003).

Epilimnion is characterized by warmer and less in density water column with

essentially uniformed temperature. In many lakes, the growth of phytoplankton

mainly occurs in this area as it receives enough light penetration for photosynthetic

activity. Consequently, this leads to severe nutrient depletion and limited

replenishment from the hypolimnion.

Metalimnion exists between these two layers and is characterized by the rate

of sudden change in water temperature with depth. The sudden decrease in water

temperature creates a slope that shows a slant in a vertical profiling of water

temperature. Metalimnion, a also known as thermocline acts to separate the warmer

and colder water column. According to (Wetzel, 1983), thermocline exists where

15

Figure 2.3 The thermal stratification of a tropical reservoir (Payne, 1986).

16

there the temperature change is more than 1ºC in every 1 m depth of water column.

Thermocline functions as a physicochemical barrier to water circulation and nutrients

passage and reduces the exchange of oxygen between surface and deep water

(Wetzel and Likens, 1991).

Hypolimnion is situated near the bottom layer of water column and has colder

water and is more densed. The dissolved oxygen level decrease in the deeper depths

of water column (Henry, 1999). Decomposition of organic material such as dead

phytoplankton that sinked through metalimnion usually occurred at this part of water

column. Thus, it is usually cold and photosynthetic production is minimal (Sigee,

2005).

Freshwater ecosystem is frequently altered to due to climatic changes

(Brooks et al., 2011). World climate changes based on latitudes as well as solar

radiation which are highly correlated to latitude and also one of the main factors that

control the changes in physical, chemical and biological process in water body (Eum

and Simonovic, 2010). Therefore, varieties of patterns in temperature change

vertically and pattern of water mixing according to latitudes. According to Lewis

(1987), this is important as the different temperature of water mass, mixing and

chemical alteration will influence the competency of habitats to tolerate temperature

for the survival of aquatic organisms. The importance of climate and geomorphology

which has influence on the limnology and geochemical characteristics in a reservoir

is well discussed in previous studies (Dodson, 2005; Mwaura, 2010; Ashraf et al.,

2012).

Generally, climate is divided into two main areas which are temperate and

tropical. Tropical areas which are located near the equator are differentiated by

17

having high humidity and rainy seasons, temperature which is high and stable

relatively and small change of season. On the other hand, the characteristics of a

temperate area are rotation of four seasons and obvious temperature change between

the seasons. Variance in temperature in different season generated by solar radiation

is considered as the main factor controlling biotic and abiotic interactions in an

aquatic ecosystem (Thornton et al., 1990). Seasonal fluctuations in mean

temperature, hydrology, nutrient delivery, utilization and retention have significant

impacts for nutrient management (Bukaveckas and Isenberg, 2013) and considered as

most important variables which determine plankton abundance (Offem et al., 2011).

In a tropical area, light intensity and period of solar radiation increase during

dry season. Light wavelength that is not reflected will be absorbed by water surface

until a known depth and spread in the form of heat (Sanderson and Taylor, 2003).

Some of the solar energy will also be absorbed by algae and other suspended

particles (Reynolds, 1984). Light intensity decreases exponentially with depth. Water

surface will be warmer and low in density due to the absorption of the light. Water

layers that do not receive solar radiation will have higher temperature and more

dense which stay at the bottom of the water body (Sigee, 2005).

Characteristics explained will change in temperate area based on the amount

of solar radiation received (Wetzel, 1983). For tropical areas, stratification is stable

due to high solar radiation all year except for ecosystem that is located on a higher

altitude (Lewis, 1996). Besides absorption of the solar energy, stratification also

occurs due to thermal conduction or diffusion, turbulent thermal conduction and

inflow and outflow thermal transfer from the system (Ford, 1990; Boehrer and

Schultze, 2008).

18

Dissolved oxygen is an important element that involves in chemical and

biological reactions in aquatic environment (Goldman and Horne, 1983). Water

quality of a dam usually depends on dissolved oxygen as the existence of this

element will be the catalyst to degradation process that occurs in water. The

concentration of dissolved oxygen in aquatic system presumably indicates more

about their metabolism than any other assessment (Rankovic et al., 2010).

The distribution of dissolved oxygen in a water column is influenced by a few

factors which are temperature, current, morphology of a dam, wind movement,

photosynthesis and respiration (Cole and Hannan, 1990). Photosynthesis process

which is carried out by phytoplankton is enhanced at euphotic zone due to higher

light intensity thus contributes to a higher oxygen concentration as compared to the

aphotic zone which received limited light penetration (Lokman, 1992).

Additionally, wet and dry seasons also influence the distribution of dissolved

oxygen. In a study conducted by Uzoukwu et al. (2004), it was stated that dissolved

oxygen levels were higher in wet season as compared to dry season. Catchment areas

that receive heavy rainfall would cause strong water turbulence and therefore affects

the concentration of dissolved oxygen. Generally, most water body in tropical areas

have lower dissolved oxygen level due to a higher concentration of organic

components as compared to temperate areas (Dudgeon, 2008).

2.3 Nutrient dynamics

Both natural lake and reservoirs receive extensive quantity of organic matter

(Forbes et al., 2012). Quantity and quality of external nutrient loadings mainly

regulate the water quality and productivity of a reservoir (Kennedy and Walker,

1990). Nutrients are elements which are consumed by plants and animals for

19

metabolism process and highly influence the primary production of a water body

(Goldman and Home, 1983). Nutrients such as ammonium, nitrite, nitrate and

orthophosphate exist in water column as inorganic nutrients which are elements that

can be dissolved (Qualls, 2000).

Inflow of nutrients to water is divided into two; either naturally from the

ground or as a result of human activities. Additionally, other nonpoint sources such

as pollution, agricultural activity, urban runoff and wastewater also contribute to the

enhancement of nutrients contents in the water body. An increase in the nutrient

input would boost lake productivity leaving detrimental impacts to other trophic

levels (Wan Maznah, 2002; Søndergaard et al., 2003). Phosphorus and nitrogen are

the most important nutrients prior to eutrophication (Smith, 2003).

Eutrophication is a phenomenon of nutrient enrichment over time and is

considered as an aquatic ecosystems response to nutrient loading, which can cause

naturally or accelerated by human factors. Natural eutrophication is the process by

which lakes gradually become aged and more productive, whereas excess nutrients

from human activities are called “cultural eutrophication” (Sheela et al., 2011).

Enhancement of nutrient availability would augment the growth of phytoplankton.

Consequently, water turbidity will increase which then impoverish the light condition

(Balali et al., 2013).

Tropical systems are more sensitive to eutrophication than temperate systems,

given the higher propensity to hypoxia in the deeper depths, therefore making it

essential to exercise stricter control of nutrient loads (Rangel et al., 2012).

Accordingly, these changes contribute to the loss of aquatic animals such as fish kills

due to irregular oxygen content and high content of toxic compound (Hart et al.,

20

2002). Eutrophication is a serious problem since it contributes to environmental

problems world-wide as the status of eutrophication is more than 60% in Malaysia

(Malek et al., 2011). The enhancement of nitrite and nitrate concentration in an

aquatic ecosystem will influence the water quality. Impacts such as toxic algal

bloom, death of phytoplankton and other aquatic wildlife, promoting the

decomposition process by the microbes, occurrence of objectionable taste and odour

events and the decrease in dissolved oxygen level will lead to diseases and fish kill

(Shanmugam et al., 2007; Jeppesen et al., 2012).

2.3.1 Phosphorus

Phosphorus is unique compared to nitrogen due to its cycle in water which

does not involve any oxidation process but remains permanent in P-O form both

organic and inorganic in particles or dissolved phase. It can be found in soil, water

and sediments in the form of chemical compound and is identified as a limiting

factor nutrient for algal growth in lakes and reservoirs (Hanrahan et al., 2002; Carey

and Rydin, 2011).

Bostrom et al. (1988) explained few forms of phosphorus that exist in water.

Phosphorus in particle phase includes live and dead plankton, condensed phosphate,

absorbed phosphorus in suspended particles and amorphous phosphorus. Dissolved

phosphorus is divided into organic and inorganic phosphorus. Phosphorus found in

natural water is usually in form of (PO43-

). Some dissolved phosphorus is restored to

the surface layers when aquatic organisms die and sink to the bottom through

upwelling and some are buried in sediments (Round, 1981; Krohne, 2001).

Phosphate is among the nutrients that influence the productivity of a lentic

body. Orthophosphate is the main component of phosphate that influences lake

21

productivity. It is the only form of phosphorus that can be used up directly by

planktonic algae and bacteria (Smith, 2003) and easily assimilated to organic

phosphate and other living cellular organism component (Sigee, 2005).

Generally, nutrient cycles in an aquatic system involve exchange activity of

organic and inorganic materials back to the production of living matter. In a lentic

system, nutrient flux between the areas will create a vertical and horizontal profiling

of nutrient species (Kennedy and Walker, 1990). Temperature and concentration of

dissolved oxygen are among the main factors that influence nutrients in few phases

of nutrient cycles. These biotic factors will give a vertical profiling of nutrient

concentration in a lentic system for both shallow and deep water.

2.3.2 Nitrogen

Nitrogen makes up about 78% of atmospheric gas (Krohne, 2001). Nitrogen

in water exist in few forms which are dissolved gaseous molecules (N2), inorganic

ammonia ion (NH4+), nitrate (NO3

-) and nitrite (NO2

-), as well as organic nitrogen

element (Riley et al., 2001). Ammonia and nitrate are the elements used up by plant

for biological process. Nitrate however is a vital element for growth consumed by

aquatic plants especially algae (Pidwirny, 2006).

Assimilation from aquatic plants and mineralisation from bacteria species

towards existing nitrogen component are part of the cycles that will determine the

composition of nitrogen found in water column. Decomposition process carried out

by the heterotrophic bacteria and nitrogen gas accumulation by bacteria species will

release ammonia. Nitrification process that used up oxygen carried out by microbes

will oxidize ammonia to nitrate. This process is important to control the form of

nitrogen in a lake or dam ecosystem. (Qualls, 2000; Pidwirny, 2006; Moss, 2008).

22

On the other hand, denitrification process will change nitrate to gas and loss of this

important nutrient for lake productivity will be balanced by accumulation of

nitrogen. Nitrosomonas and Nitrosospira are the best-known aerobic ammonia

oxidizers and Nitrobacter and Nitrospira are well known nitrite oxidizers (Sliekers et

al., 2002).

2.3.3 Chlorophyll a

Chlorophyll a is the major photosynthetic pigment in a lot of phytoplankton

in an aquatic system. Chlorophyll a is frequently used as an indicator of algal

blooms. High algal growth in a reservoir indicates high lake productivity. An

increase in Chlorophyll a concentration indicates eutrophication in lakes,

subsequently associated with low biodiversity and therefore deprives the aquatic

environment of sufficient ecosystem services. Chlorophyll a is considered one of the

main factors that contribute to turbidity in aquatic ecosystem (Ndungu et al., 2013).

2.4 Lake trophic state

Lakes can be classified into three states based on the available nutrients

which will determine the lake fertility. More nutrients are found in more fertile lakes

and therefore more plants and algae. A eutrophic lake is a well-nourished lake with

high nutrients and high plant growth. Oxygen is low in a eutrophic lake since it has

so much biomass. On the other hand, an oligotrophic lake has low nutrient contents

and low plant growth. In an oligotrophic lake, high level of oxygen is found at

surface layer. Mesotrophic lakes behave differently than oligotrophic lakes in that

they stratify especially in tropical areas. In addition, it also has medium amount of

nutrient content (Lee et al., 1995; Cako et al., 2013) (Appendix A).

23

2.5 Bathymetric study

A detailed knowledge of wide scale distribution patterns of population,

communities and habitats of the seafloor is fundamental for impact assessment,

conservation and studies of ecological patterns and processes (Sandwell and Smith,

1999; Hewitt et al., 2004). In many lakes, bottom sediments consist of materials from

precipitation of chemical and biological processes.

According to Golterman et al. (1983), characteristics of sediment may differ

slightly under various climatic conditions but however may be used on a worldwide

basis. Determination of component concentrations in bed sediments is a broadly used

approach to monitor and assess contaminant distributions in streams (Feltz, 1980;

Groot et al., 1982).

Prior to having a better knowledge on the effects of land processes on the

hydrology of lakes and to obtain a clearer indication of environmental changes, the

information on multitemporal bathymetric on lakes is essentially needed. In

hydrology and sediment studies, lake morphometry parameters gives beneficial

information to determine lake life expectancy, residence time, water balance and

sedimentation rate (Yesuf et al., 2013).

The topography of lake surface area and morphometrical parameters are

discussed in various studies such as Moreno and Garcia-Berthou (1989), Lawniczak

et al. (2011) and Zhang et al. (2011). According to Sharif and Mahmud (1995), the

slow production of different types of hydrographic surveying products in Malaysia is

due several reasons such as lack of skilled and qualified organization, the application

of aged method and unsophisticated equipment as well as shortage of appropriate

hydrographic surveying coaching.

24

CHAPTER 3

MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Study site

Temengor Reservoir is situated in the north of West Malaysia between N

05º32.595’, E101º20.454’ and 263 m above sea level. It is the second largest man-

made lake after Tasik Kenyir as it covers approximately 15,200 ha of area. This

reservoir was created by the impoundment of a dam to store water and generate

hydroelectric power.

This study site is situated on the upper elevation of Sungai Perak and

surrounded by pristine tropical forest that harbours variety of endemic and rare

species of flora and fauna. The maximum depth of Temengor Reservoir was recorded

to be 90 metre deep. In addition to generating hydroelectric power, the reservoir

supplies water to nearby human settlement, as well as playing a major role in flood

control.

The main inflows of the reservoir are from three water catchment area known

as Belum Reserve Forest (134, 167 ha), Grik Reserve Forest (37, 220 ha) and

Temengor Reserve Forest (148, 870 ha) which received an average annual rainfall of

more than 2000 mm (Davidson et al., 1995). Sungai Kejar, Sungai Sara, Sungai

Singor and Sungai Tiang are several of the rivers flowing into the reservoir.